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PREFACE, 



Sois^ years since, we reprinted frcm the British press 
an jamdgment of Brown's Dictionary of the Bible. 
Tfye original was materially improved by the" editorial 
labours of the Rev. Dr. Alexander. He did not, how- 
ever, change the basis or general character of the 
work. He expunged a mass of superfluous and irrele- 
vant matter ; introduced such corrections and modifica- 
tions as the improved state of biblical science suggest- 
ed, and prepared many of the leading articles anew. 
These have been preserved as far as practicable in the 
Lew work. The extensive sale of the former dictionary 
shows conclusively the adaptedness of such a volume to 
the wants of the community. 

Under this conviction, the society has incurred very 
heavy expenses in providing an entirely new dictionary, 

CORRESPONDING IN PRINCIPLE, CHARACTER, AND USES 
TO OUR OTHER PUBLICATIONS, AND INTENDED SO TO CON- 
NECT THEM TOGETHER, AS TO MAKE, OF THE WHOLE, 

A COMPLETE BIBLICAL CYCLOPAEDIA. 

Though the editor has been, of course, indebted to 
various sources for materials, and, in some instances, 
for copious extracts, the present volume may be re- 
garded as strictly an original work. 

The services of one of the most distinguished biblical 
scholars in the country have been employed in a gene- 
ral revision of it, and many of the most important arti- 
cles have also received a critical examination from 

a 



4 PREFACE. 

several others, both clergymen and laymen, in whose 
competency and fidelity the utmost confidence may be 
felt. 

The following general principles have been observed 
in the preparation of this work : — 

I. No word is introduced, as the subject of an article, 
which is not found in the canonical books of the com- 
mon translation of the Bible, and at least one passage 
is cited in which the word occurs. Of course such 
words as Africa, Apocrypha, Antelope, Apocalypse, 
Deluge, Dead Sea, &c. are excluded. Any other rule 
would be too indefinite for practical application. 

II. No word is introduced simply for the purpose of 
denning it, unless it has a peculiar scriptural use or 
signification, which would not be found in a common 
defining dictionary. 

III. Whatever could be regarded as sectarian by any 
ienomination of evangelical Christians is, of course, 
scrupulously excluded. 

IV. No word is admitted into the body of the diction- 
ary of which all that can be said is found in immediate 
connexion with the word itself.* For example, Are 
(Gen x vi. 21) is mentioned as one of the sons of Ben- 
jamin ; and as the passage itself contains all that cap 
De said of him, the word is omitted. 

- V. The leading articles embrace, as far as practicable 

the various topics that properly fall under it. For ex- 
ample : under the word Dwellings will be found the 
principal facts in relation to the structure of eastern 



• At the end of our Scripture Biographical Dictionary will 
DC found a perfect catalogue- oi all the proper names which 
occur in the Scriptures, with the pronunciation of each, and 
a reference to one or more passages in which it occurs. 



PREFACE. 5 

houses, as the court, roof, windows, doors, parlours, 
chambers, &c, so that the article is in itself a concise 
history of the subject. The various topics are gene- 
rally distinguished, however, by putting the principal 
words in italics, thus enabling the reader to select 
them at pleasure. — So of the articles, Arms, Book, 
Burial, Clothes, Feasts, Hebrews, Sacrifices, &c. 

VI. Though each article is complete in itself, and as 
full as it may be in a work of this size, we hope that 
most biblical inquirers are disposed to seek still farther 
information. This, we apprehend, is afforded in a good 
degree by other publications of the society, which are 
or may be within the reach of all. To the particular 
volume from which such farther information may be 
obtained, reference is made in the proper place; and the 
society's name is repeated in connexion with each refer- 
ence — 1st, Because there are sometimes several works 
extant with like titles, only one of which is published 
by us ; and, 2dly, Because each article, with all its refer- 
ences, being distinct and independent, should be as ex- 
plicit as any other. 

By this feature of the work, instead of burdening the 
student with folios of unprofitable learning, we open to 
him very copious fountains of biblical knowledge on the 
cheapest terms, in the simplest and most available form, 
and of a character supposed to be unexceptionable to 
every evangelical mind. 

VII. We have made all practicable hte of the infor- 
mation furnished by modern travellers in the east, an<J 
especially by American missionaries, to whose journals 
frequent references will be found. In every case where 
the testimony of known aud living witnesses could be 
brought, to give present existence and reality to distan' 

times and places, we have not failed to introduce it. 
1* 



6 PREFACE.. 

VIII. It is confidently believed that in no volume of 
the kind are there fewer errors in references. Great 
care was taken to have the copy accurate in this re- 
spect ; the proofs were read by the author, and at the 
same time by a very accurate and experienced proof- 
reader, and by both was every reference carefully ex- 
amined by the Bible ; and since the woik was stereo- 
typed the whole has been read again, and every refei- 
ence re-examined and compared with the Bible. 



DICTIONARY 

OF THE 

HOLY BIBLE 



AAR 

AARON, (Ex. vi. 20,) the 
first high priest of the 
Jews, was the son of Amram, 
of the tribe of Levi, and was 
born about the year 2430. He 
was three years older than his 
brother Moses, and being a 
more ready speaker, he was 
appointed by the Lord to 
assist Moses in guiding and 
controlling the Israelites, in 
their journey from Egypt to 
Canaan. 

The relation which Aaron 
sustained was thus expressed 
by the Lord to Moses:— He 
shall be thy spokesman unto 
Vie people. He shall be to 
thee instead of a mouthy and 
thou shalt be to him instead 
of God. (Ex. iv. 16.) / have 
made thee a God to Pharaoh ; 
and Aaron thy brother shall 
be thy prophet. (Ex. vii. 1.) 

Aaron married Elisheba,the 
daughter of Amminadab, and 
had four sons, Nadab, Abihu, 
Eleazar, and Ithamar. The 
two former were punished with 
death for a heinous sin, and 
the priesthood remained in the 
other two. (See Abihu.) 

As most of the important 
events in the life of Aaron are 
intimately connected with his 
brother's history, they will be 
reserved for thai article. (See 



AAR 

Moses.) Those in whbb. Aa- 
ron was only or principally 
concerned, are briefly the fol- 
lowing. 

At an early period after the 
departure of the children of 
Israel from Egypt, Aaron and 
his sons were set apart by 
God's direction, and with the 
most solemn ceremonies, to 
minister in the priest's office, 
which Aaron continued to fill 
until his death. (Heb. v. 4.) 

Before his consecration, and 
while Moses was in the 
mount, receiving the law from 
God, the people became impa- 
tient, and besought Aaron to 
make them idol gods. He 
thereupon commanded them 
to break off the golden ear- 
rings of their wives and child- 
ren; which being collected 
and brought to Aaron, he 
made out of them an idol in 
the shape of a calf, like ona 
of the idols of Egypt. Before 
this image the people danced 
and shouted, saying,— These 
be thy gods, O Israel, which 
brought thee up out of the 
land of Egypt. This act, 
and the aggravating circum 
stances connected with it, 
(Ex. xxxii. 25,) involved Aa 
ron in great guilt. His twa 
sons, Nadab and Abihu, were 
7 



AAR 

soon afterwards destroyed in 
a most sudden and fearful 
manner. At a later period, 
Aaron, with his sister Miriam, 
spoke reproachfully concern- 
ing Moses, and God was very 
angry with him ; but upon the 
confession of his sin, he was 
pardoned. (See Miriam.) 

Korah and others were of- 
fended with Moses and Aaron, 
and charged them with taking 
upon themselves authority 
which belonged as much to 
others as to them. Moses 
expostulated with them, and 
especially with Korah ; but 
his remonstrance was all in 
vain, and the next day the 
rebel and his companions 
were suddenly destroyed. (See 
Korah.) 

Immediately after this fear- 
ful exhibition of the anger of 
God, and while we should 
suppose the terror of such 
judgments would still possess 
their minds, the people of 
Israel renewed their murmur- 
ings against Moses and Aaron. 
(Num. xvi. 41.) A dreadful 
plague having appeared sud- 
denly in the midst of them, 
which threatened the people 
with utter and immediate de- 
struction, Aaron, at the com- 
mand of Moses, took a censer 
with incense, and ran quickly 
into the midst of the congre- 
gation, and stood between the 
living and the dead, until he 
had made an atonement for 
them, and the plague was 
Btayed. (Num. xvi. 44—50.) 

A signal attestation was 
granted to Aaron's official 
authority in the following 
manner. Twelve rods or 
branches of the almond tree 
were taken, one for the head 
of each house, or tribe, of Is- 
rael ; and upon the rod of the 
tribe of Levi was written the 
name of Aaron. The rods 
were laid together in a parti- 
cular place in the tabernacle ; 
and the next day, wnen Moses 



AAR 

went into the tabernacle, the 
rod which had Aaron's name 
upon it " was budded, and 
brought forth buds, and bloom- 
ed blossoms, and yielded 
almonds." This wonderful 
miracle was made known to 
the people by an exhibition 
of the rod ; but it was imme- 
diately taken back into the 
tabernacle, to be kept there 
for ever, for a token against 
the rebels, (or the children qf 
rebellion.) (Num. xvii. 10.) 

When the supply of water 
was miraculously furnished 
in the desert of Zin, Aaron 
neglected to acknowledge the 
power of God, and for this 
was denied the privilege oi 
entering into the promised 
land. In the fo tieth year 
after he had left Egypt, he 
was commanded to go" up with 
Moses his brother, and Elea- 
zar his son, into mount Hor, 
in sight of all the congrega- 
tion, that he might die there. 
(Num. xx. 28.) The place of 
Aaron's death is called Mo- 
sera, in Deut. x. 6 ; but the 
same spot is denoted in both 
passages. Burckhardt tells us 
that mount Hor stands upon 
the western side of a valley 
once called Mosera. Josephus 
and other historians place the 
sepulchre of Aaron on mount 
Hor, where it is still vene- 
rated by the Arabs. A modern 
traveller visited the place, 
and found the supposed tomb 
in the care of a crippled Arab, 
eighty years old. The mo- 
nument is about three feet 
high, and is protected by a 
small, white building, with s 
cupola. (See Hor.) 

The circumstances of Aa- 
ron's death are peculiarly 
interesting and impressive 
On his way to the mount his 
official robes were transferred 
to his son and successor in 
the priesthood, and he died in 
the top of the mount, b. c. 
1451, aged one hundred and 
8 



ABA 

twenty-three vears. (Num. 
xxxiii. 39.) When Moses and 
Eleazar came down, and the 
people saw that Aaron was 
dead, they mourned for him 
thirty days, even all the house 
of Israel. (Num.xx.29.) 

Aaron is called the saint of 
the Lord. (Ps. cvi. 16.) Some 
have supposed that he assist- 
ed Moses in writing parts of 
the Pentateuch, and thus they 
account for any supposed dif- 
ference of style, &c. His his- 
tory is given us in the books 
of Exodus, Leviticus, Num- 
bers, and Deuteronomy. 

AARONITES. (1 Chron. 
jrii. 27.) Levites of the family 
of Aaron: the priests who 
served the sanctuary. Elea- 
zar, Aaron's son, was their 
chief. (Num. iv. 16.) 

AB. (See Month.) 

ABADDON. (Rev. ix. 11.) 
The Hebrew name for the 
angel of the bottomless pit, 
ana answering to the Greek 
name Apollyon. They both 
signify the destroyer. 

ABANA. (2 Kings v. 12.) 
A river of Syria, near Damas- 
cus, supposed to be one of the 
branches of the Barradi, or 
Chrysorrhoas. It rises at the 
foot of mount Lebanon; di- 
vides into several small 
streams eastward of Damas- 
cus, watering the whole coun- 
try; in the vicinity ; then they 
unite again, and the river 
continues its course till it 
empties into a small marshy 
lake, fifteen or twenty miles 
distant from the city. 

This and the river Pharpar 
supplied an abundance of wa- 
ter, and rendered the country 
around Damascus, though on 
the edge of a desert, one of 
the most beautiful and fertile 
spots in the world ; while the 
streams of Judea or Israel, 
with the exception of the Jor- 
dan, are nearly dry the greater 
part of the year, and, running 
In dsep and rocky channels, 



ABE 

give but partial fertility to the 
land through which they flow. 
This may well account for the 
question of Naaman :— " Are 
not Abana and Pharpar, rivers 
of Damascus, better than all 
the waters of Israel V 

ABARIM. (Deut. xxxii. 49.) 
A general name given to a 
mountainous ridge, running 
from north to south, east of 
Jordan, and before the north- 
ern border of Moab. Nebo 
was one of the conspicuous 
mountains in the cham, and 
Pisgah was one of the highest 
of the summits of Nebo. "The 
modern mount Dhana is sup- 

{josed to be a part of Abarim. 
je-abarim, (Num. xxi. 11,) 
meaning "heaps of Abarim," 
is another name for the same 
chain. 

ABBA. (Rom. viii. 15.) The 
Hebrew word ab, from which 
abba is derived, signifies, in 
its root, acquiescence. The 
title, abba, was not allowed to 
be used by servants or slaves 
when addressing the head of 
the family, — a circumstance 
which gives much force to the 
term in the passage cited. 
The full meaning of this term 
cannot be expressed in our 
language. It implies a high 
degree of love,confidence,and 
suomission, as well as a most 
endeared and intimate con- 
nexion and fellowship. (Mark 
xiv. 38. Gal. iv. 6.) The word 
ab (meaning father) is men- 
tioned as one of the first and 
simplest words of infancy. 
(Isa. viii. 4.) 

ABEDNEGO. (Dan. i. 7.) 
The Chaldee name which was 
given by an officer of the king 
of Babylon to Azariah, one of 
the four children or youths o* 
Judah, taken captive at Jeru 
salem about the year 3393, an J 
ordered by the king to be 
trained for his particular ser- 
vice. (See Daniel.) It was 
customary for masters to give 
new names to their servants 
9 



ABE 

or captives The other three 
were, Daniel, (or Belteshaz- 
zar,) Hananiah,(or Shadrach,) 
and Mishael, (or Meshach.) 

After Daniel's promotion to 
be ruler over the whole pro- 
vince of Babylon, his three 
companions were, at his re- 
quest, elevated to places of 
trust. Nebuchadnezzar the 
king saw fit to make a golden 
image ; and having dedicated 
it with great pomp, he com- 
manded "that, at a certain sig- 
nal, the people of all nations 
and languages . should fall 
down and worship the image, 
and that those who refused 
should be cast into the midst 
of a burning furnaoe. In this 
act of idolatry, Shadrach, Me- 
shach, and Abednego would 
not unite, though commanded 
by the king himself. They 
replied that they were not 
anxious to answer the king in 
this matter, as the God whom 
they loved and served was 
able to deliver them, to what- 
ever extremity they might be 
reduced. 

The king was filled with 
fury, and commanded the fur- 
nace to be heated sevenfold 
Hotter than was usual ; and 
ihe strongest men were em- 
ployed to bind them, and cast 
them into the flames. Strong 
men were ordinarily employ- 
ed for this purpose, to meet 
any resistance that might be 
attempted ; but some think 
Lhat the phrase " most mighty 
men," used here, means the 
chief officers of the army, who 
were selected to make the 
punishment more imposing 
and exemplary. 

With all their garments on, 
they were cast into the fur- 
nace, and so intense was the 
heat that the executioners 
were destroyed by it. The 
king was present to witness 
the execution of the sentence ; 
and, though the three men at 
first, fell "down bound in the 



ABE 

midst of the flames, yet when 
he looked, expecting to see 
them destroved, he beheld 
themlcosed from their bonds; 
walking unhurt in the midst 
of the fire, and a fourth person 
with them whose form was 
" like the Son of God." This 
was the king's language, and 
whatever he might have in- 
tended by the term, " Son of 
God," the fourth person, to 
whom he refers, was probably 
an angel of God, sent for this 
purpose, as he was afterwards 
sent to shut the mouths of 
lions for the protection of his 
servant Daniel; or it might 
have been the eternal and 
uncreated Son of God, appear- 
ing to protect and deliver his 
faithful servants in the time 
of their calamity. (Matt, 
xxviii. 20.) 

Upon the call of the king 
from the mouth of the furnace, 
these three servants of the 
most high God came forth, in 
the presence of the princes 
and rulers of the country; and 
so completely had they been 
protected by the mighty power 
in which they trusted, that not 
a hair was singed ; the colour 
of their coats was not changed, 
nor was there even the smell 
of fire upon them. 

The monarch, astonished at 
this evident interposition of 
the Almighty in their behalf, 
forthwith passed a decree, 
threatening to punish in the 
severest manner any one who 
should speak against the God 
of Shadrach, Meshach, and 
Abednego ; because (said he) 
there is no other God that can 
deliver after this sort; and 
the men were restored to their 
places in the province. (Dan. 
fii.) 

ABEL (Gen. iv. 2) was the 
second son of Adam and Eve. 
He was occupied as a keeper 
or feeder of sheep; and in 
process of time brought of the 
firstlings, or first-fruits of his 
10 



ABE 

dock, an offering unto the 
Lord. It is supposed that be- 
sides a thank-offering, Abel 
brought a sin-offering, and 
thus evinced his penitent 
sense of sin, as well as his 
faith in a promised Saviour. 
This may be a reasonable 
conjecture, but has not scrip- 
tural authority. God was 
pleased, however, to accept 
nis offering, and to give him 
evidence of it. (Heb. xi. 4.) 
Not so with Cain. Either his 
sacrifice, or the manner of 
presenting it, was offensive to 
God, and the offering was re- 
jected. (1 John iii. 12.) Cain 
was exceedingly angry, and, 
filled with envy, he embraced 
an opportunity when they 
were in the field together, to 
take his brother's life. (Gen. 
iv.) 

Our Saviour distinguishes 
A.bel by the title righteous, 
(Matt, xxiii. 35.) He is also 
one of the faithful " elders" 
mentioned in the epistle to 
the Hebrews, (ch. xi.) and is 
justly called the first martyr. 

Blood of Abel. (Heb. xii. 
24.) The blood of sprinkling, 
or the blood of Jesus Christ 
shed for the remission of sins, 
speaks better things than the 
blood of Abel, inasmuch as 
the latter speaks only of the 
malice and madness of the 
heart of man, and cried to 
God from the ground for ven- 
geance on the murderer's 
head ; while the blood of 
Christ, which flowed freely 
for the guilty and ruined sin- 
ner, speaks peace and pardon 
for every penitent and believ- 
ing soul. (1 John i. 7.) 

ABEL— GREAT STONE OF, (1 

Sam. vi. IS,) was in the field of 
JcshuaofBeth-shemesh,where 
the ark of the Lord rested 
when it was returned by the 
Philistines to Kiriath-jearim. 
ABEL-BETH-MAACHAH, 
(2 Kings xv. 29,) a city in the 
northern district of the tribe 



ABE 

of Naphtali, lying south-east 
of Cesarea-Philippi. To this 
place Sheba, the son of Bichri, 
Med and posted himself, when 
pursued by Joab, sreneral of the 
army of David. The citizens, 
however, who feared a siege if 
they harboured him, cut off his 
head, at the suggestion of a wo 
man, and threw it over the wall 
to Joab. (2 Sam. xx. 14-22* 
The city was afterwards cap 
tured. (1 Kings xv. 20. 2 Kings 
xv. 29.) Perhaps the phrase 
mother in Israel, (2 Sam 
xx. 19,) if it was designed to 
apply to the place at all, 
may denote its size and im- 
portance. 

ABEL-MAIM (2 Chron. xvi. 
4) is called Abel-Beth-maa- 
chah, (1 Kings xv. 20,) and ap- 
peajK to have been the same 
place. (See Abel-beth-maa- 

CHAH.) 

ABEL-MEHOLAH. (Judg. 
vii. 22. 1 Kings xix. 16.) A 
town in the plain of Jordan, 
about ten miles south of Beth- 
shean, and between that and 
Shechem; distinguished as the 
birthplace of Elisha, and as 
the refuge of the Midianites 
when pursued by Gideon. 

ABEL-M1ZRAIM (Gen. 1. 
11) means the mourning qf 
the Egyptians. It was pro- 
bably in the plains of Jericho, 
and is placed by ancient 
writers between the city of 
Jericho and the river Jordan. 
The threshing-floor of Atad 
was here, and the name Abel- 
mizraim was derived from the 
circumstance, that here Jo- 
seph and his company halted 
seven days to mourn, as they 
were passing from Egypt to 
Canaan to bury JacobT (Gen. 
1. 10, 11.) The term " beyond 
Jordan," which is used in 
describing the place, refers to 
the situation of the sacred 
writer at the time of w r riting. 
As he was on the east of the 
river, Abel-mizraim was c«« 
yond or on the west side. 
11 



AB1 

ABEL-SHITTIM, or Shit- ' 
Tim. (Num. xxxiii. 49; xxv. i 
1.) A town, six or sevenmiles ' 
distant from the east bank of 
the Jordan, opposite to Jeri- 
cho. It was the place of one 
of the last encampments of 
Israel, on that side of the 
river. Some have supposed 
(and modern geographers con- 
firm the opinion) that Shittim 
was a village, and Abel-shittim 
the plain or valley in which 
it was situated. It was at 
tli is place, almost at the 
end of their miraculous jour- 
ney ings, that the people of 
Israel fell into the snares of 
the daughters of Moab, and 
committed the grossest idola- 
ry, for which they were visit- 
ed with a desolating plague 
which destroyed 24,000people. 
Hence, perhaps, the* name 
Abel, from the mourning that 
such mortality must have oc- 
casioned. The spies whom 
Joshua sent to Jericho went 
from Shittim. (Josh. ii. 1.) 

ABIA, course op. (Luke i. 
5.) In 1 Chron. xxiv. we have 
an account of the divisions of 
the priests into twenty-four 
classes, courses, or* orders, 
who ministered at the altar in 
rotation. The courses were 
distinguished by the name of 
the most prominent member 
of the family from which the 
course was taken. The eighth 
of these courses fell to the 
family of Abia, or Abijah ; and 
to this course belonged Ze- 
chariah, the father of John the 
Baptist. 

ABIATHAR. (1 Sam. xxii. 
20.) The tenth high priest of 
the Jews, and fourth in descent 
from Eli. Doeg, at the com- 
mand of king Saul, fell upon 
the priests of the Lord at Nob, 
and slew them. Among the 
slain was Ahimelech. His 
son Abiathar escaped from 
the carnage, and taking with 
him some part of the priest's 
garments, fled to David at 



AB1 

Keilah. and told him what 
Saul had done. David re- 
ceived Abiathar, and protected 
him, and he afterwards be- 
came high priest. Thus there 
were two high priests in Israel 
at the same time,— Abiathar in 
the party of David, andZadok 
in the party of Saul, (2 Sam. 
viii. 17 ;) but in consequence 
of his supporting Adonijah in 
his pretensions to the throne 
of David, Solomon, upon be- 
coming king, thrust Abiathar 
out of the priesthood, (1 Kings 
ii. 27,) and conferred the office 
exclusively upon Zadok. (See 
Zadok.) Thus was fulfilled 
the word of God to Eli, (1 Sam. 
ii. 31 :) for Abiathar was the 
last of the priests of the house 
of Ithamar, to which Eli be- 
longed ; and Zadok, who suc- 
ceeded him, was of the family 
ofEleazar; and so the priest- 
hood passed into its former 
channel. Abiathar, mention- 
ed in Mark ii. 26, has been 
supposed by some to be the 
same with Ahimelech. Others 
have thought (though withoui 
much reason) that the evan- 
gelist refers to some " history 
of the days of Abiathar" then 
extant, in which the conduct 
of David and Ahimelech in the 
matter of the shew-bread was 
recorded, and that the allusion 
was well understood by those 
who heard it. The most pro- 
bable solution of the difficulty 
is, that as both officiated at the 
same time, and both received 
the title, the name of either 
was used to designate that 
period. The facts to which 
the gospel alludes, in ths pas- 
sage cited, are fully stated in 
1 Sam. xxi. (See Life op 
David, by the American Sun- 
day-school Union, pp. 85—87, 
and 104.) 

ABIEZER. (Judg. viii. 2.) 
The passage contains a highly 
figurative expression. Gideon 
was of the family of Abiezer. 
The Ephraimites complained 

12 

i 



ABI 

because they were not called 
upon to go out to battle against 
the Midianites. Gideon at- 
tempted to pacify them; re- 
presenting his own victory, 
with a force of three hundred 
men chiefly of the family of 
Abiezer, as of very little im- 
portance, in comparison with 
the capture of 'two of the 
princes of Midian, which the 
men of Ephraim had accom- 
plished. Though the latter, in 
respect to numbers, might be 
as the gleaning of the vine- 
yard, yet in the glory and im- 
portance of it, it was more than 
the whole vintage which the 
men of Abiezer had gathered. 

ABIGAIL. (1 Sam. xxv. 3.) 
The wise and beautiful wife of 
the churlish and wicked Na- 
bal. When her husband had 
exposed himself to the anger 
of David, by his rude and con- 
temptuous treatment of his 
messengers, Abigail hastened 
to meet him, while he was on 
his way with four hundred 
men to revenge the insult. 
She managed the affair with 
so much prudence as to pacify 
David, and obtain his blessing. 
About ten days after her re- 
turn, the Lord visited Nabal 
with sickness, and he died, 
and Abigail became David's 
wife. A beautiful sketch of 
this portion of sacred history 
may be found in the Life op 
David, by the American Sun- 
day-school Union, ch. xv. 

ABIHU. (Ex. xxviii. 1.) 
One of the sons of Aaron, 
who, with his brothers, JS T a- 
dab, Eleazar, and Ithamar, 
were separated or set apart 
by God to the office of the 
priesthood. Soon after they 
entered on their sacred du- 
ties, Nadab and Abihu were 
guilty of a violation of God's 
commands, respecting the 
manner of offering incense, 
and were instantly consumed. 
(Lev. x. 1, 2.) This event 1 
2 



ABI 

happened in the wilderness 
of Sinai. The nature of their 
offence is very obvious ; they 
used common fire instead of 
the fire which they were 
required to use ; and some 
suppose they were drawn into 
this presumptuous sin by the 
too free use of wine. 

ABIJAH. 1.(1 Kings xiv.l.) 
A son of Jeroboam, who died 
under interesting circum- 
stances, in early life. (See 
Jeroboam.) 2. (2 Chron. xiii. 
1.) Abijah or AB1JAM, the 
son^ of Rehoboam and Mi 
chaiah, succeeded his father 
as king of Judah. He made 
war against Jeroboam, king 
of Israel, and defeated him, 
with a loss of 500,0C0 men. 
He began to reign in the 18th 
year of Jeroboam, and was 
succeeded by his son Asa in 
the 20th year of Jeroboam, so 
that he reigned only a part of 
three years. There is an 
apparent contradiction in 
respect to the parentage of 
this person, as it is given in 1 
Kings xv. 2, and 2 Chron. xiii. 
2, which may be explained as 
foPows. Abishalom is the 
same with Absalom. (2 Chron. 
xi. 21.) The term daughter is 
given indifferently In the 
Bible, not only to one's own 
child, but to a niece, grand- 
daughter, or great-grand- 
daughter. Rehoboam had al- 
ready taken two wives from 
the family of David, (2 Chron. 
xi. 18,) and of course would 
find no difficulty in taking a 
third wife from the same 
family, in the line of Absalom, 
"We have only to suppose then 
that Maachah and Michaiah 
mean the same person ; and 
that she was the daughter of 
Uriel, and the grand-daughter 
of Absalom, and the whole 
difficulty is removed. 

ABILENE. (Luke iii. 1.) A 
province of Syrian lying west 
of Damascus and north of 
13 



AB1 

Galilee, of which Lysanias 
was tetrarch in the time of 
John the Baptist. 

ABIMELECH, 1. (Gen. xx. 
2, and xxvi. 1,) was king of 
Gerar, and being deceived by 
Abraham, he sent and took 
Sarah, Abraham's wife, to be 
his wife. God warned him, 
however, in a dream, of Sa- 
rah's relation to Abraham, 
and thus withheld him from 
the commission of sin, because 
he did it in ignorance. (Gen. 
xx. 6.) Abimelech, having 
rebuked Abraham, restored 
Sarah to him with many gifts, 
and offered him a dwelling- 
place in any part of the land. 
God afterwards remitted the 
punishment of the family of 
Abimelech. At a subsequent 
period, Abimelech (or his 
successor of the same name) 
was deceived, in like manner, 
by Isaac, respecting his wife 
Rebekah, while they dwelt in 
Gerar during a time of famine 
in Canaan. 

2. (Judg. viii. 31.) A son of 
Gideon, who, after the death 
of his father, persuaded the 
men of Shechem to make him 
king. (Judg. ix. 18.) He after- 
wards put" to death seventy 
of his brothers who dwelt in 
his father's house at Ophrah, 
leaving only Jotham, the 
youngest, alive. After several 
defeats he was at last mortally 
wounded by a piece of a mill- 
stone thrown upon his head 
by a woman from the top of a 
tower in Thebez. That it 
might not be said a woman 
slew him, he called to his ar- 
mour-bearer to stab him with 
his sword, and thus he died. 
(Judg. ix. 54—57.) 

ABINADAB. 1. (1 Sam. xvi. 
8.) One of the eight sons of 
Jesse, and one of the three of 
his sons who followed Saul in 
battle. 

2. (1 Sam. xxxi. 2.) One of 



ABl 

Sau/s *ons who was sialn a* 
the baUle of Gilboa. 

3. CI Sim. vii. 1, and 
1 Chron. xiii. 7.) A Levite of 
Kirjath-jearim, with whom the 
ark of the Lord was deposited 
when it was brought back 
from the Philistines. 

4. (1 Kings iv. 11.) One ci" 
the twelve officers appointed 
by Solomon to provide alter 
nately, month by month, food 
for the king and his house 
hold. 

ABIRAM. 1. (Num. xvi. 1.) 
One of the sons of Eliab, the 
Reubenite, who were destroy 
ed with Korah for a conspi 
racy against Moses. (See 
Korah.) 

2. (1 Kings xvi. 34.) The 
first-born of Hiel, the Bethel- 
ite. 

ABISHAG. (1 Kings i. 15.) 
A fair woman of Shunem in 
the tribe of Issachar, who w r as 
selected by the servants of 
David to minister to him in 
his old age, and to cherish 
him. After David's death and 
the ascension of Solomon to 
the throne, Adonijah desired 
Abishag in marriage, but So- 
lomon perceived his policy, 
(see Adonijah,) and caused 
him to be put to death. (1 
Kines ii. 25.) 

ABISHAI. (2 Sam. ii. 18.) A 
son of Zeruiah. He was a 
nephew of David, and among 
the chief of his mighty men. 
He accompanied David to the 
camp of Saul, and counselled 
him to take Saul's life. See a 
full account of this interesting 
scene, with an illustrative en- 
graving, in the Life of Da- 
vid, by" the American Sunday- 
school Union, chap. xvi. 

Abishai, with Joab his bro- 
ther, attacked and defeated 
the Syrians and the children 
of Ammon. (2 Sam. x.) David 
appointed him, in conjunction 
with Joab and Ittai, to ths 
command of the people when 



ABN 

they went forth to battle 
against Israel, in the wood of 
Ephraira. (2 Sam. xviii. 2.) 

Abishai afterwards rescued 
David from the giant Philis- 
tine Ishbi-benob, whom he 
smote and killed. (2 Sam. xxi. 
16, 17.) 

The victory over the Edom- 
ites in the valley of Salt, 
which is ascribed to David, 
(2 Sam. viii. 13,) is ascribed 
to Abishai, (1 Chron. xviii. 12.) 
Probably Abishai actually ob- 
tained the victory, but as he 
was an officer under David, it 
might also with propriety be 
spoken of as David's achieve- 
ment. 

Abishai was associated with 
Joab in the assassination of 
Abner. (2 Sam. iii. 30.) 

ABJECTS. (Ps. xxxv. 15.) 
Low, base persons, and, as 
some suppose, hired assas- 
sins. 

ABNER, (1 Sam. xiv. 50,) 
the son of Ner, was a near 
relation of Saul, and a faithful 
a-nd distinguished general of 
nis armies. We first hear of 
him, particularly, as the cap- 
tain of the host, of whom 
Saul inquired concerning the 
stripling, David, whose vic- 
tory over Goliath had excited 
his astonishment ; and after a 
little time Abner introduced 
David to Saul, with the head 
of the giant Philistine in his 
hand. 

It was through the want of 
vigilance in Abner that Saul's 
life was placed in David's 
power in the wilderness of 
2iph. (1 Sam. xxvi. See Da- 
vid, Saul.) 

After David was anointed 
king of Judah, Abner pro- 
cured the appointment of Ish- 
bosheth, Saul's son, as king 
of Israel; and in process of 
time the army of David, under 
Joab, and the army of Israel, 
under Abner, arrayed them- 
selves on either side of the 
pool of Gibeon. While occu- 



ABN 

pying this position, twelve 
men of each army met and 
fought desperately. This con- 
test was followed by a general 
battle, which resulted'in Ab- 
ner's defeat. He fled, but was 
pursued by Asahel, who " was 
light of foot as a wild roe.* 
Wher in the heat of pursuit, 
Abner counselled him to de- 
sist, and threatened to turn 
upon him and slay him if he 
did not; but Asahel refused 
to turn aside, and Abner 
"with the hinder end of his 
spear" smote him so that he 
died. Joab and Abishai were 
also engaged in the pursuit, 
but at Abner's entreaty they 
desisted and returned. 

As David's strength in- 
creased, the house of Saul, 
though faithfully served by 
Abner, became gradually 
weaker, till at length Ishbo- 
sheth charged Abner with an 
offence against Saul's family. 
He was exceedingly irritated 
by the charge, "and imme- 
diately forsook the interests 
of Saul's house, and espoused 
the cause of David. David 
received him cordially, and 
sent him away in peace to 
persuade Israel to submit to 
David's government. 

While he was gone on this 
errand, Joab returned ; and 
hearing what had been done, 
he went to the king, and 
warned him against Abner as 
a spy and traitor. Soon after, 
and without David's know- 
ledge, Joab sent for Abner; 
and when he arrived, took 
him aside privately, and mur 
dered him, in revenge of tlio 
death of his brother Asahel; 
and they buried him in He- 
bron. 

The estimation in which he 
was held by the king and 
people appears from the sa- 
cred history. The king wept 
and refused his food, and all 
the people wept; and the king 
said unto his servants, Know 
15 



ABO 

ye not that there is a prince 
and a great man J alien thi> 
day in Israel? (2 Sam. iii. 3S.) 

ABOMINABLE. ABOMI- 
NATION. 1. (Gen.' xlvi. 34.) 
An abomination, or an abomi- 
nable thing, is a tiling hateful 
or detestable, as the employ- 
ment or calling of shepherds 
was to trie Egyptians. 2. (Lev. 
xi. 13, and Dent, xxiii. 18.) 
Under the Mosaic law those ; 
animals and acts are called ; 
abominable, the use or doing 
of which was prohibited. 3. i 
(Jer. xliv. 4, and 2 Kings ! 
xxiii. 13.) Idolatry of every \ 
kind is especially denoted by ! 
this term. 4. (Isa. lxvi. 3.) i 
Sins in general. 

The abomination of deso- [ 
ia.tion (Matt. xxiv. 15, and \ 
Dan. ix. 27, and xii. 11) pro- j 
bably refers to the ensigns or [ 
banners of the Roman army, 
with the idolalrous.and there- ! 
K>re,abominable images upon l 
tkem, as in the annexed cut, | 




die approach of which would 
wa is the cityof its desolation 
WLen the c\ty should be bt- 



ABR 

sieged, and these idolatrous 
standards should be seen "in 
the holy place," or more 
strictly, in the vicinity of the 
holy city, thus threatening 
a complete conquest and 
speedy destruction, it would 
be time for the men of Judea 
to flee to places of refuge to 
save themselves from tribu- 
lation and death. 
ABRAM, ABRAHAM. (Gen. 
xi. 27,) was the son of Terah, 
and was born at Ur, a city oi 
Chaldea,lhe location of which 
is uncertain, about a. m. 2008. 
While he was dwelling in his 
father's house at Ur, God di- 
rected him to leave his coun- 
try and kindred, and go to a 
land which should be shown 
him; promising, at the same 
time, to make of him a great 
nation, and to bless him, and 
to make his name great, and 
that in him all the families of 
the earth should be blessed. 

Obedient to the heavenly 
calling. Abram took Sarai his 
wife, and with Terah his fa- 
ther, and other members of 
the family, left Ur to remove 
to Canaan ; and stopped at 
Haran. 

It is supposed by some that 
while theydwelt in Ur, Abram 
fell into the idolatrous prac- 
tices which prevailed around 
him; but in the absence of 
all evidence on this point, the 
contrary may surely be infer- 
red from the readiness with 
which he obeyed God, and the 
faith he manifested in a man- 
ner so exemplary and rare. 

While they were dwelling 
at Haran, in Mesopotamia, 
Terah died. Abram, who 
was then seventy-five years 
old, pursued his journey to 
Canaan ; and having reach 
ed Sichem, one of the oldest 
cities of Palestine, (see She 
chem,) ;he Lord appeared tc 
him, and repeated his pro 
mise to give him the land, 
16 



ABR 

A grievous famine soon vi- 
sited the country, and Abram 
was obliged to go into Egypt. 
Fearful that Sarai's beauty 
might attract the notice of the 
Egyptians, and that if they 
supposed her to be his wife, 
they would kill him to secure 
her, he proposed that she 
should pass for his sister. It 
happened as he expected. 
The servants of Pharaoh, the 
ki ng of Egypt, commended her 
beauty so much, that he sent 
for her, and took her into his 
house, and loaded Abram 
with tokens of his favour ; but 
the Lord punished him se- 
verely, so that he sent away 
Abram and his wife, and all 
that he had. 

Having become very rich in 
cattle, silver, and gold, he re- 
turned from Egypt, to Canaan. 
Lot, his nephew, had been 
with him, and shared his pros- 
perity ; and if happened that 
his servants fell into some 
strife with the servants of 
Al nam. As it was evident 
that their property was too 
great for them to dwell to- 
gether, Abram, though in 
every respect entitled to defe- 
rence, generously proposed to 
his nephew to avoid contro- 
versy by an amicable separa- 
tion. He offered Lot his choice 
of the territory, on the right 
or left, as it pleased him. A 
rare illustration of meekness 
and condescension. Lot chose 
to remove to the eastward, 
and occupy that part of the 
fertile plain of Jordan where 
Sodom and Gomorrah stood. 

Then the Lord appeared 
again to Abram, and renewed 
the promise of the land of 
Canaan, as his inheritance, 
in the most explicit manner. 
He thence removed his tent 
to the plain of Mamre in He- 
bron. In an invasion of the 
cities of the plain by several 
of the petty kings of the ad- 
joining provinces, Sodom was 
2* 



ABR 

taken, and Lot and his family 
carried captive. When Abram 
received intelligence of it, ha 
armed his trained servants, 
born in his house, (three hun- 
dred and eighteen in num- 
ber,) pursued the kings, and 
defeated them, and brought 
Lot and his family and their 
substance back to Sodom ; re- 
storing to liberty the captives 
who had been taken, with all 
their property, of which he 
generously refused to take 
any part, as the reward of his 
services or as the spoils of 
victory. On his return he 
was met by Melchisedek king 
of Salem, and priest of the 
most high God, to whom he 
gave a tenth of all that he had. 
(See Melchisedek.) 

Two or three years after 
this the Lord appeared again 
to Abram in a vision; repeat- 
ed to him the promises, and 
accompanied them with the 
most gracious declaration of 
his favour. He appointed a 
certain sacrifice for him to 
offer, and towards night 
caused a deep sleep to fall 
upon him, attended by a hor- 
ror of great darkness, during 
which there were revealed to 
him some of the most import- 
ant events in his future his- 
tory, and in that of his pos- 
terity, which were all accom- 
plished in due time, and with 
wonderful exactness. 

The revelation related, 1. 
To the captivity of Israel by 
the Egyptians, and their se- 
vere and protracted bondage ; 
2. To the judgments which 
Egypt should suffer because 
of their oppressions of God's 
chosen people, and the cir- 
cumstances under which they 
should leave Egypt ; 3. To 
Abram's death and burial : 
and, 4. To the return of his 
posterity to the promised 

In the same day the cove- 
nant respecting the land of 
" 17 



. ABE 
promise was renewed, and 
confirmed with the strongest 
expressions of divine favour. 
Sarai however was childless, 
and she proposed to Abraham 
that Hagar, an Egyptian wo- 
man living with them, should 
be his wife ; by whom he had 
a son whom he called Ishmael. 

At ninety-nine years of age, 
he was favoured with another 
most remarkable vision. The 
Almighty was revealed to him 
in such a manner that he was 
filled with awe and fell upon 
his face, and we are told that 
" God talked with him." The 
promise respecting the great 
increase of his posterity, and 
their character and relation 
Co God, as well as respecting 
the possession of Canaan, was 
repeated in the most solemn 
and explicit terms ; his name 
was changed from Abram (a 
high father) to Abraham, (fa- 
ther of a great multitude,) and 
the circumcision of every male 
child, at eight days old, was 
established as a token of the 
covenant between him and 
God. (See Circumcised.) At 
the same time the name of 
Sarai (my princess) was 
changed to Sarah, (the prin- 
cess,) and a promise was 
given to Abraham that Sarah 
should, have a s«>n, and be the 
mother of nations and kings. 

It seemed so entirely out of 
the course of nature that they 
should become parents a t their 
advanced age, that Abraham, 
filled with reverence and joy- 
fill gratitude, fell upon his face, 
and said in his heart, Shall a 
child be born unto him that 
is a hundred years old 7 and 
shall Sarah, that is ninety 
years old, bear ? 

Nevertheless against hope 
he believed in hope, and being 
not weak in faith he staggered 
not at. the promise of God, but 
was fully persuaded that what 
he had promised he was able 
also to perform ; and his faith 



ABK 

was imputed to him for right- 
eousness. (Rom. iv. 18—22.) 

Abraham, finding that the 
blessings of the covenant 
were to be bestowed on his 
future offspring, immediately 
thought of Ishmael, in whom 
he had probably before sup- 
posed the promises were to be 
fulfilled, and he uttered the 
solemn and affecting prayer — 
O that Ishmael might live 
before thee. God heard him, 
and almost while he was yet 
speaking, answered him by 
making known to him his 
great purposes respecting Ish- 
mael. (Gen. xvii. 20, and xxv. 
16.) 

As soon as the vision had 
closed, Abraham hastened to 
obey the divine command, 
and with Ishmael his son, and 
all the men of his house, was 
circumcised in the self-same 
day. He was not long with- 
out another divine communi- 
cation. As he sat in the door 
cf his tent in the heat of the 
day, three men approached 
him. He received them with 
all the courtesy and hospi- 
tality which distinguished 
eastern manners, and after 
they had refreshed themselves 
they inquired of him respect- 
ing Sarah, and repeated the 
promise respecting the birth 
of .her son. 

It was on this occasion, or 
in connexion with these cir- 
cumstances, that a divine tes- 
timony was given to the patri- 
archal character of Abraham. 
(Gen. xviii. 19.) It was be- 
cause of his faithfulness that 
he was favoured with a reve- 
lation of God's purposes, re- 
specting the devoted cities of 
the plain, and with an oppor- 
tunity to plead for them ; and 
it was for Abraham's sake, 
and probably in answer to 
his prayers, that Lot and his 
family were rescued from 
the sudden destruction which 
came upon Sodom. 

13 



ABR 

After this, Abraham re- 
moved to Gerar, and here he 
made a second attempt to have 
Sarah taken for his sister. 
^See Abimelech.) Here, also, 
the prediction was fulfilled, 
respecting the birth of a son. 
Sarah had a son, whom he call- 
ed Isaac, and who was duly 
circumcised on the eighth day. 

Abraham was much tried 
by an unhappy occurrence, 
in which Hagar and Ishmael 
were principally concerned ; 
but God supported him by an 
explicit promise, that in Isaac 
his seed should be called. 
(Gen. xxi. 10-13.) 

Abraham so obviously had 
the favour and blessing of 
God in all that he did, that 
Abimelech,the king, proposed 
to make with him a covenant 
of perpetual friendship ; and 
a matter of wrong about a 
well, of which Abimelech's 
servants had violently de- 
prived Abraham, was thus 
happily adjusted. This trans- 
action was at a place which 
was thereafter called Beer- 
sheba— the well of the oath, 
or the icell of swearing. (Gen. 
xxi. 23-31.) 

We now come to one of the 
most interesting and import- 
ant passages m the patri- 
arch's history. God was about 
to try him, that he might ex- 
hibit to the world, in all fol- 
lowing time, an illustrious ex- 
ample of the power of faith,. 
He was commanded to take 
nis son— his only son Isaac, 
whom he loved, and in whom 
all the promises of God were 
to be accomplished— and to 
offer him up for a burnt-offer- 
in? upon a distant mountain. 
Without an inquiry or mur- 
muring word, and with a 
promptness which showed 
the most entire submission, 
Abraham obeyed the mysteri- 
ous command. A journey of 
three days was accomplished. 
Every Dreparation for the of- 



ABR 

fering was made, and the 
knife was in his hand, which 
was uplifted to slay his son, 
when his purpose was arrest- 
ed by a voice from heaven, 
requiring him to spare the 
lad; inasmuch as the proof 
of the father's faith and obe- 
dience was full. A ram was 
provided in the neighbour- 
ing thicket, which he took 
and offered up ; and after 
having been favoured with 
special tokens of the divine 
approbation, he returned with 
his son to Beersheba. This 
grand trial and illustration 
of the patriarch's faith took 
place, as it is supposed, upon 
Mount Moriah. (See Jerusa- 
lem & Map.) In commemora- 
tion of it, he gave to the place 
the name Jehovah-jireh, {the 
Lord will see or provide,) inti- 
mating a general truth re- 
specting the divine faithful- 
ness and care ; and in pro- 
phetical allusion, as some 
suppose, to the great sacrifice 
which, in fulness of time, was 
to be offered upon that same 
spot for the sins of men. (Gen. 
xxii. 14.) 

At the age of one hundred 
and twenty-seven years Sarab 
died, and Abraham purchased 
the cave of Machpelah, in the 
field of Ephron, near Hebron, 
for a family burial-place, and 
there buried his wife. 

Isaac had now arrived at 
mature age, and Abraham 
called one of his servants, 
probably Eliezer, (Gen. xv. 2,) 
and made him swear that he 
would obtain a wife for Isaac, 
not among the Canaanites, 
(where they then dwelt, and 
who were to be cut off accord- 
ing to the revealed purpose 
of trod,) but in Abraham's na- 
tive country, and from among 
his own kindred. This enter- 
prise terminated successfully 
and every desire of the patri- 
arch respecting Isaac's mar 
riage was answered. 
19 



ABS 

Abraham married a second 
time, and had several sons; 
but he made Isaac his sole 
heir, having in his lifetime 
distributed gifts among the 
other children, who were now 
dispersed ; and at the great 
age of one hundred and se- 
venty-five years he died in 
peace, and was buried by 
Isaac and Ishmael, in the 
same sepulchre with Sarah, 
A. m. 2183. (See History, op 
Abraham, by the American 
Sunday-school Union.) 

Abraham's bosom. (See 
Bosom.) 

ABSALOM (2 Sam. iii. 3) 
was a son of David, by Maa- 
cah, daughter of Talmai king 
sf Geshur. He was remark- 
able for his beauty, and for his 
hair, which is said to have 
weighed 200 shekels when cut 
^ff every year. As to the pre- 
cise meaning of this weight, 
however, there has been much 
speculation. It is supposed 
that the shekel by which its 
weight is expressed, means a 
lighter weight, by one third or 
one half, than 'the common 
shekel. Others suppose that 
the value, and not the weight, 
is denoted ; and others, still, 
contend that what with gold- 
dust and powder, which were 
both profusely used in dress- 
ing the hair, the weight (sup- 
posing weight to be meant, 
and the common shekel to be 
used) is not at, all incredible ; 
being, according to Michaelis, 
not quite three pounds Troy 
weight, though it may be suffi- 
ciently remarkable to be no- 
ticed by the historian, 

Absalom had a fair sister 
whose name was Tamar ; and 
Amnon his half-brother having 
injured her, Absalom was re- 
venged by' taking Amnon's 
life at a feast, to which he had 
invited him, (2 Sam. xiii. 29,) 
and immediately after this he 
fled to the house of Talmai, 
his mother's father, at Geshur. 



ABS 

Joab, in order to secure 
Absalom's return and resto- 
ration to his father's favour, 
employed a woman of Tekoa 
to appear before David, and 
feign a case similar, in its 
leading circumstances, to the 
situation of Absalom, and 
having obtained his decision, 
to apply the principle to the 
real case. After a favourable 
decision was obtained in the 
feigned case, the woman began 
to plead for Absalom's return. 
The king immediately sus- 
pected Joab's concern in the 
plot, and the woman confessed 
that it was wholly planned by 
him. 

David, • however, directed 
Joab to go to Geshur, and 
bring Absalom back to Jeru- 
salem, after an absence of 
three years ; but his father 
would not receive him into 
favour, nor admit him to his 
presence ; nor did he see his 
face for two year3 more. 

AVearied with his banish- 
ment,Absalom often attempted 
to obtain an interview with 
Joab ; but for some cause Joab 
was not disposed to go to him. 
To compel him to come, Absa- 
lom resorted to a singular 
expedient; he directed his 
servants to set fire to Joab's 
fields. Joab immediately came 
to Absalom ; was persuaded 
to plead with the king in hia 
behalf; succeeded in his effort, 
and Absalom was received 
into full favour. 

But with a proud and wicked 
heart, he could not cease to 
do evil. His father's throne 
became the object of his am- 
bition, and he procured cha- 
riots and horsemen, and other 
appendages of rank and roy- 
alty ; and stood in the public 
places courting the favour of 
the people by the meanest 
arts ; persuading them that 
their rights were not regarded 
by the government, and. that 
it would be for their interest 
30 



ABS 

to elevate him to power, that 
egual justice might be admi- 
nistered to all. By these and 
other means, Absalom stole 
the hearts of the men of Is- 
rael. 

In pursuing his wicked and 
traitorous design, and with 
a pretended regard to filial 
duty, he asked his father's 
permission to go to Hebron, 
and pay a vow which he said 
he had made. The unsuspi- 
cious king consented, and 
Absalom immediately sent 
men throughout Israel, who 
were, at a given signal, to 
proclaim him king in Hebron. 

He also took two hundred 
men with him from Jerusalem, 
though they did not know 
his plan ; and then sent for 
Ahithophel, who was David's 
counsellor, that he might have 
his advice and assistance. 

Absalom's party increased 
rapidly, and intelligence of 
the conspiracy was" commu- 
nicated to the king, and so 
alarmed him, that he fled from 
the city. 

At length David persuaded 
Hushai to go to Absalom, who 
had now come back to Jeru- 
salem with his party, arid be- 
come his servant ; and when 
opportunity occurred, to give 
such counsel as should defeat 
Ahithophel's plans, and bring 
confusion and discomfiture 
upon Absalom. 

By a train of singular pro- 
vidential interpositions, (an 
account of which belongs ra- 
therto the life of David, than 
to this article,) Absalom's ruin 
was hastened. 

Before David's men went 
out to battle with the revolted 
party, he gave them special 
charge respecting Absalom, 
and commanded them to deal 
gently with him for his father's 
sake. 

The two parties met in the 
wood of Ephrairn, and the 
battle was severe and bloody. 



ACC 

I Absalom rode upon a mule, 
and in passing under the 
thick boughs of an oak, he 
was caught by his head in the 
fork or angle of two branches, 
and the mule passed onward, 
leaving him suspended in the 
air. J ;ab, one of David's chief 
captains, being informed of it, 
took three darts and thrust 
them through the heart of Ab- 
salom, while he was yet alive 
in the midst of the oak ; and 
they took his body and cast it 
into a pit in the wood, and 
covered it with stones, a. m. 
2981. 

Absalom, pillar of. (See 
Pillar, Jerusalem. See also 
the Life of David, ch. xiii., by 
the American Sunday-school 
Union.) 

ACCAD. (Gen. x. 10.) A 
city in Shinar, built by Nim- 
rod. Modern travellers have 
intimated the probability that 
the ruins of this ancient city 
are to be seen about six miles 
from the present Bagdad. 

ACCHO, no w Ace a or Acre, 
(Judg.'i. 31,) or Ptolemais, (so 
callecl after the first Ptolemy 
king of Egypt, into whose 
hands it fell about one hun- 
dred years before Christ,) was 
a sea-port town, on the bay of 
Acre over against mount Car- 
mel, about thirty miles south 
of Tyre. It was in the terri- 
tory assigned to the tribe of 
Asher, and one of the cities 
from which they were unable 
to expel the Canaanites ; and 
it is even now considered the 
strongest place in Palestine. 
It is mentioned in Acts xxi. 7. 
Its population is from 10,000 
to 15,000, chiefly Jews. The 
remains of this ancient city 
are very numerous. Buck- 
ingham, who visited it in 
1S16, found several fragments 
of buildings, that he had no 
doubt were constructed in 
the earliest ages, especially 
thresholds o f doors, and pil- 
lars for galleries or piazzas, 
2i 



ACH 

aiht slabs of fin marble, 
which he supposed were used 
for the pavement of courts.. 
These ruins are now used in 
the erection of new buildings, 
and all appearances of ancient 
grandeur are fading away. 
The place has been noted in 
modern times for the success- 
ful resistance it made under 
Sir Sydney Smith to the 
French army in 1799. In 
I $32, the place was under the 
dominion of the pacha of 
Egypt. (See Geography of 
the Bible, by the American 
Sunday school Union, p. 127.) 

ACCURSED, CURSED. 1. 
(Josh. vi. 17.) Devoted to de- 
struction. 2. (1 Cor. xii. 3.) 
A deceiver. 3. (Gal. i. 8, 9.) 
Separated from the church. 
(See Anathema. See also 
Biblical ANTiauiTiES, by 
\he American Sunday-school 
Union, ch. v. § 1.) 

ACELDAMA. (Acts i. 19.) 
A field for the burial of stran- 
gers, which the chief priests 
bought with the money re- 
lumed by Judas, as the price 
of the saviour's blood. (Matt, 
xxvii. 6 — 8.) Hence its name 
Aceldama,or field of blood. It 
wa3 just without the wall of 
Jerusalem, south of mount 
Zion, and was originally call- 
ed the potters field, because it 
furnished a sort of clay suit- 
able for potter's ware. Hence, 
too, the burial-place for stran- 
gers, which is attached to 
many large cities, is called 
potter's field. Aceldama is 
now used as a buryin^-place 
by the Armenian Christians 
in Jerusalem. (See Map op 
Jerusalem, by the American 
Sunday-school Union.) 

ACHAIA. (Acts xviii. 12. 
Rom. xvi.5. 2 Cor. xi. 10.) In 
the most comprehensive use 
this term was applied to all 
the region lying south of Thes- 
saly and Macedonia as far as 
the Morea, and sometimes in- 
cluded the whole of Greece; 



ACH 

but in a limited use it em- 
braced only the district be- 
tween Macedonia and the Pe- 
loponnesus, of which Corinth 
was the capital. (See Co- 
rinth.) 

ACHAN,orACHAR. (Josh. 
vii. 18.) A son of Carmi, of 
the tribe of Judah, who se- 
cretly took and concealed 
several valuable articles from 
among the spoils of Jericho, 
in direct violation of the di- 
vine command. (Josh. vi. 17, 
18.) For this sin judgment 
came upon the whole camp 
of Israel. (See Joshua.) By 
a process which God appoint- 
ed, Achan's guilt was disco- 
vered, and he was taken into 
a valley north of Jericho, 
thence called the valley of 
Achor, (see Achor,) and was 
there stoned to death. 

ACHISH. (1 Sam. xxi. 10.) 
A king of Gath, to whom Da- 
vid fled, and with whom he 
afterwards formed an alli- 
ance, through fear of Saul. 

ACHMETHA. (Ezra vi. 2.) 
The Ecbatana of ancient Me- 
dia, and the place where the 
records of the kingdom were 
preserved. The place is oc- 
cupied, as it is supposed, by 
the modern city Hamadan, in 
Persia. It was surrounded by 
seven walls, and at one period 
was considered the strongest 
and most beautiful city of the 
east, except Nineveh and Ba- 
bylon. 

ACHOR,valley op.(Hosea 
ii. 15.) A place in the vicinity 
of Jericho, where Achan was 
stoned for an offence which 
brought trouble upon the 
whole camp. (See Achan.) 
The figurative use of the word 
in the passage cited is sus- 
ceptible of divers interpreta- 
tions. The most common is, 
that as the valley of Achor 
was the place of great distress 
and tiouble to Israel on their 
first entrance to Canaan, it 
would become a place of hop* 
22 



ac r 

and joy on their return from 
the captivity which they were 
then enduring. This opinion 
is perhaps confirmed by Isa. 
Ixv. 10. 

ACHSHAPH. (Josh.xii.20.) 
A city conquered by Joshua, 
and afterwards assigned to 
the tribe of Asher. It was not 
far from Accho. (Josh. xix. 25.) 

ACHZIB. 1. «;Josh. xix. 29.) 
A city of the tribe of Asher. 
(Judg. i. 31.) Its present name 
is Z'fb. It is found near the 
seacoast, ten or twelve miles 
north of Ptolemais, and was 
visited by Buckingham in 
1816. 2. (Josh. xv. 44, and Mic. 
i. 14.) A town of Judah. 

ACRE. (1 Sam. xiv. 14.) In 
the passage cited, it is sup- 
posed to be used proverbially 
lor a very small space. 

ACTS. The fifth book in 
the order of the New Testa- 
ment is called " The Acts 
of the Apostles," and is com- 
monly referred to as The Acts, 
and sometimes Acts— without 
the article. It is supposed to 
have been compiled by Luke 
the evangelist, as early as a.d. 
64, and may be regarded as 
a continuation of his gospel. 
It was originally written in 
Greek ; and contains the his- 
tory of the Christian church 
during the interesting period 
which elapsed from^the as- 
cension of our Saviour, to the 
impri so nme nt of Paul at Rome 
—a period of about thirty 
Years. It contains a minute 
listory of the descent of the 
Holy Spirit on the day of Pen- 
tecost; the manner and suc- 
cess of the preaching of the 
apostles ; and the gathering 
and establishing of Christian 
churches by them, both among 
Jews and Gentiles; the con- 
version of Paul, and the tra- 
vels and labours of himself 
and his companions ; the tri- 
als and sufferings they endur- 
ed in propagating the gospel, 



ADA 

and the signs and wonders 
which were wrought in attes- 
tation of their authority. 

This book is particularly 
valuable as containing a vast 
body of evidence of the divine 
power and mission of Jesus 
Christ, and of his grace and 
faithfulness ; by which the re- 
ligion he taught was establish- 
ed and widely propagated, and 
the salvation offered by his 
gospel was most clearly and 
gloriously illustrated. 

This book is called by some 
of the oldest writers the gos- 
pel of the Holy Ghost, and the 
gospel of our Saviour's res a vr» 
rection. 

Many pretended copies of 
this book, or other records of 
the apostolic acts, have been 
introduced to the world ; but 
have been soon proved to be 
spurious. The American Sun- 
day-school Union have pub- 
lished, in a very cheap and 
convenient form, a Help to 
the study of this book; which 
consists in a complete analy- 
sis of each passage, and such 
inferences and illustrations 
as are adapted to the use of 
the student. It is called Help 
to the Acts, parts i. and ii. 
The fifth volume of the Union 
Questions, by the American 
Sunday-school Union, embra- 
ces this book, and the Life of 
Paul, another of the publica- 
tions of the American Sunday, 
school Union, may be read with 
great advantage in connexion 
with the inspired history. 

ADAM. (Gen. ii. 19.) The 
great ancestor of the human 
family. On the sixth and last 
day of the work of creation, 
man was made of the dust of 
the ground, yet in God's image 
and~after his likeness. The 
Lord God breathed into hi? 
nostrils the breath of life, and 
caused him to become a living 
soul. He also gave him domi. 
nion over the fish of the sea. 
and the fowls of Uie air. and 
23 ' 



ADA 

every living thing that moves 
upon the earth. The com- 
plete dominion which was 
given to him is expressed in a 
variety of forms. (Gen. i. 26 — 
30, and ii. 16—20.) Nothing 
can be more interesting than 
the history of man's creation. 
The fabric of this beautiful 
world was finished; the fir- 
mament was established; the 
mountains were fixed upon 
their deep foundations, and to 
seas and oceans were assign- 
ed the bounds which they 
should not pass ; the heavens 
were stretched out like a 
curtain, and the sun, moon, 
and stars appointed to their 
courses. The earth was 
adorned with grass and herbs 
and trees, suited for the com- 
fort and sustenance of the 
living creatures, cattle, and 
creeping things that had just 
commenced their existence 
upon its surface, and all had 
been pronounced good by the 
infinite Creator himself. 

To enjoy this glorious reve- 
lation of divine power, wis- 
dom, and goodness— to have 
dominion over this vast multi- 
tude of living creatures, and 
more than all to be the happy 
subject of God's government 
—bearing his image and like- 
ness, and having communion 
with him, as the former of his 
bodjr and the father of his 
spirit, man was formed ; not 
born, but created — not in fee- 
ble., helpless infancy, but in 
the maturity of his physical 
and intellectual nature ; not 
a sinful, diseased, dying crea- 
ture, but in the image and after 
the likeness of the perfectly 
holy and eternal Creator. 

A creature, who, not prone 

And brute as other creature, but en- 
dued 
With sanctity of reason, might erect his 

stature — 
And upright, with front serene, 
Govern the rest— self-knowing : and 

from thence 
Jfagnanimous to correspond with hea- 



ADA 

A gar len was planted by the 
hancl oi God for the residence 
of Adam. Every tree that was 
pleasant to the sight, or good 
for food ? grew there. And it 
was reireshed and fertilized 
by a river that flowed through 
the midst of it. 

This garden was committed 
to his care, to dress it, and to 
keep it, and of every tree but 
one he was allowed to eat; 
but of the tree of knowledge 
of good and evil he was for- 
bidden to eat, under the pe- 
nalty of death. As soon as he 
was fixed in this happy abode, 
God brought to him the beasts 
of the field and the fowls of 
the air which he had created, 
and Adam gave them names ; 
and whatsoever Adam called 
every living creature that was 
the name thereof. 

But it was not good that 
man should be alone, and his 
Creator formed a companion 
for him ; bone of his bone, and 
flesh of his flesh ; — a help- 
meet for him,— that is, as a 
friend and associate fitted to 
aid and comfort him, and like 
him pure and immortal. They 
were perfectly happy in each 
other, and in the favour and 
communion of God — 

Reaping immortal fruits of joy and love, 
Uninterrupted joy — unrivalled love- 
in blissful solitude. 

We are not informed how 
long they continued in this 
pure and happy state, but we 
know they lost it. Adam dis- 
obeyed the simple and rea- 
sonable command of God. A 
the suggestion of Eve, his 
wife, who had been herself 
tempted by the serpent to eat, 
he partook with her of the 
fruit of the only forbidden 
tree, and thus they incurred 
the displeasure of their Ma- 
ker, and the penalty of his 
just law. 

The first indication of guilt 
was the consciousness of 
shame ; and the next a vain 
24 



ADA 

attempt to hide themselves 
from the presence of Him, 
whose eyes are in everyplace, 
beholding the evil and the 
good. 

Without delay each of the 
parties to the fatal transaction 
received a dreadful doom. 
(See Serpent, Eve.) As for 
man, the ground was cursed 
for his sake, and he was con- 
demned to eat bread in the 
sweat of his face till he should 
return to the dust of which 
he was formed, or suffer the 
death to which he was now 
sentenced. Not only should 
his body decay and perish, but 
the death to which he was 
thus doomed included separa- 
tion from the favour of God, 
and condemnation to endless 
sorrow and suffering. 

Thus, by one man sin en- 
tered into the world, and 
death by sin. Their naked- 
ness, which was now their 
shame, being covered, they 
were both driven from their 
happy home in Eden, never to 
return : and, in the hardship 
of toil and labour, and, in the 
sorrow and sufferings of child- 
birth, they began at once, 
respectively, to feel the woes 
in which their transgression 
had involved them. 

In a little while the dreadful 
power of sin and its temporal 
consequences were shown 
them in a combined and most 
revolting form. Abel — the 
righteous Abel— their beloved 
son, was cruelly and wantonly 
murdered by the hand of his 
brother. 

The history of Adam closes 
abruptly. At the a<ze of one 
hundred and thirty "he had a 
son whom he called Seth ; and 
who was born in his own like- 
ness and after his own image, 
(no longer in the likeness and 
after the image of God.) He 
lived eight hundred years 
after the birth of Seth, making 
the whole term of his life nine 
3 



ADJ 

hundred and thirty years-— 
and he died b. c. 3071. (For 
a simple and beautiful history 
of the creation and of the fall 
of man, see Bible Sketches, 
and the First Man, both by 
the American Sunday-school 
Union.) 

ADAMANT. (Ezek. iii. 9.) 
One of the hardest and most, 
costly of precious stones. The ■ 
original is elsewhere trans- 
lated diamond. It is employed 
as an emblem of the heart 
of the wicked. (Zech. vii. 12.) 
Some suppose it was used for 
cutting, engraving, and polish- 
ing other hard" stones and 
crystals. (See Diamond.) 

ADAR. (See Month.) 

ADDER. l.(Gen.xlix. 17. 
A venomous serpent whose 
poison is very subtle, and al- 
most instantly fatal. The word 
translated adder, in various 
passages of the Bible, does 
not always mean what the 
English word denotes. In 
Gen. xlix. 17, the original 
word denotes a serpent of the 
viper kind, of the colour of 
sand, which lurks in the 
tracks of the wheels, and 
bites the unwary traveller or' 
his beast. 2. In Ps. lviii. 4,. 
and xci. 13, the word trans- 
lated adder is supposed to 
mean an asp. 3. In Ps. cxl. 3, 
some suppose the spider or 
tarantula is meant, and others 
the asp. (Rom. iii. 13.) 4. In 
Prov. xxiii. 32, the word may 
be rendered cockatrice with 
equal propriety. 

It is remarked of the adder 
or asp, that he is not moved 
or affected by sounds which 
fascinate other serpents ; and 
some suppose that the most 
venomous of the adder spe- 
cies is naturally deaf. Hence 
the allusion in Ps. lviii. 4. 
(See Asp.) 

ADJURE. 1. (Josh.vi.26.) 

To bind under a curse. 2. 

(Matt. xxvi. G3.) Solemnly 

to require a declaration of tho 

25 



ADO 
truth at the peril of Goa's dis- 
pleasure. Such is considered 
the language of the high-priest, 
M 1 adjure thee," &c. or, " I put 
thee to thy oath;" when the 
Saviour replied to the inquiry 
to which he had before been 
silent. (Matt. xxvi. 63. Com- 
pare 1 Sam. xiv. 24, 38, and 
1 Kings xxii. 16, with Josh. vi. 
26.) 

ADMAH. (Deut. xxix. 23.) 
The most easterly of the five 
cities of the plain or vale of 
Siddim, which were miracu- 
lously destroyed by fire, be- 
cause of their great wicked- 
ness. Some infer from Isa. 
xv. 9, the last clause of which 
is translated by the Septua- 
gint, and upon the remnant of 
Adama, that Admah was not 
entirely destroyed; but the 
more probable supposition is, 
that another city of the same 
name was afterwards built 
near the site of the former. 

ADONI-BEZEK. (Judg. i. 
5.) Lord or king of Bezek. 
He fled from the armies of 
Judah, but was caught and 
disabled by having his thumbs 
and great toes cut off, so that 
he could neither fight nor fly. 
He was then carried to Jeru- 
salem, where he died. He 
eeems to have regarded the 
maiming he suffered as a just 
requital of his own cruelty, 
he having mutilated seventy 
kings or chieftains in the 
same inhuman manner. 

ADONIJAH. (2 Sam. iii. 4.) 
David's fourth son. He was 
born at Hebron, and after the 
death of his brothers Amnon 
and Absalom, he made pre- 
tensions to the throne ot his 
father. He prepared himself 
with horses and chariots, and 
other marks of royalty, and 
took counsel with Joab and 
Abiathar how he could best 
accomplish his purpose. 

Bathsheba, Solomon's mo- 
ther, fearing that her son's 
title to the throne mieht be 



ADO 

disturbed, immediately in 
formed the king of Adonijah'a 
revolt; and Nathan the pro- 
phet confirming the statement 
of the -matter, David gave 
Bathsheba the strongest as- 
surances that her son should 
reign after him ; and he caused 
Solomon to be actually anoint* 
ed and proclaimed king with 
great shoutings. (1 Kings i.39.) 

Adonijah was just ending a 
feast when he heard the noise 
of the shouting, and Jonathan 
came in and told him all that 
had taken place. His guests 
fled precipitately, and Adoni- 
jah himself ran and caught 
hold of the horns of the altar, 
which seems to have been 
regarded as a place of safety 
from violence. 

After David's death, Adoni- 
jah persuaded Bathsheba to 
ask Solomon her son, who 
was now on the throne, to 
give him Abishag for his wife. 
Solomon saw at once through 
the policy of Adonijah, and 
his self-interested advisers. 
He knew that he might as 
well have asked for the king- 
dom at once as to ask for the 
king's widow, for then, being 
the elder brother, he could 
make a plausible claim to the 
throne at the first favourable 
juncture ; which would direct- 
ly contravene the express 
appointment of God made 
known to David, and probably 
j to his family also. (1 Chron. 
xxviii. 5.) So he caused him to 
be put to death by the hand of 
Benaiah. 

ADONIRAM. (See Ado- 
ram.) 

ADOM-ZEDEK. (Josh. x. 1 ) 
King of Jerusalem, at the time 
the country was entered by 
the Israelites. Hearing of 
Joshua's victories over Ai and 
Jericho, and finding that the 
inhabitants of Gibeon (one of 
the most important cities of 
the kingdom) had made a 
;eague with him, he called 



ADO 

four other kings of the Am- 
monites to his "aid, and laid 
Biege to Gibeon with a view- 
to destroy it, because it had 
made peace with Joshua and 
the children of Israel. 

But the Lord was against 
chem, and with the edge~of the 
6w r ord and a violent hail-storm 
which overtook them, they 
were completely overthrown 
and destroyed. The victory 
was attended with a signal 
miracle. (See Joshua.) 

Adoni-zede*c, with his allies, 
fled and concealed themselves 
in a cave at Makkedah. They 
were soon discovered, how- 
ever; and were confined and 
watched, until the last of their 
adherents was either cut off 
or driven into some fortress. 
They were then called out of 
the cave, and brought before 
Joshua. 

In the presence of the men 
of Israel, who were summon- 
ed for the purpose, Joshua 
required the captains of his 
army to put their feet upon 
the necks of the captive kings, 
declaring at the same time, 
that such would be the doom 
of all the enemies of Israel. 
He then caused them to be 
slain, and to be hanged on 
separate trees until evening, 
,and then their bodies were 
taken down, and cast into the 
cave in which they had con- 
cealed themselves. (Josh. x. 
27.) 

ADOPTION (Gal. iv. 5) is 
an act by which one is re- 
ceived into a man's family as 
his own child, and becomes 
entitled to the peculiar privi- 
leges of that connexion, as 
fullv and completely as a child 
by birth. (Ex. ii. 10, and Esth. 
ii. 7.) 

In the figurative use of the 
term by the sacred writers, 
it implies that relation which 
we sustain to God, when, by 
his grace, we are converted 
from sin to holiness. The 



ADR 

spirit oi adoption is receive!, 
and we are made the children, 
(or sons) and heirs of God, ana 
joint-heirs with Christ. (See 
Biblical Antiquities, by the 
American S. S. Union, ch. vi. 
§ii.) 

ADORAM. 1. (2 Sam. xx. 
24.) An officer of the customs 
under David. 

2. An officer of Rehoboam's 
treasury, (perhaps the son of 
the former,) who was stoned 
to death by the people of Is- 
rael who followed Jeroboam. 
(1 Kings xii. 18.) Some sup- 
pose him to have been the 
same with Adoniram, (1 Kings 
v. 14,) who was over the cus- 
toms in Solomon's reign; and 
that the people were so indig- 
nant at the oppression they 
had suffered through his 
agency, that they took this 
method of revenge. 

ADRAMMELECH. 1. (Isa. 
xxxvii. 38.) A son of Senna- 
cherib king of Assyria. He 
and his brother Sharezer kill- 
ed their father while he was 
in the act of idolatry. Their 
motive for this parricidal act 
is not known. They both lied 
to Armenia, and Esarhaddon 
succeeded to the crown. 

2. (2 Kinsrs xvii. 31.) An idol 
god of Sepharvaim, supposed 
to represent the sun, while 
another idol called Anamme- 
lech represented the moon. 
Sacrifices of living children 
were made to these idols. 

ADRAMYTTIUM. (Acts 
xxvii . 2.) A seaport of Mysia, 
opposite the island of Lesbos, 
in the north-western part of 
Asia Minor. It is known by 
the modern name of Edremit 
or Ydramit, and lies about 
sixty or eighty miles north of 
Smyrna. "It was in a ship be- 
longing to this port that Paul 
embarked, when he was about 
to go from Cesarea to Rome 
as a prisoner. (See Map to 
art. Paul.) 

ADRIA (Acts xxvii. 27) is 
27 



ADU 

low the gulf which lies be- 
tween Italy on one side, and 
the coast of Dalmatia on the 
other. It is called the gulf of 
Venice. In the apostle's time 
it is supposed to have denoted 
the whole breadth of the Me- 
diterranean sea, from Crete to 
Sicily. 

ADRIEL. (SeeMERAB.) 

ADULLAM. (Josh. xv. 35.) 
An ancient and celebrated 
city of Judah, fifteen or twenty 
miles south-west of Jerusa- 
lem. The king of the place 
was slain by Joshua. It was 
fortified by Rehoboam, and 
probably on account of its 
strength was called the glory 
of Israel. (Mic. i. 15.) Near 
this city was a cave, where 
David secreted himself when 
he fled from Achish. The 
cave, which is supposed to be 
the same, was visited by Mr. 
Whiting, an American mis- 
sionary^ April 17, 1835. He 
describes it as uneven, intri- 
cate, and very capacious ; and 
says it is perfectly plain that 
four hundred men might con- 
ceal themselves in the sides 
of the cave, as David's men 
did, and escape observation. 
(1 Sam. xxii. 1. See Map to 
art. Canaan.) 

ADULTERY. (Jer. iii. 9. 
Matt. v. 28.) A crime expressly 
prohibited by the seventh 
commandment, and always 
obnoxious to severe penalties, 
both by divine and human 
laws. The term is often em- 
ployed with great force in the 
Bible, to denote the unfaith- 
fulness and idolatry of the 
people of God, and their vio- 
lation of the most sacred en- 
gagements. 

ADUMMIM. (Josh. xv. 7.) A 
rising ground at the entrance 
of the wilderness of Jericho. 
The name signifies red or 
bloody, in allusion, as it is 
supposed, to the frequent mur- 
ders committed in its vi- 
cinity. There are circum- 



AGA 

stances to show that the scene 
of our Saviour's parable of the 
good Samaritan was laid here, 
(Luke x. 30—36. See Geo- 
graphy of the Bible, by 
the American Sunday-school 
Union, p. 92.) 

ADVOCATE, (llohnii. 1.) 
One that pleads another's 
cause. It is one cf the offi- 
cial titles of Jesus Christ the 
righteous, and its import may 
be learned from John xvii. 
Rom. viii. 34, and Heb. vii.25. 

-&NON. (SeeENON.) 

AFFINITY. (1 Kings iii. 1.) 
Relation by marriage, in con* 
tradistinction from consam 
guinity, which is relation by 
blood or birth. The degrees 
of affinity, or the nearness of 
relationship which should pre- 
vent marriage under the law, 
may be found in Lev. xviii. 
6—17. This subject is regu- 
lated in the United States by 
the laws of the several States. 

AGABUS. (Acts xi. 28.) A 
prophet, who foretold (a. d. 43) 
the famine, which, as profane 
history informs us, took place 
the following year. A few 
years after, (Act3 xxi. 10,) he 
met Paul at Cesarea, and 
warned him of the sufferings 
he would endure if he prose- 
cuted his journey to Jerusa- 
lem. Some have supposed 
that Agabus was one of the 
seventy disciples, and that 
he suffered martyrdom at An- 
tioch. 

AGAG (Num. xx;v. 7) was 
a king of the Amalekites. 
Some think this was the com- 
mon name of their kings, as 
Pharaoh was the common 
name of the kings of Egypt. 
From the allusion to him in 
the prophetic passage above 
cited, we may suppose him to 
have been one ofthe greatest 
kings of the earth. 

Another person of the same 

name was captured by Saul at 

the time the Amalekites were 

destroyed, (1 Sam. xv. 8,) but 

88 



AGR 

his life was spared, and he vf&s 
afterwards brought to Sam- 
uel, who hewed him in pieces, 
(1 Sam. xt. 33 ;) a punish- 
ment not uncommon in other 
places and later times. 

Hammedatha, Hainan's fa- 
ther, is called an Agagite, 
(Esth. iii. 1,) probably because 
he was an Anialekite. 

AGAR or HAGAR. (Gal. iv. 
25.) The history or condition 
of Hagar is used allegorically 
in this passage to illustrate 
the nature of the dispensation 
from Mount Sinai. Mount 
Sinai is called Agar by the 
Arabians. (See Hagar.) 

AGATE. (Exod. xxviii. 19, 
and xxxix. 12.) A precious 
stone, semi-transparent, and 
beautifully variegated. It often 
presents a group of figures dis- 
posed with so much regularity 
as to seem like a work of art; 
such as trees, plants, rivers, 
clouds, buildings, and human 
beings. The name is supposed 
by some to be derived from the 
river Achates in Sicily, where 
the stone was formerly found 
in great abundance. The 
word translated agate (Isa. 
liv. 12. and Ezek. xxvii. 16) 
is supposed to denote the rvhy. 

AGRIPPA. (Acts xxv. 13.) 
Son and successor of Herod 
the persecutor. (Acts xii. 1.) 
Porcius Festus, the successor 
of Felix in the government of 
Judea, came to Cesarea ; and 
while there, Agrippa, (who 
was governor or king of se- 
veral of the eastern provinces 
of the Roman empire) came, 
with his sister Bernice or Be- 
renice, to pay him a visit of 
congratulation upon his ac- 
cession to office. The con- 
versation between them turn- 
ing upon Paul, who was then 
in confinement at Cesarea. 
and whose remarkable history 
must have been very notori- 
ous, Festus stated the whol« 
3* 



AHA 

matter to Agripra, and great* 

ly excited his curiosity to see 
and hear him. 

Festus, to gratify his friends, 
but under the pretence of 
getting from Paul the subject- 
matter of his complaint, that 
he might communicate it to 
the emperor, to whom he had 
appealed, took the judgment- 
seat with great pomp, and 
surrounding himself with the 
chief men of the city, ordered 
Paul to be brought into his 
presence. 

When the devoted apostle 
appeared before them, Festus, 
addressing himself particular- 
ly to Agrippa, assigned the 
reasons for requiring Paul to 
appear at that time, and then 
gave the prisoner an opportu- 
nity to state his own case, 
which he did with unparallel- 
ed force and eloquence. Fes- 
tus could only meet his argu- 
ments with the charge of mad- 
ness: but Agrippa, to whose 
conscience he made an abrupt, 
though not the less respectful 
and irresistible appeal, was 
compelled to make that me- 
morable exclamation, " Al- 
most thou persuadest me to 
be a Christian." Paul closed 
his address by a most affec- 
tionate exhortation to the 
king; the assembly then se- 
parated, and we hear nothing 
more of Agrippa but an ex- 
pression of his resrret (Acts 
xx vi. 32) that the faithful and 
eloquent apostle could not be 
set at liberty. (See Life op 
Paul, by the American Sun- 
day-school Union, ch. xvii.) 
Agrippa died about a. d. 90, 
asred 70 vears. 

^AHAB. 1.(1 Kings xvi. 29.) 
The son of Omri, and hia suc- 
cessor as king of Israel. He 
reigned twenty-two yearn, and 
the" seat of his kingdom was 
at Samaria. He married Je- 
zebel, a Zidonian woman of 
proverbially wicked charac- 
ter. She was a gross idalatar, 
23 



AHA 

and Ahab followed her in all 
her idolatrous practices ; be- 
came at once a worshipper of 
Baal, and even made a grove 
and built an altar for this 
abominable service. At a very 
early period of his history, 
the sacred historian says of 
him, that he did more to pro- 
voke the Lord God of Israel 
to anger than all the kings of 
Israel that were before him. 

He was warned by the pro- 
phet Elijah of approaching 
drought and consequent fa- 
mine", which was very sore in 
Samaria. In the third year 
of the famine, Ahab called 
Obadiah, the governor of his 
house and a godly man, to 
pass through half the land, 
while he would pass through 
the other half, and see if they 
could not collectgrass enough, 
on the margins of fountains 
and brooks, to save their 
horses and mules from pe- 
rishing. 

In the course of his journey, 
Obadiah met Elijah, who had 
been commanded by God to 
show himself to Ahab, and at 
Elijah's request Ahab came to 
meet him. 

When Ahab appeared in 
Elijah's presence, he abruptly 
said to him— Art thou he that 
troubleth Israel ? The pro- 
phet replied by a faithful re- 
buke of the king's idolatry, 
and proposed to demonstrate 
to him that the gods he was 
serving were no gods. To this 
end he persuaded Ahab to 
gather the prophets of Baal, 
whom he worshipped, into 
one company in mount Car- 
mel, and there the folly of 
their idolatry was exposed in 
a most signal manner. (See 
Elijah.) The prophets of 
Baal were all taken and de- 
stroyed at Elijah's command, 
and I efore Ahab could return 
o Samaria there was a great 
rain. 

A.DOUt six years after this, 



AHA 

Benhadad king of Syria, with 
a vast army, besieged Sama- 
ria, but Ahab sallied out upon 
him by surprise ;— cut off a 
large proportion of his army, 
and put to flight the residue ; 
Benhadad himself escaping 
upon a horse. 

The king of Syria, suppos- 
ing that his defeat was owing 
to some advantage of location 
which Ahab's army enjoyed, 
flattered himself that if he 
could go to battle in the plain, 
he should conquer him. Ac- 
cordingly in about a year he 
laid siege to Samaria again 
Of this Ahab had an intima 
tion from the prophet imme 
diately after the former vie 
tory, and he had prepared 
himself accordingly. God 
again gave him the victory, 
and the Syrians lost 100,000 
footmen in one day, besides 
27,000 who were killed by a 
wall which fell upon them at 
Aphek, whither they fled. 
Benhadad was among the 
captives, and after making a 
treaty with the victorious 
Ahab, he went his way. 

Ahab was immediately in- 
formed that he had been guilty 
of a great sin in suffering the 
king of Syria to escape, inas- 
much as he had been deliver- 
ed into his hands by a mar- 
vellous interposition of God ; s 
providence, and his character 
and conduct had been such as 
to mark him for the divine 
displeasure. Besides this, the 
motives of Ahab in making 
the treaty may be regarded as 
ambitious, if not corrupt ; and 
he was therefore informed 
that his own life should go for 
the life of Benhadad, and his 
people for Benhadad's people. 

Heavy and fearful as this 
sentence was, we find the 
wicked king of Israel sinking 
deeper and deeper in guilt. 
Naboth, one of his neighbours, 
had a vineyard, which waa 
situated just by Ahab's palace j 
30 



AHA 

and as it was a convenient 
and desirable spot for him to 
possess, he asked Naboth to 
give it to him, promising at 
the same time to give him a 
better vineyard, or the worth 
of it in money, as he might 
choose. All this seemed very 
fair, but Naboth did not wish 
to part with his vineyard on 
an\ terms. It was the inhe- 
ritance he had received from 
his fathers, and for this and 
other causes its value to him 
was peculiar, and such as 
neither money nor any other 
vineyard in exchange could 
compensate. He therefore de- 
clined the king's proposal. 

Mortified ami disappointed 
by Naboth's refusal, he laid 
down upon his bed, and re- 
fused to eat. Jezebel, his 
wicked wife, inquired the 
cause of his sadness, and as- 
sured him that he might set 
his heart at rest, for he should 
have his desire ; and she 
forthwith commenced a train 
of measures which resulted in 
the murder of Naboth; and 
Ahab then took possession of 
the vineyard. 

But his judgment lingered 
not. E) ijah was sent to charge 
him with the sin to which he 
had been accessary, and to 
forewarn him, not only of his 
own fearful doom, but of the 
certain and utter destruction 
of his posterity : In the place 
where dogs licked the blood of 
Naboth shall dogs lick thy 
blood, even thine. 

Guilty as Ahab was, he had 
not yet lost all sense of sin, 
and when the judgments of 
God were so near him, he 
humbled himself and fasted ; 
and for this he was exempted 
from the punishment in his 
own person, but it was inflict- 
ed on his son. 

The circumstances of Ahab's 
death are deeply interesting 
*nd instructive. He proposed 
to Jehoshaphat king of Judah, 



AHA 

to make war on Ramoth%iIead 
which was in the possession 
of the king of Syria. Jehosha- 
phat expressed his willing- 
ness to join him, but suggested 
the propriety of first inquiring 
what the will of the Lord was 
respecting the enterprise. So 
Ahab summoned his four hun- 
dred false prophets, and they 
all prophesied favourably. 

Jehoshaphat seems to "have 
been suspicious of the cha- 
racter of Ahab's prophets, and 
he therefore inquired if there 
was no prophet of the Lord 
besides them. Ahab referred 
him to Micaiah, expressing at 
the same time his aversion to 
him, because his prophecies 
were always evil. However, 
Micaiah was sent for, and the 
messenger (having probably 
been instructed to that effect 
by Ahab) informed him of 
what had been done, and de- 
sired him to prophesy favour- 
ably, as the other prophets 
had. done. 

When Micaiah came before 
the two kings, who were seat- 
ed each on a throne at the 
entrance of the gate of Sa- 
maria, and all the prophets 
before them, the question was 
proposed to him as it had 
been proposed to the other 
prophets,— Shall we go against 
Kamoth-gilead to battle, or 
shall we forbear 1 The pro- 
phet advised him to go, but 
evidently with such a tone 
and manner as indicated that 
he was not speaking in the 
spirit of prophecy, fie there 
fore solemnly and earnestly 
urged him to tell him nothing 
but the truth, in the name of 
the Lord. Micaiah then dis 
closed to him the Avhole mat 
ter, and showed him, not onlr 
that his enterprise againsi 
Ramoth-gilead w r ould be de- 
feated, but that God had suf- 
fered the prophets who had 
prophesied favourably of it, tc 
be filled with a lying spirit, 
31 



AHA 

that tflfey might lead him on 
to the certain ruin which 
awaited him. 

Ahab sent the faithful pro- 
phet back to Samaria, and 
ordered him to be imprisoned 
till his return from the battle. 
So the infatuated kings of Is- 
rael and Judah, in the face of 
the counsel of the Almighty, 
went up to battle against the 
king of SyriaatRamoth-gilead. 

In order to secure himself 
against the direct aim of the 
enemy, Ahab entered the bat- 
tle in disguise. But a certain 
man drew a bow, as he sup- 
posed, at a venture, yet the 
arrow was directed with un- 
erring aim to the heart of the 
wicked Ahab, and the blood 
flowed out into the chariot, so 
that he died that night. His 
army was scattered,1n literal 
accordance with Micaiah's 
prophecy. His body was car- 
ried to Samaria to be buried, 
and the blood was washed 
from the chariot in the pool 
of Samaria, and the dogs lick- 
ed it as it was foretold. (1 Kings 
xxi. 19.) 

2. (Jer. xxix. 21, 22.) A son 
ofKolaiah, and a false prophet, 
who, with Zedekiah, another 
false prophet, prophesied 
falsely to the children of Is- 
rael, when in captivity at 
Babylon. Jeremiah was com- 
manded to make known to 
them that they should be de- 
livered into the hands of the 
king of Babylon, who would 
slay them; and so dreadful 
would be their end, that there- 
after it should be a form of 
cursing,— The Lord make thee 
like Zedekiah avid like Ahab, 
whom the king of Babylon 
roasted in the fire. This was 
' a common Chaldean punish- 
ment. (Dan. iii. 6.) 

AHASUEKUS. l.(Dan.rx.l.) 
The father o1 Darius the Medi- 
an, and the same with Astyages. 

2. (Ezra iv. 6 ) Supposed to 



AHA 

be the son and successor of 
Cyrus. 

3. (Esth. i. 1.) The husband 
of Esther. Who this king was 
is alike uncertain and unim- 
portant. We are told that he 
reigned from India to Ethiopia, 
over one hundred and twenty- 
seven provinces ; that his 
palace was in Shushan, the 
royal city of Persia, and that 
in the third year of his reign 
he made a splendid feast tor 
his princes, servants, and 
people, which is particularly 
described in Esth. i. 3—8. In 
the height of this magnificent 
entertainment, the king sum- 
moned Vashti his wife into 
the royal presence, that he 
might show his guests her 
great beauty. She declined 
going, and for that cause was 
separated from the king and 
from the royal estate, and was 
succeeded by Esther, the 
cousin and adopted daughter 
of Mordecai, a Jew, who re- 
sided at the palace. 

Haman, the chief officer of 
the king's household, consi- 
dering himself insulted by 
Mordecai, obtained a royal de- 
cree that all the Jews of the 
kingdom should be destroyed. 
Esther, having received intel- 
ligence of this cruel plot, em- 
braced a favourable opportu- 
nity to make it known to the 
king, and implore his protec- 
tion of herself and her peop] e. 
The king could not, indeed, 
reverse the decree, but he 
caused Haman to be hung, 
and Mordecai to be advanced 
to the highest post in the king- 
dom ; and also despatched 
messengers in every direc- 
tion, to Inform the Jews that 
they were at liberty to gather 
themselves together for self- 
defence, and "to destroy all 
that should assault them. 

Availing themselves of the 
royal favour, the Jews were 
not only protected, but were 
32 



AHA 

enabled to slay between 70,000 
and 80,000 of their enemies. 
Ahasuerus reigned forty-eight 
years, and there is reason to 
Delieve that Esther and Mor- 
decai remained in favour with 
him to the end. (Esth. ix. 31, 
and x. 3. See Hadassah, or 
a full life of Esther, published 
by the American Sunday- 
school Union.) 

AHAVA. (Ezra viii. 15.) A 
river in Assyria, where Ezra 
assembled the captives who 
were returning from Judea, 
and where he proclaimed a 
fast. Some have supposed it 
to have been in the country 
called Ava. (2 Kings xvii. 24.) 
Its precise situation is not 
known. 

AHAZ (2Chron. xxviii. 1) 
was the son of Jotham, and at 
the age of twenty succeeded 
him as king of Judah. 

Ahaz gave himself up to 
gross idolatry, and even sacri- 
ficed his own children to the 
gods of the heathen. This 
course of wickedness brought 
upon him, and upon his king- 
dom, severe judgments. They 
suffered under a succession 
of disastrous wars, and their 
allies often proved unfaithful, 
and involved them in great 
distress. Ahaz, at last, aban- 
doned himself to the most 
desperate iniquity, and the 
kingdom of Judah was brought 
low, and made waste, because 
of his great sin. 

Early in his reign (probably 
he second year) the kings of 
Syria and Israel, who, just at 
the close of Jotham' s reign 
and life, had confederated for 
the destruction of Judah, and 
actually invaded the kingdom 
with a powerful and victorious 
army, were about to lay siege 
to Jerusalem. 

At this juncture, God direct- 
ed his prophet Isaiah to take 
his son, Shear-jashub, and go 
to Ahaz, who should be found 
at a particular spot in the 



AHA ^ 

city of Jerusalem, and make 
known to him the counsel of 
the Lord. This favour was 
shown to the wicked king as 
the representative of the house 
of David, and for the people's 
sake with whom God had 
made a covenant. (Isa. vii. 1.) 
Isaiah, having found Aha2 
at the place designated, told 
him that the bounds of the 
invading army were fixed ; 
that their purpose respecting 
Jerusalem would be defeated, 
and that in a limited time the 
kingdoms from which they 
came should be destroyed ; 
and to confirm the prophetic 
testimony, the king was told 
to ask any sisn which would 
satisfy him. rrobably from a 
wicked indifference, but pro- 
fessedly from a better motive, 
he refused to ask a sign ; but 
God saw fit to give him one 
of unerring import : " Be- 
hold," said he, " a virgin shall 
conceive and bear a son, and 
shall call his name I?nma- 
nuel." (Isa. vii. 14. Matt. i. 23. 
Luke i. 31—35.) " Butter and 
honey shall he eat, that he 
may know to refuse the evil 
and choose the good. For 
before the child shall know to 
refuse the evil and choose ths 
good, the land that thou ab- 
horrest shall be forsaken of 
both her kings," Some have 
understood this remarkable 
prophecy to mean that not- 
withstanding the extraordi- 
nary conception and birth of 
the promised child, he shall 
eat butter and honey as other 
children do, and like them 
shall gradually advance from 
one degree of knowledge to 
another ; but before he shall 
have attained that measure 
of discrimination which would 
enable him to choose between 
good and evil, the land of the 
Israelite and the Syrian who 
cause your distress and per 
plexity, shall be forsaken of 
both her kings. Others have 
33 



AHA 

Interpreted the prophecy dif- 
ferently, and receive %he idea 
that che child to whom it re- 
lates should be born in a time 
of war, but before he was two 
or three years old he should 
eat butter and honey, which 
in time of peace were common 
articles of food in Judea, and 
the abundance of which was 
significant of peace and pros- 
perity. 

Again, various opinions exist 
as to the child to which allu- 
sion is made in Tsa. vii. 16; 
some supposing that it denotes 
the boy whom the prophet 
took with him, and others that 
it refers to the child Jesus, as 
in v. 14 ; and that the meaning 
is, that in less time than woulcl 
be required, after the birth of 
the promised Immanuel, for 
him to attain to the capacity 
of distinguishing good from 
evil, (that is, within the space 
oftwooi three years,) the ene- 
mies of Judah should perish. 

We know that -within three 
or four years after the pro- 
phecy was uttered, the kings 
of both Israel and Syria were 
destroyed. (2 Kings xv. 30, 
and xvi. 9.) This was pro- 
bably the primary accom- 
plishment of the prophecy, but 
it received its far more strik- 
ing and literal fulfilment in 
the birth of Immanuel ; for 
Herod the Great was the last 
who could be called the king 
either of Judah or Israel, and, 
though he lived till Immanuel 
was born, he died while he was 
yet an infant ; and then, Shi- 
Joh being come, the sceptre 
departed finally from Judah, 
as it had long before departed 
from Israel. (Gen. xlix. 10.) 

Though Ahaz and his king- 
dom were thus saved from the 
hands of the Syrians and Is- 
raelites, he had warning of 
the ternble iudgments which 
were ia sto^e. for him because 
of hl« fcM* T '■ but neither 
merer noi >adgi?ent could 



AHA 

divert him from the wicked 
purposes of his heart. 

He sent ambassadors to 
Tiglath-pileser king of Assy- 
ria, and made him a magnifi- 
cent present of all the gold 
and silver of the temple, which 
he collected for that purpose, 
and besought his assistance 
against the Syrians, who still 
harassed him. In compli- 
ance with his wishes, the king 
of Assyria besieged Damascus, 
and took it, and slew the king 
Ahaz went thither to congra- 
tulate Tiglath-pileser on his 
victory, and to thank him for 
his seasonable aid ; and there 
he saw an altar, the fashion 
of which particularly pleased 
him, and he ordered one to be 
made and put up in the stead 
of God's altar, which he re- 
moved into an obscure place. 
Here he sacrificed to the gods 
of Damascus, saying, " Be- 
cause the gods of the kings 
of Syria help them, therefore 
will I sacrifice to them thai 
they may help me ; but they 
were the ruin of him and of 
all Israel," says the sacred 
historian. 

So greedy was this aban- 
doned man to commit iniquity, 
that he wantonly mutilated 
and abused the furniture of 
the temple ; broke the vessels 
in pieces ; made him altars in 
every corner of Jerusalem, 
and seemed resolved to show 
how utterly reckless he was 
of the consequences of sin. 

Hi.s purposes were cut off, 
however, and he was taken 
away in his iniquity at the 
early age of thirty-six, and 
was succeeded by his son 
Hezekiah. (2Chron.xviii.27.) 

Though he was buried in 
the city of Jerusalem, his body 
was not admitted to the sepul- 
chres of the kings, but was 
treated with^ ignominy, as 
were the bodies of Jehoram 
and Joash before him. 

AHAZIAH, 1. (1 Kings xxii 
34 



AHA 

40,) was the son and successor 
of Ahab kiug of Israel. So 
wicked was tie, that when Je- 
hoshaptiat king of Judah had 
joined with him to build a fleet 
at Ezion-geber for the Tar- 
shish trade, God sent his pro- 
phet to tell him, that because 
of his alliance with Ahaziah, 
even in this (secular enter- 
prise, his fleet should be de- 
stroyed ; and the ships were 
accordingly shattered to pieces 
by the winds. 

Ahaziah had a fall in his 
house at Samaria, which oc- 
casioned a fit of sickness, and 
he sent to an idol god, at Ek- 
ron, to inquire if he~should re- 
cover. His messengers were 
met by the prophet Elijah, 
who informed thsm that Aha- 
ziah's sickness would be fatal. 
They returned, and made the 
occurrence known to the 
king, who, supposing from the 
description, that Elijah was 
the man they met, forthwith 
sent an officer and fifty men 
to seize him. The prophet 
was sitting on the brow of a 
hill when the officer approach- 
ed and announced the king's 
summons. At the prayer of 
Eliiah, the officer and his men 
we.re instantly consumed by 
fire from heaven. The same 
doom came upon a second 
officer ani his party of fifty 
men. The ;iiira officer fell 
on his knees before Elijah, 
and oesougnt him to spare his 
life ana the lives of his men. 
At an intimation from God, 
Eliiah went down with them 
and told the king in person 
that he should not recover; 
and he soon after died, and 
Jehoram his brother succeed- 
ed him. 

2. (2 Kings viii. 25.) Called 
«&so Azariah, (2 Chron. xxii. 
tf,) was a son of Jehoram and 
Athaliah, and at the age of 
twenty-two succeeded his fa- 
ther as king of Judah- though 
»n 2 Chron. xxii. 2, it is said 



AHI 

he was forty-two years old 
when he began to reign. 

Joram th~e king of Israel 
was wounded in a battle with 
the king of Syria at Rainoth- 
gilead, and was carried ta 
Jezreel to be healed. There 
Ahaziah visited him, and 
Jehu, who was left to sustain 
the siege, (and who was in the 
mean time anointed king over 
Israel,) came down to Jezreel 
to execute the judgment of 
the Lord upon Jorarii the son 
of Ahab, and the representa- 
tive of the house of Ahab. 

As soon as his approach 
was announced by the watch- 
man, Joram and Ahaziah went 
out, each in his chariot, to 
meet him. And they met in 
the portion of Naboth, with 
which one of Ahab's daring 
crimes was so closely asso- 
ciated. (See Ahab.) Jehu re. 
minded Joram of the iniqui- 
ties of his house, and he, 
suspecting treachery, warned 
Ahaziah to flee. Jehu then 
smote Joram (or Jehoram, as 
he is called, 2 Kings ix. 24,) 
through the heart with an 
arrow. He pursued and slew 
Ahaziah also, though he had 
strength to reach Megiddo, 
where he died, and was car- 
ried thence to Jerusalem, and 
buried, from respect to the 
memory of Jehoshaphat his 
ancestor. (See Jehu.) In 
2 Chron. xxii. the circum- 
stances of the death of Aha- 
ziah are stated differently, but 
the variation is not substan- 
tial, and therefore requires no 
particular notice. 

AHIAH. 1. (1 Kings iv. 3.) 
The son of Shisha, one of 
Solomon's scribes or secreta- 
ries. 

2. (I Sam.xiv. 3. 18.) Sup- 
posed by some to be the same 
with Ahimelech, (1 Sam. xxi. 
1,) was the son of Ahitub, and 
his successor in the priest's- 
office. (See Ahimelech and 
Ahitub.) 

35 



AHI 

3. (1 Chron. viii. 7.) A de- 
scendant of Benjamin. 
AHIJAH. (1 Kings xi. 29.) A 

§rophet of God who lived at 
hiloh. For the most inte- 
resting and important trans- 
actions with which Ahijah was 
connected, see Jeroboam. He 
lived to a great age. (1 Kings 
xiv. 4.) 

AHIKAM. (2 Kings xxii. 12.) i 
A son of Shaphan, and the 
father of Gedaliah, was one of 
those whom Josiah sent to 
Huldah, the prophetess, to in- 
quire of her concerning the 
book of the law which had 
been found in the temple. 
His influence was of great 
service to the prophet Jere- 
miah. (Jer. xxvi. 24. See Life 
of Jeremiah, by the Ame- 
rican Sunday-School Union, 
«h. vi.) 

AHIMAAZ. (1 Sam. xiv. 50.) 
Son and successor of Zadok 
the priest. 

During the revolt of Absa- 
lom, Zadok, and Abiathar, 
another of the priests, stayed 
in Jerusalem with Hushai, 
David's friend; while Ahimaaz 
and another young man, (son 
of Abiathar,) whose name 
was Jonathan, stationed them- 
selves at Enrogel, a short dis- 
tance from the city; and it 
was agreed that whatever 
Hushaf should hear respect- 
ing Absalom's plans he should 
communicate to Zadok and 
Abiathar, and they to their 
sons Ahimaaz and Jonathan, 
by whom the intelligence 
Should be communicated to 
David. 

As soon as Absalom had re- 
jected the counsel of Ahithd- 
phel, and adopted that of Hu- 
shai, Zadok and Abiathar were 
promptly informed of it, and 
directed to send with all pos- 
sible haste to David. But 
(perhaps to avoid suspicion) 
the message was sent by a 
female. The transaction was 
seen by a lad, who went im- 



AHI 

mediately and informed Ad- 
salom. 

Ahimaaz and his companion 
set off at once, however, and 
when they came to Bahurim, 
the site of which is now un- 
certain, they concealed them- 
selves in a well, to escape the 
observation of their pursuers. 
The woman of the house near 
which they were concealed 
covered the mouth of the well 
with a blanket, on which slw 
spread corn to dry ; and when 
Absalom's messengers came 
up in the pursuit, and inquired 
where they were, she deceived 
them, and told them that the 
young men were in great 
haste, and had passed on. 
Thus they escaped, and, wliifcp 
their pursuers returned to 
Jerusalem, they hastened to 
David with their message. 

At his own urgent request, 
Ahimaaz was employed to 
carry the intelligence of Ab- 
salom's death to David his 
father. He outran Cushi, who 
had been previously despatch- 
ed on the same errand. Be- 
fore he had delivered his 
message,however,Cushi came 
up, and made known the sad 
event. The whole history of 
the transaction, as recorded, 
(2 Sam. xviii. 19-33,) is of 
thrilling interest, but it would 
be out of place here. (See 
David.) 

AHTMELECH (1 Sam. xxi. 
1) is supposed by some to be 
the same with Ahiah ; but 
others suppose Ahiah to have 
been the son of Ahitub, and 
his successor in the priest- 
hood, and Ahimelech to have 
been his brother and successor 
in the same office. It is im- 
material which of these opi 
nions is correct. David, ir 
h's flight from Saul, came tc 
Nob, where Ahimelech the 

Eriest dwelt. He represented 
imself to be in great haste 
on the king's urgent business 
and by this means obtained 
36 



AHI 

from Ahimelexh some of the 
hallowed bread, and also the 
sword of Goliath, which was 
preserved among the sacred 
things. 

Doeg, the Edomite, a prin- 
cipal servant of Saul, who 
happened to be at Nob, and to 
be a witness of the interview 
between David and Ahime- 
lech, told Saul of the matter, 
who immediately summoned 
Ahimelech and all the priests 
that were with him (eighty-five 
persons) into his presence. 
He charged them with a con- 
spiracy in aiding and abetting 
his enemy : and they replied 
by declaring their ignorance 
of any hostile views, on the 
part of David, towards Saul, 
or his kingdom. This de- 
fence (sufficient as it surely 
was) availed them nothing, 
however ; and the king com- 
manded his guard to slay 
them. The guard declining 
to lay violent hands on the 
priests of the Lord, the king 
commanded Doeg to fall upon 
them, and he did, and smote 
them, and also the city of Nob 
where they dwelt, and all the 
men, women, and children, as 
well as all the beasts which 
were found there. Abiathar, 
Ahimeleclrs son, was the only 
one who escaped, and he fled 
with an ephod in his hand, to 
David. (See Abiathar.) 

AHINOAM. 1.(1 Sam. xiv. 
50.) The daughter of Ahimaaz 
and the wife of Saul. 

2. (1 Sam. xxv. 43.) A woman 
of Jezreel and one of David's 
wives. She was taken captive 
by the Amalekites in the siege 
of Ziklag, and afterwards res- 
cued from captivity by David. 
(ISam. xxx. 13.) 

AHIO. (2 Sam. vi. 3.) A son 
of Abinadab, who, with his 
brother Uzzah, was intrusted 
by David with the transporta- 
tion of the ark from Xirjath- 
iearim to Jerusalem. (See 

I JZZA If.) 



Al 

AHITHOPHEL. (2 Sam. xv. 
12.) A native of Giloh, and 
the familiar friend, compa- 
nion, and counsellor of David. 
(IChron. xxvii. 33. Ps. lv. 
12—14.) He was indeed one 
of the most eminent counsel- 
lors of the age. (2 Sam. xvi. 23.) 

Absalom persuaded him to 
join in the conspiracy against 
his father David ; but the cun- ' 
ning measures which Ahitho- 
phel proposed for the accom- 
plishment of Absalom's ambi- 
tious plans, were all defeated 
by the counsel of Hushai. 
Ahithophel, seeing that the 
probable issue would be the 
utter ruin of Absalom and his 
cause, which would almost 
necessarily involve his own 
destruction, returned to Giloh, 
and deliberately hung him- 
self. 

AHITUB. 1. (1 Sam. xiv. 3.) 
The son of Phinehas, and 
grandson of Eli. Some sup- 
pose that he succeeded Eli in 
the priesthood. (See Ahime- 
lech.) 

2. The name of Zadok's fa- 
ther. (1 Chron. vi. 8.) 

AHOLIAB. (Ex. xxxv. '34.), 
Son of Ahisamach, of tha tribe 
of Dan, who, with B^aaleel, 
was divinely appointed to con 
struct the tabernacle and its 
furniture. 

AHOLIBAH and AHOLA& 
(Ezek. xxiii. 4.) Symbolical 
names for Judah. and Samaria. 

AHUZZATH. (Gen, xxvi. 
26.) A particular friend of Abi- 
melech. king of Gerar, and one 
of those who attended him 
when he met Isaac, and made 
a treaty with him at Beersheba. 

AI, (Josh. vii. 2,) called also 
Aiath, (Isa. x. 28,) and Aija, 
(Neh. xi. 31,) was an elevated 
spot east of Bethel ; the scene 
of Joshua's defeat, and after- 
wards of his victory. (Josh, 
viii. See Joshua. See also 
Geography of the Bible, 
by the American Sunday 
school Union, p. 142. 
37 



ALA 

AIN. (Josh. xv. 32.) Origin- 
ally a city of the tribe ofju- 
dan, but afterwards allotted to 
the tribe of Simeon. (1 Chron. 
iv. 32.) It is supposed to have 
been near Hebron. 

AJALON. 1. (Josh. x. 12.) A 
village of Canaan, situated in 
the tribe of Dan, between Je- 
rusalem and Ekron. In the 
vicinity of Ajalon is the valley 
of the same name, memorable 
for the miracle of Joshua. 
(See Joshua.) 

2. (Josh. xix. 42.) A town in 
the country of Zebulon, where 
Elon was buried. Its site is 
now unknown. 

3. (2 Chron. xxviii. 18.) A 
city in the south of Judah, 
captured by the Philistines. 

AKRABBIM, ascent of, 
(Num. xxxiv. 4,) or Maalen- 
Acrabbim, (Josh. xv. 3,) was a 
range of hills on the southern 
border of Judah towards the 

'Deed Sea. Its name is sup- 
posed to denote that it was 
infested with scorpions. 
ALABASTER. (Matt. xxvi. 

' 7.) A fossil, of which there are 
several varieties. It is a bright 
and elegant substance, sus- 
ceptible of a fine polish, and 
so easily wrought that it is 
made into vessels of every 
form. The druggists in Egypt 
use it at the present day for 
the purpose of keeping medi- 
cines and perfumes. Theo- 
critus, an ancient profane 
historian, speaks of gilded 
alabasters of Syriac ointment. 
The phrase " she brake the 
box," used Mark xiv. 3, is sup- 
posed to mean that she opened 
or unsealed the vessel, as we 
say familiarly, "to break a 
bottle," when we mean to 
open it by drawing the cork. 
It was the custom in the east 
xhen, as it is now all over the 
world, to- seal with wax any 
thing from which it is desira- 
ble to keep the air, and this is 
especially necessary for the 
preservation of previous per- 



ALE 

fumes and ointments. The 
breaking of the wax would 
be naturally denoted by the 
form of expression used in 
the sacred text. 

ALEXANDER. 1. (Mark xv. 
21.) The son of Simon tho 
Cyrenian. 

2. (Acts iv. 6.) A distin. 
guished Jew, who, with others, 
took part against Peter and 
John. 

3. (Acts xix. 33.) A Jew of 
Ephesus, who took a conspi- 
cuous part in the controversy 
between Paul and the popu- 
lace of that city, and attempt- 
ed, without success, to quell 
the commotion. 

4. (1 Tim. i. 19, 20, and 2 Tim. 
iv. 14.) A coppersmith antf 
apostate from Christianity, 
whom Paul mentions in term* 
of severe reproach. 

ALEXANDRLA (ActsxviiL 
24; xxvii- 6.) A celebrated 
city of Egypt, founded by 
Alexander the Great, about 
e.c. 333. It was situated o& 
a strip of land on the southern 
coast of the Mediterranean T 
and between that and the lake 
Mareotis, rather south of the 
present city of the same name. 
Ancient Alexandria was at 
one time the centre of scien- 
tific knowledge ; the rival of 
Rome in size, and the first 
commercial city of the earth. 
Historians tell us that its free 
population exceeded 300,000, 
and an equal number of 
slaves. Its ancient magnifi- 
cence may be known from 
the ruins of spacious streets 
two thousand feet broad, and 
the fragments of colonnades, 
obelisks, and temples. After 
Alexander's death it became 
the regal capital of Egypt, 
and was the residence oT the 
Ptolemies for two hundred 
years. They enriched it with 
numerous elegant edifices, and 
furnished it with a 1 ibrary of 
700,000 volumes, which was 
burnt by the Saracens in the 
38 



AL1 

seventh century. From the 
days of the apostles to the 
Saracen invasion, Alexandria 
was under the dominion of 
Rome, and as it afforded an 
extensive market for grain, 
the centurion who had charge 
of Paul on his way as a pri- 
soner to Rome, readily "found 
a ship of Alexandria, laden 
with corn, sailing into Italy." 
Some of the persecutors of 
Stephen were from this city, 
and so was the eloquent Apol- 
los. Here also lived Clement, 
Origen, and Arms, the founder 
of the sect of Arians. And 
here, too, was the Greek or 
Alexandrian version of the 
Bible made by seventy-two 
learned Jews, and hence call- 
ed the Septuagint, or version 
by the seventy. (See Scrip- 
tures.) 

Modern Alexandria is built 
©f the ruins of the ancient 
city. It contains a population 
of 15,000 souls, and is merely 
the port of Cairo, where ves- 
sels touch, and exchanges of 
merchandise are made. It is 
one hundred and twenty-five 
miles north-west of Oairo, 
and is the residence of many 
European merchants and fac- 
tors. 

ALEXANDRIANS. (Acts vi. 
9.) Jews from Alexandria, who 
were present at Jerusalem 
when Stephen preached there, 
and where they had a syna- 
gogue by themselves. Per- 
haps the Libertines and Cyre- 
nians worshipped with them, 
or each sect or school might 
have had separate synagogues. 
In either case they are pro- 
perly described as being cer- 
tain of the synagogue which is 
called the synagogue of the 
Alexandrians, &c. 

ALGUM. (See Almug.) 

ALIEN. (Ex. xviii. 3.) A fo- 
reigner or person born in an- 
other country, and not having 
the usual rights and privileges 



ALM 
of the citizens of the country 
in which he lives. The force 
of the figure (Eph. ii. 12) is 
sufficiently obvious. 

ALLEGORY. (Gal. iv. 24.) 
A figure of speech, nearly re 
sembling the parable or fable, 
commou in the Scriptures 
and among all oriental na- 
tions. It personifies irrational 
and inanimate objects or mo- 
ral qualities, and enforces or 
illustrates truth by their con- 
duct or by a supposed conver- 
sation between them. Bun- 
yan's Pilgrim's Progress is a 
continued allegory : so also 
are our Saviour's discourses 
concerning the vine (John xv.) 
and the shepherd. (John x.) 

ALLELUIA, (Rev. xix. 1,) 
or HALLELUJAH, a Hebrew 
word signifying Praise ye the 
Lord. It was a common excla- 
mation of joy and praise in the 
Jewish worship, and begins 
and concludes several of the 
Psalms, as cvi. cxi. cxiii. cxvii. 
and cxxxv. 

ALMOND. (Gen.xliii. 11.) A 
well known fruit, and among 
the best that Canaan pro- 
duced. The leaves and blos- 
soms of the almond tree re- 
semble those of the peach 
tree, and it is remarkable for 
its early maturity. A modern 
traveller states that it flowers 
in January and gives its fruit 
in April. The fruit is en- 
closed in a tough shell, and 
this again within a horny 
husk, which opens of itself 
when the fruit is ripe. It is 
cultivated with great care at 
the present day in England 
for its early and beautiful 
flowers, and in the south of 
Europe for exportation. Four 
hundred and fifty tons are an- 
nually imported into Great 
Britain alone, paying a duty 
of $80,000. It blossoms on 
the bare branches, and hence 
the striking allusion of the 
poeti- 
se 



ALO- 

The hope, in Jreams of a happier hour, 
That alights on misery's brow ; 

Springs out of the silvery almond flower 
That blooms on a leafless bough. 

The original word from which 
almond is derived, means to 
make haste, or awake early, 
denoting its hasty growth and 
early maturity. Hence the 
allusion in Jer. i. 12 is to the 
haste with which God would 
send his judgments, or the 
vigilance with which he 
watched over his word to 
fulfil it. So the chiefs of the 
tribes had almond rods, em- 
blematical of the vigilance 
which became them as the 
leaders of God's chosen peo- 

J)le. (Num. xvii. 6—8.) In 
Sccl. xii. 5, an allusion is 
made to the white silvery hair 
which covers the head in old 
age, and which, if found in the 
way of righteousness, is a 
crown of glory. (Prov. xvi. 
31. For engraving see Na- 
tural History of the Bi- 
ble, by the American Sunday- 
SchoolUnion,article Almond.) 

ALMS, ALMS-DEEDS. 
(Matt. vi. 1. Acts ix. 36.) 
Deeds of charity, or (Luke xi. 
41) the thing given in charity. 
The giving of alms is an im- 
portant duty enjoined by the 
Scriptures, and the manner 
of it is prescribed with great 
precision. (See Acts x. 2-4, and 
the Dassasres already cited.) 

ALMUG" TREES; (1 Kings 
x. 11,) or ALGUM TREES. (2 
Chron. ii. 8.) One of the kinds 
of timber which Solomon or- 
dered from Tyre for the build- 
ing.of the temple. Jewish his- 
torians describe it as a fine, 
white, glossy wood, and used 
for musical instruments, and 
the ornamental work of the 
temple. Dr. Shaw supposes it 
to have been what we call the 
cypress, which is still used 
for harpsichords, and other 
strineed instruments. 

ALOES. (Sol. Song iv. 14.) 



ALP 

A plant with broad thick 
prickly leaves. The juice of 
this plant, when boiled, pro- 
duces the medicinal article 
called aloes ; and it was also 
used in embalming. (John xix. 
39.) The Cape of Good Hope 
and the islands of Sumatra 
and Ceylon furnish many va« 
rieties. The aloes which is 
cultivated in this country as 
an ornamental plant, is of a 
very different species from the 
medicinal aloes. 

The wood of the aloe tree is 
called lign-aloe. (Num. xxiv. 
6.) The smell of it is very 
fragrant, and the wood of 
some species is worth more 
than its weight in gold. Be- 
sides its use as a strong per- 
fume, it was employed for fine 
cabinet and ornamental work. 

ALPHA. (Rev. i. 8; xxi. 6, 
and xxii. 13.) The name of the 
first letter of the Greek alpha- 
bet. " / am Alpha and Omega, 
the beginning and the end, the 
first and the last" is the ex- 
pressive language employed 
by our Saviour in reference to 
himself. The phrase among 
the Jews to denote from first 
to Utst was, " from Aleph to 
Tau," which are the namea 
of the first and last letters of 
the Hebrew alphabet. The 
expressions in the passages 
cited denote the eternity and 
perfection of the being to 
whom they are applied, and 
their force will appear by 
comparing them with Isa. xli. 
4 ; xliv. 6, and xiviii. 12. 

ALPHEUS. 1. (Matt. x. 3 
Mark iii. 18. Luke vi. 15, and 
Acts i. 13.) The father of the 
apostle James. 2. (Mark ii. 
14.) The father of Levi, or 
Matthew, as he is called. 
(Matt. ix. 9.) Many suppose 
that Alpheus was the same 
person as Cleopas, who is 
mentioned (John xix. 25) as 
the husband of Mary the sis- 
ter of our Lord's mother, and 
40 



ALT 

that hence James, his son, is 
called our Lord's* brother. 
(Compare Matt. xiii. 55, and 
xxvii. 56, and Mark vi. 3, and 
Lu.xxiv.10. SeeJAMES,JosES.) 

ALTAR. (Gen. viii. 20.) A 
structure appropriated exclu- 
sively to the offering of sacri- 
fices, under the Jewish law. 
(See Sacrifices.) Though 
sacrifices were offered before 
the flood, the word altar does 
not occur until the time of 
Noah's departure from the 
ark. 

Altars were of various forms, 
and at first very rude in their 
construction, being nothing 
more, probably, than a square 
heap of stones, or mound of 
earth. The altar on which 
Jacob made an offering at 
Bethel, was the single stone 
which had served him for a 
pillow during the night. (Gen. 
xxviii. 18.) "The altar which 
Moses was commanded to 
build, (Ex. xx. 24.) was to be 
made of earth. If made of 
stone, it was expressly re- 
quired to be rough, the use of 
a tool being regarded as pol- 
luting. (Ex. xx. 25.) It was 
also to be without steps. (Ex. 
xx. 26. See also Deut. xxvii. 
2—6, and Josh. viii. 31.) 

Ajnong the ancient Egyptian 
pictures lately discovered in 
the ruins of Herculaneum, we 
have models of the altar. 




Figure 1 is a side view, and 

figure 2 is an angular view. 

The structures are different, 

as well as the apparent orna- 

4* 



ALT 

ments and uses. On both, 
however, we observe a projec- 
tion upward at each corner, 
which represents the true 
figure of the horns. (Ex. 
xxvii. 2. 1 Kings ii. 28. Rev. 
ix. 13.) They were probably 
used to confine the victim. 
(Ps. cxviii. 27.) 

The altars required in the 
Jewish worship were, (1.) The 
altar of burnt-offering, or the 
brazen altar, in the' taber- 
nacle in the wilderness ; this 
altar stood directly in front 
of the principal entrance, as 
seen in the figure under the 
article Tabernacle. ■ 

It was made of shittim wood, 
seven feet and six inches 
square, and four feet and six 
inches high. It was hollow, 
and covered or overlaid with 
plates of brass. The horns 
(of which there was one on 
each corner) were of wood, 
and overlaid in the same way. 
A grate or net work of brass 
was also attached to it, either 
to hold the fire or to support a 
hearth of earth. (Biblical An- 
tiquities, by the American 
Sunday-School Union, vol. ii. 
ch. ii.) The furniture of the al 
tar was all of brass, and con- 
sisted of such articles as a sho- 
vel to remove the ashes from 
the altar, and a pan to receive 
them; the skins or vessels for 
receiving the blood of the vic- 
tims, and hooks for turning the 
sacrifice. At each corner was 
a brass ring, and there were 
also two staves or rods over- 
laid with brass which passed 
through these rings, and serv- 
ed for carrying the altar from 
place to place. 

The fire used on this altar 
was perpetually maintained- 
It was kindled miraculously, 
and the flame was cherished 
with the most devoted care. 
It was also a place of constant 
sacrifice : fresh blood was 
shed upon it continually, and 
the smoke of the burning sa- 
41 



ALT 



v ;\\\\v\\\.vv^>V^^ s ^ :? 



ALT 




crifice ascended up towards 
££?en without interruption 

In the first temple, (which 
m its general plan was con- 
structed after the pattern of 
the tabernacle in * e * ll °£ d 
np „ that being a tent ana 
?h e fs S, ahou S e,)^e a tar of 
burnt-offering stood in _ the 

larger, however, being thirty 



feet square and fifteen feet 
high; its particular plan be_ 
in? appointed expressly by 
Svine authority. (1 Chron. 
SJSl 11-20.) And in the 
second temple it occupied Ae 
same position, though it was 
still larger and more beautiful 
than inlhe first. 

2 The altar of incense, ,of 
the golden altar, stood within 
SI foly place, and near to the 



AMA 

nmost veil. (Ex. xxx. 1-6.) It 
was made of the same wood 
with the brazen altar, and 
was eighteen inches square, 
and three feet high. The top, 
as well as the sides and horns, 
was overlaid with pure gold, 
and it was finished around the 
upper surface with a crown or 
border of gold. Just below 
this border four golden rings 
were attached to each side of 
the altar, one near each cor- 
ner. The staves or rods 
for bearing the altar passed 
through these rings, and were 
made of the same wood with 
the altar itself, and richly 
overlaid with the same pre- 
cious metal. 

Upon this altar incense was 
burnt every morning and 
every evening, (see Incense,) 
so that it was literally per- 
petual. (Ex. xxx. 8.) Neither 
burnt-sacrifice , nor meat-offer- 
ing, nor drink-offering, were 
permitted upon this altar; nor 
was it ever stained with blood, 
except once annually, when 
the priest made atonement. 
(Lev. xvi. IS, 19.) 

AMALEK. (Gen. xxxvi. 16.) 
He was the son of Eliphaz, 
and grandson of Esau. Some 
have supposed him to be the 
father of the Amalekites, but 
they are mentioned as a pow- 
erful people long before the 
birth of Amalek. (Gen. xiv. 7.) 
The Arabians have a tradition 
that he was the son of Han. 

AMALEKITES. (1 Sam. xv. 
6.) A powerful people, but of 
uncertain origin and resi- 
dence. They are called (Num. 
xxiv. 20) the first of all 
the nations. They were sig- 
nally defeated in a contest 
with the children of Israel 
at Rephidim ; and for their 
guilt in opposing the progress 
of God ? s people, they became 
objects of his terrible judg- 
ments. They were afterwards 
defeated and repulsed by 
Gideon, (Judg. vii. 12,) and j 



AMA 

by Saul, (1 Sam. xv.) and by 
David, (1 Sam. xxx.;) till at 
last the word of the Lord was 
fulfilled to the very letter, and 
their name was blotted from 
the earth. (1 Sam. xxx. 17, 
and 1 Chron. iv. 43.) 

AMANA. (Sol. Song iv. 8.) 
A southern peak of one of the 
mountains of Lebanon; pro- 
bably so called from a river 
of that name which flowed 
from it. 

AMASA. (1 Chron. ii. 17.) 
A son of Jether, who is else- 
where called Ithra. (2 Sam. 
xvii. 25.) Absalom placed him 
at the head of his troops in 
the rebellion against his father 
David ; but he was defeated by 
his cousin Joab. Afterwards, 
David recognising the rela- 
tionship between them, not 
only pardoned Amasa, but 
made him captain of his host 
in the room of Joab. 

On the revolt of Sheba, Da- 
vid required Amasa to assem- 
ble the people within three 
days, and march with them to 
suppress it; but in conse- 
quence of his delay, the king 
despatched Abishai with such 
an army as could be mustered 
at the moment, and together 
with Joab they pursued after 
Sheba. At a particular place 
in Gibeon ? Amasa joined them. 
The envious and mortified 
Joab approached to salute 
him, and seized the oppor- 
tunity to give him a deadly 
wound. 

AMASAI. (1 Chron. vi. 25.) 
A Levite, and one of the sons 
of Elkanah. He was chief of 
a gallant party that came to 
David, when he was flying 
from Saul. (1 Chron. xii. 16— 
18.) David gladly availed him- 
self of their aid, and gave them 
commissions in his army. 

AMAZIAH, (2 Kings xiv. 1- 
20,) the eighth king of Judah, 
was son and successor of Je- 
hoash. He commenced his 
rebin in the twenty-fifth yeal 
43 



AMA 
of his age. His character is 
peculiarly described. He did 
that which was right in the 
sight of the Lord, but not with 
a perfect heart. (2 Chron. 
xxv. 2. 2 Kings xiv. 3.) 

At the commencement of his 
reign, he showed an outward 
regard to the law of the Lord; 
out power and ambition turn- 
ed his heart; he fell into a 
snare, and was destroyed by 
the hand of violence. 

Amaziah resolved to make 
war upon the Edomites, who 
had revolted from the king- 
dom of Judah several years 
before, (2 Kings viii. 20 ;) and 
for this purpose he raised an 
army of 300,000 men from 
among his own subjects, and 
hired 100,000 men of Israel, 
for whose services he paid 
$150,000. . Before he com- 
menced the expedition, how- 
ever, he was directed by di- 
vine authority to dismiss his 
hired soldiers, and was told 
that if he did not, he should 
certainly fall before his ene- 
mies. After some hesitation 
he dismissed the Israelitish 
army, and sent them home. 

Amaziah met the Edomites 
in a place called the Valley 
of Salt, and gained a signal 
victory over them, slaying 
10,000, and taking 10,000 pri- 
soners. Elated by his success, 
and forgetful of the God of 
battles who had given him the 
victory, he took the idols 
which his vanquished enemy 
had worshipped, and set them 
up as his own gods. The 
anger of the Almighty was 
kindled against him, and he 
sent a message to him, the 
very terms of which exposed 
and rebuked his sin. (2 Chrcn. 
xxv. 15.) The king was al- 
ready hardened enough to 
quesiion the authority of God's 
messenger, and even to 
threaten him with death. He 
was warned of the destruc- 
tion he would bring upon 



AMB 
himself for his idolatry and 
unbelief. 

Thus given up to follow his 
own devices, he sought occa- 
sion of war with the king of 
Israel. The answer of the 
king to the challenge was 
given in the form of a fable, 
but was expressive of the ut- 
most contempt, and contained 
at the same time a severe re- 
buke to the king of Judah for 
his pride and vain-glory. 

Amaziah was not to be de- 
terred from his purpose ; and 
he met the army of Israel al 
Beth-shemesh in Judea, and it 
is said by Jewish historians, 
that the army of Judah was 
suddenly seized with a panic, 
and fled before Israel without 
a blow on either side. Ama- 
ziah, however, was taken pri- 
soner by the king of Israel, 
who forthwith proceeded to 
break down a section of the 
city wall six hundred feet in 
length, and marched through 
the breach; plundered the 
temple of its gold and silver 
vessels ; seized the king's 
treasures, and taking such 
hostages as he pleased, re- 
turned in triumph to Samaria, 
leaving the king of Judah to 
reflect on the folly and mad- 
ness of rejecting the counsel 
and disobeying the command 
of God. (2 Kings xiv.) About 
fifteen years after this dis- 
graceful defeat, Amaziah fled 
from Jerusalem to Lachish to 
escape a conspiracy ; but he 
was followed to the place to 
which he fled, and put to 
death, and his body taken 
back to Jerusalem, and buried 
with his fathers. (See Amos.) 

AMBASSADOR. (Isa. xxxiii. 
7.) A person appointed tc 
some business in a foreign 
country, in the transaction of 
which he represents the go- 
vernment that appoints him. 
(2Chron.xxxii.31.) The word 
is figuratively used (2 Cor. v. 
18—20) to denote those who 
41 



A ME 

are sent forth, by divine au- 
thority, to proclaim the terms 
of pardon and eternal life to 
the rebellious and condemned 
subiects of God's government. 

AMBAS3AGE. (Luke xiv. 
32.) A public message. The 
term may include the mes 
senger or ambassador as well 
as his message. 

AMBER. (Ezek. i. 4, 27, and 
viii. 2.) A beautiful bitumi- 
nous substance, susceptible 
of a fine polish, and present- 
ing several colours, though 
chiefly yellow and orange. It 
is found in Prussia and near 
the shores of the Baltic Sea. 
In the passages cited, the al- 
lusion is simply to the colour 
of amber and does not imply 
that it is indestructible by 
fire. 

AMEN. (Deut. xxvii. 15.) 
This word, though variously 
psed, has substantially the 
same meaning. It is an af- 
firmative response, and is 
used to denote assent, or en- 
tire acquiescence. (Deut.xxvii. 
15—26.) It is sometimes trans- 
lated verily, and was fre- 
puently used by our Saviour 
when he was about to utter 
some distinct, important, and 
solemn truth. Its repetition, 
" verily, verily, I say unto 
you," strengthens the asser- 
tion. 

It was the custom among 
the early Christians for all 
the worshippers to say amen 
about the close of the prayer, 
or at the giving of thanks. 
(1 Cor. xiv. 16.) And Jewish 
writers say, "there is nothing 
greater in the sight of God 
Chan the amen with which 
the Israelite answers." The 
promises of God are amen, 
because they are made sure 
and certain in Christ. (2 Cor. 
i. 20.) Amen is one of the titles 
of our blessed Saviour, (Rev. 
iii. 14,) as he is the faithful and 
true witness. Amen and amen 
"re the eloquent and sublime 



A MM 

conclusion of one of David's 
triumphant songs. (Ps. xli. 13.) 

AMETHYST. (Exod. xxxix. 
12.) One of the most valuable 
of the precious stones. It has 
a variety of colours, though 
purple prevails. 

AMMINADAB. (Exod. vi. 
23.) Aaron's father-in-law. 
The allusion to the chariots 
of Amminadab, or Ammina- 
dib, (Sol. Song vi. 12,) may 
refer to the known beauty and 
swiftness of the vehicles of 
some famous chieftain, or cha 
rioteer of that period. 

AMMONITES, or children 
of A:\DION, (Gen. xix. 33,) 
were the descendants of Ben- 
ammi, a son of Lot, by incest- 
He was born in the neighbour- 
hood of Zoar, but his posterity 
spread northwardly, and oc- 
cupied the mountainous re- 
gions of Gilead, between the 
rivers Arnon and Jabbok. Ori- 
ginally their possessions were 
bounded north by the river 
Jabbok, west by Jordan, south 
by Anion, and stretched east- 
wardly into Arabia. The 
Amorites, under Sihon their 
king, expelled them from the 
richest part of their posses- 
sions, which lay between the 
two rivers ; but Moses reco- 
vered it from the Amorites, 
and divided it between Reuben 
and Gad. The western bound- 
ary of the Ammonites then 
became a branch of the river 
Jabbok, (on which their oa 
pital city, Rabbah or Rabbath- 
Ammon, stood,) and the moun 
tains of Gilead bounded thero 
on the east, while the mail* 
stream of tne Jabbok conti- 
nued to be their northern 
boundary, and the land of 
Moab the southern. This last 
is intended by the kingdom 
of Ammon as used in the 
sacred history. 

The children of Arnmon 

were gross idolaters. (Judg. 

x. 6.) Their chief idol was 

Moloch supposed to be the 

45 



AMM 

same with Baal, Milcom, &c. 
and their history is full of the 
judgments which their sins 
brought upon them, though 
they were spared, by God's 
express command, when Is- 
rael passed by them from 
Egypt. (Deut. ii. 19. 2 Chron. 
xx. 10.) 

Three hundred years after- 
wards the king of the Am- 
monites made war upon the 
Israelites, under the pretence 
that they had taken their 
land, (Judg. xi. 13,) and after 
a severe battle the Ammonites 
were routed with great slaugh- 
ter. 

In the beginning of Saul's 
reign, (1 Sam. xi. 1,) the Am- 
monites, under Nahash their 
king, attacked Jabesh-gilead ; 
but proposed to spare the in- 
habitants provided they would 
all consent to lose the right 
eye. During the time allowed 
for their answer, they collect- 
ed a sufficient force to meet 
the Ammonites, and so com- 
pletely routed them, that two 
of them were not left together. 

Fifty or sixty years after 
this, one of the kings cf the 
Ammonites died, and David, 
who seems to have been under 
some obligation to him, sent 
a message of condolence to 
his son and successor. This 
friendly act was not received 
kindly, and the messengers 
of David were grossly abused 
and insulted. (See Hanun.) 
Expecting that David would 
attempt to revenge the insult, 
they obtained large supplies 
of men from the Syrians ; and 
when David heard of their 

J reparation for war, he sent 
oab, with a chosen troop from 
the army of Israel, to meet 
them. The result was fatal 
to the Ammonites. They and 
iheir allies were subdued, and 
fled. Rabbath, their capital, 
and all the rest of their cities, 
were afterwards destroyed 
by the Israelites ; the king's 



AMO 

crown was taken from hi9 
head and put on David's head, 
and the people were reduced 
to a state of abject servitude. 
(2Sam. xii. 29-31.) 

In this condition they re- 
mained till the reign of Je- 
hoshaphat, when they united 
with the Moabites and others, 
and made war upon Judah^ 
and were miraculously cut 
off. (2 Chron. xx.) Jotham 
fought and prevailed against 
them, and made them tribu- 
tary for several years. The 
most dreadful judgments were 
threatened against them and 
their chief city, because they 
seized and occupied a part of 
the territory of Israel, (Jer. 
xlix. 1—6 ;) and again, because 
they insolently triumphed 
over the Israelites in the days 
of their captivity, (Ezek. xxv. 
2—7. 10;) and every threat 
was executed to the very utter- 
most, in due time, as profane 
history abundantly attests. 
They soon became extinct 
as a nation, and Origen, a 
writer of the third century, 
assures us, that in his time 
they were only known under 
the general name of Arabs. 
Where their capital once 
stood is now the village of 
Amman, twenty miles south- 
east of the modern town of 
Szalt. 

AMMON-NO. (See No.) 

AMNON (1 Chron. iii. 1) 
was the eldest son of David, 
and was guilty of violating 
the chastity of his half-sis- 
ter, Tamar. (2 Sam. xiii.) 
David was very angry, though 
he did not punish Amnon; 
but his brother Absalom deter- 
mined to revenge the injury ; 
and after cherishing his pur- 
pose for two years, he finally 
executed it in his house at a 
feast to which he had invited 
Amnon, with the rest of his fa- 
ther's family. (See Absalom.) 

AMON. (2Kingsxxi. 18-26.) 
The fourteenth king of Judah. 
46 



AMO 

and the son and successor of 
Manasseh. He was a wicked 
king, and died in his own 
house by the hands of his ser- 
vants, who conspired against 
him. He was succeeded by 
his son Josiah. 

AMORITES, (Gen. x. 16.) 
A Syrian tribe descended from 
Canaan, and among the most 
formidable of the tribes with 
whom the Israelites contend- 
ed. They were of gigantic 
stature and great courage, 
(Amos ii. 9,) and inhabited one 
of the most fertile districts of 
the country, being bounded 
en three sides by the rivers 
Arnon, Jabbok, and Jordan. 
(See Ammonites.) The Israel- 
ites asked permission of their 
king to travel through their 
territory, promising to injure 
nothing, not even to draw 
water from their wells ; but it 
was refused. The Amorites 
collected and attempted to op- 
pose their progress, but were 
defeated, and their territory 
taken and divided between 
the tribes ofReuben and Gad. 
Some hav^jksupposed that 
there were two distinct people 
or tribes called Amorites ; but 
"there seems to be no sufficient 
ground for the supposition. 

AMOS. (Amos i. 1.) One of 
the lesser prophets, who lived 
in the reign of Uzziah king of 
Judah, nearly eight hundred 
years before Christ. Of course 
he was a contemporary of Ho- 
sea. The place of his birth 
is not known ; but while em- 
ployed as a herdsman, he was 
divinely appointed to prophe- 
sy againstlsrael. Being driven 
from Bethel upon the false re- 
presentation made to the king 
by the idolatrous priest Ama- 
ziah, (Amos vii. 10—17,) he 
went to Tekoa, an obscure 
town ten or fifteen miles south 
of Jerusalem. The time and 
manner of his death are un- 
certain. 

Amos, prophecy of, is the 



ANA 
thirtieth in the order of tha 
books of the Old Testament 
and is full of interest and in- 
struction. It has been remark- 
ed as a peculiar feature of 
this prophecy, that it abounds 
with illustrations drawn from 
husbandry, and the scenes of 
rustic life ; but it certainly 
contains some of the most 
perfect specimens of sublime 
thought and beautiful expres- 
sion that are to be found in 
any language. We may refer 
specially to chapters v. vii. 
and ix. 

AMPHIPOLIS. (Acts xvii. 
1.) A city of European Tur- 
key, originally founded by 
Cimon, the renowned Athe- 
nian general, (b. c. 500,) and 
formerly the capital of East- 
ern Macedonia. It lies on the 
river Strymon, about seventy 
miles east of Thessalonica. 
It is now an obscure place 
and is called by the Turks, 
Emboli. 

AMRAPHEL. (Gen. xiv. 1.) 
The king of Shinar, (Gen. xi. 
2,) or Babylonia, who, con- 
federated with other kings, 
made war on Sodom and the 
other cities of the plain ; plun 
dering them, and making pri- 
soners of their inhabitant*. 
Among the captives was Lot, 
Abraham's nephew. (See 
Lot.) 

ANAH. (See Mules.) 

ANAK (Num. xiii. 22) was 
the son of Arba, who gave the 
name of Kirjatn-arba, or city 
of Arba, to what is otherwise 
called Hebron. (Josh. xiv. 15.) 
Anak had three sons, who 
were giants ; and their child- 
ren, who were called Anak- 
ims, were also remarkable 
for their stature and fierce- 
ness. In the time of Moses 
they occupied the territory 
between Hebron and Jerusa- 
lem, and were divided into 
several tribes or clans. (Josh. 
xi. 21, 22.) They were, how- 
ever, cut off by Joshua and 
47 



ANA 
Caleb, and the Israelites en- 
tered into their possessions. 
The messengers who were 
sent forward by the Israelites 
to search the land, reported 
themselves to be as grasshop- 
pers in comparison with the 
children of Anak. (See Gi- 
ants.) 
ANAMMELECH. (See Ad- 

RAM5IELECH.) 

ANANIAS. 1. (Acts v. 1-10.) 
One of the professed converts 
to the Christian faith under 
the preaching of the apostles. 
When the disciples had 
thrown their property into a 
common stock, Ananias sold 
his estate, and brought a part 
of the purchase money, pre- 
tending it was the whole pro- 
ceeds of the sale. Being 
charged by Peter with his fla- 
grant and aggravated sin, he 
fell down dead upon the spot. 
His wife Sapphira, who was 
privy to the fraud of her hus- 
band, but ignorant of his 
dreadful end^being asked for 
how much their estate had 
been sold, confirmed the false- 
hood which Ananias had told, 
and instantly met the same 
dreadful doom. 

2. (Acts xxii. 12.) A primi- 
tive disciple who lived at 
Damascus, and was commis- 
sioned to visit Paul soon after 
his conversion, and restore 
him to sight. The apostle tells 
us what took place on that 
occasion, and also speaks of 
Ananias as a devout man, and 
highly esteemed in the place 
of his residence. It is thought 
by many that he was one of 
the seventy disciples, and that 
he died a martyr. 

3. (Acts xxiii. 2.) A Jewish 
high priest. When Paul was 
commencing his defence be- 
fore the Jewish sanhedrim, 
Ananias, who is called the 
high priest, ordered him to be 
struck upon the mouth. The 
apostle, sensible of the viola- 
tion of his rights, rebuked the 



ANA 
high priest for his breach of 
the very law he was appointed 
to administer. Upon being 
reminded of the official cha- 
racter of Ananias, as " God's 
high priest," the apostle re- 
plied that he was not aware 
of his holding that office. But 
how could he be ignorant of 
so notorious a fact 1 asks the 
caviller. Profane history fur- 
nishes an answer which tri- 
umphantly vindicates the 
truth. Inconsequence of some 
misunderstanding between the 
Jews and Samaritans, Ananias 
had been a few years before 
deposed from office, and sent 
a prisoner to Rome. Jonathan 
succeeded him as high priest, 
but being murdered by Felix, 
there was an interval in which. 
the office was vacant. During 
this interval Paul was arraign- 
ed. On this occasion Ananias 
assumed the office of president 
ofthesanhedrim, (having been 
formerly high-priest.) but with- 
out any aufhoiity. Hence the 
force and propriety of the apos- 
tle's answer, ^teiias was one 
of Paul's acc^fc before Fe- 
lix, and had formed a design to 
waylay and assassinate him; 
but his murderous purpose was 
defeated. (Acts xxv. 3.) 

ANATHEMA. (1 Cor. xvi. 
22.) In its usual acceptation 
it means the devoting of an 
animal, person, or place to de- 
struction. 

Anathema maranatha is 
a Syriac exclamation, signify- 
ing, Let him be accursed whom 
the Lord curses. These were 
the words with which the 
Jews «began the sentence of 
utter excommunication ; not 
only cutting the subject off 
from their communion, but 
consigning him, as far as it 
was possible, to everlasting 
perdition. The use of such a 
dreadful curse by the apostle, 
shows in what light he regard- 
ed the sin of not loving our 
Lord Jesus Christ. 

48 



AND 

ANATHOTH. (Josh. xxi. 
18.) A city of the tribe of 
Benjamin, .situated a few 
mile's north of Jerusalem. It 
was the birth-place of Jere- 
miah, (Jer. i. 1,) and the sub- 
ject of one of his prophecies, 
(Jer. xi. 19—22,) as well as of 
Isaiah's. (Isa. x. 30.) It is also 
an interesting place in con- 
nexion with the Jewish his- 
tory. (2 Sam. xxiii. 27. 1 Kings 
ii. 26. Neh. vii. 27.) 

ANCHOR. (Acts xxvii. 29.) 
The anchor was formerly cast 
from the stern of the ship. In j 
the passage cited, reference ' 
may be had to an anchor with 
four flukes or arms, such as 
are sometimes used by boats 
in shallow water; or it may 




mean four ^fctinct separate 
anchors. The above repre- 
sents a common anchor with 
two flukes or arms. (For a de- 
scription of the anchor, and an 
illustration of its real and fig- 
urative uses, see The An- 
chor, published by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

ANDREW, (John i. 40,) the 
son of Jonas and brother of 
Simon Peter, was a native of 
Bethsaida, in Galilee, and 
originally a disciple of John 
the Baptist, whom he left to 
follow our Saviour. When he 
had found the Messiah, he 
forthwith sought his brother 
Simon, and brought him to 
Jesus, and soon after they 
both attached themselves to 
the little band of his disciples, 
and followed him till the close 
oC his ministry. The events 
with which Andrew was par- 
ticularly connected are re- 



ANG 

corcJed in Matt. iv. 18—20. 
Mark xiii. 3. ; and John i. 35— 
40; vi. 3— 13; xii. 22. 

ANGEL. (Gen. xxiv. 7.) 
This word, both in the Greek 
and Hebrew languages, signi- 
fies a messenger. The original 
word is often applied to men. 
(2 Sam. ii. 5. Luke vii. 24, and 
ix. 52.) When the term is 
used, as it generally is, to 
designate spiritual beings, it 
denotes the office they sustain 
as God's messengers, or the 
agents by whom he makes 
known his will and executes 
the purposes of his govern- 
ment. 

Our knowledge of the exist- 
ence of such beings is derived 
wholly from revelation, and 
that rather incidentally. We 
know, from their residence 
and employment, that they 
must possess knowledge and 
purity far beyond our present 
conceptions ; and the titles 
applied to them denote the 
exalted place they hold among 
created intelligences. 

Of their appearance and 
employment we may form 
some idea from the following 
passages, viz. Gen. xvi. 7 — 11. 
Compare Gen. xviii. 2 ; xix. 2, 
with Heb. xiii. 2. Judges 
xiii. 6. Ezek. x. Dan. iii. 2ft 
and vi. 22. Matt. iv. 11 ; xviii. 
10, and xxvii i. 2—7. Luke i. 
19 ; xvi. 22, and xxii. 43. Acts 
vi. 15; xii. 9. Heb. i. 14. ii. 16. 
2 Thess. i. 7. Rev. x. 1, 2. 6. 

Of their number some idfea 
may be inferred from 1 Kings 
xxii. 19. Ps. lxviii. 17. Dan. 
vii. 10. Matt. xxvi. 53. Luke 
ii. 9-14. 1 Cor. iv. 9. Heb. 
xii. 22. 

Of their strength, we may 
judge from Ps. ciii. 20. 2 Pet. 
ii. 11. Rev. v. 2; xviii. 21; 
xix. 17. 

And we learn their incon- 
ceivable activity from Judg. 
xiii. 20. Isa. vi. 2—6. Matt, 
xiii. 49 ; xxvi. 53. Acts xxvii 
2a Rev. viii. 13. 

49 



ANG 

These are but a few of the 
leading passages in which 
some intimations are given 
of this superior order oT spi- 
ritual beings. There is also 
an order of evil spirits, mi- 
nistering to the will of the 
prince of darkness, and both 
active and powerful in their 
opposition to the will and 
government of God. (Matt, 
xxv. 41.) 

The above references, if 
examined closely, will afford 
very satisfactory knowledge 
respecting the character, em- 
ployment, &c. of the heavenly 
messengers. 

It may not be amiss to re- 
mark, however — 

1. That the expression 
(Matt, xviii. 10) seems to de- 
note the relation which the 
children of God sustain to 
him, and of course to his peo- 
ple, and the watchful care 
and protection which they 
enjoy. The. same idea is sug- 

fested in other passages, as 
's. xci. 11, 12. Luke xv. 10. 
Acts xii. 15. 

2. The angels in lieaven 
have never sinned, and are 
not therefore partakers of the 
benefit of Christ's blood, as 
men are. Yet it is obvious, 
that as this wonderful scheme 
of mercy and grace declares 
and illustrates the infinite 
glory of the divine attributes 
and perfections, so their con- 
ceptions of the divine charac- 
ter are enlarged by the con- 
templation of 1 it, and their 
happiness greatly increased. 
(Eph. iii. 10. 1 Pet. i. 12.) 

3. They will be the future 
companions of the heirs of 
salvation. (HeD. xii. 22, 23. 
Rev. v. 11, 12.) 

4. Angels are to sustain an 
important office in the future 
and final administration of 
God's government on earth. 
(Malt. xiii. 39 ; xxv. 31—33. 1 
Thess iv. 16.) 



AN1 

5. Angels are not proper 
objects of adoration. (Col. ii. 
18. Rev. xix. 10.) 

Angel of his presence 
(Isa. lxiii. 9) by some is sup- 
posed to denote the highest 
angel in heaven, as " Gabriel 
who stands in the presence 
of God ;" but others believe it 
refers to no other than the in- 
carnate Word, the brightness 
of the Father's glory, and not 
only the messenger of his pre 
sence, but the express image 
of his person. 

Angel of the lord (Gen. 
xvi. 7) is one of the common 
titles of Christ in the Old 
Testament. (Ex. xxiii. 20. 
Compare Acts vii. 30—32, and 
37, 38.) 

Angel of the church. 
(Rev. ii. 1.) It is said that the 
minister of the Jewish syna- 
gogue was called the angel 
of the church, because he ad- 
dressed God in their behalf, 
and offered supplications as 
their representative, messen- 
ger, or angel. Hence, the 
persons in charge of the seven 
churches of Assure address- 
ed as the angels of those 
churches respectively. 

Angel of light. (See Devil.) 

ANGER. (Ps. vii. 11, and 
xc. 11.) A strong emotion, 
which is sinful or otherwise, 
according to its object and 
degree. When ascribed to 
holy beings, it is used figura- 
tively, to denote high displea- 
sure at sin. In this sense 
good men may be angry and 
sin not, (Neh. v. 6. 2 Pet. ii. 
7, 8 ;) and even God is said to 
be angry with the wicked 
every day. Anger is reckoned 
among chief sins, and as such 
is severely rebuked. (Eph. 
iv. 31. Col. iii. 8, and nume- 
rous passages in Proverbs.) 

ANISE, (Matt, xxiii. 23,) 

properly Dill, or a plant of 

the same family with dill. It 

grew abundantly in Judea, 

30 



ANO 

And the tithe of it was scru- 
pulously paid by the Phari- 
sees. (See Mint.) 

ANNA. (Luke ii. 36.) A 
descendant of Asher, and a 
prophetess. She was very 
constant in her attendance on 
the services of the temple. 
At a very advanced age, she 
listened to the prophetic bless- 
ing which Simeon uttered 
while he held the infant Re- 
deemer in his arms, and join- 
ed in it with great fervour. 

ANNAS. (Lukeiii. 2.) At 
the commencement of John's 
ministry, Caiaphas was high 

Eriest of the Jews, and they 
ad only one ; but it was cus- 
tomary often to continue the 
title to one who had held the 
office, after he ceased to offi- 
ciate. This was the case with 
Annas. He is mentioned first 
because he was eldest in years 
and office. Five of his sons 
had filled the office in succes- 
sion ; and he was father-in-law 
to the incumbent at that time. 
When our Saviour was appre- 
hended by the Jewish mob, he 
was carried before Annas first 
to secure the favour and sanc- 
tion of one who had great in- 
fluence, and by him was sent 
in bonds to Caiaphas. (John 
xviii. 13—24.) 

ANOINT. (Gen. xxxi. 13.) 
The earliest use of this word 
in the sacred writings, is in 
the passage cited ; and it sig- 
nifies in lhat connexion the 
pouring of oil upon the stone 
which Jacob had set up for a 
pillar. (Gen. xxviii. 18.) 

The anointing of persons, 
places, and things, with oil or 
ointment of a particular com- 
position, was a mode of con- 
secration prescribed by divine 
authority, and extensively 
practised among the Hebrews. 
(Ex. xxviii. 41.) The ingre- 
dients of the ointment, em- 
bracing the most exquisite 
perfumes and balsams, are mi- 
nutely given,(Ex. xxx. 23—33,) 



ANO 

and the common use of it was 
expressly forbidden. (Ex. xxx 
33.) 

It was customary at festi 
vals, and on other great and 
joyful occasions, to anoint the 
head with fragrant oils; hence, 
it became a sign of joy or hap- 
piness. This fact explains 
2 Sam. xiv. 2. Ps. xxiii. 5 ; xcii. 
10. Eccl. ix. 8. Matt. vi. 17. 
It is supposed that anointing 
was a daily custom. (Ruth iiL 
3.) The anointing of kings 
and rulers is particularly pre- 
scribed, and we have frequent 
accounts of the process. (2 
Sam. xix. 10. 1 Kings i. 39 ; 
xix. 15, 16.) 

The manner of anointing is 
represented in the annexed 
cut. It was sometimes done 
privately by a prophet, (1 Sam. 
x. 1 ; xvi. 1—13. 1 Kings xix. 
16. 2 Kings ix. 1—6,) and was 
a symbolical intimation that 
the person so anointed would 
at some future day ascend the 
throne. After the monarchy 
was established, the anoint- 
ing was done by the priest, 
(1 Kings i. 39,) probably in 
some public place, (1 Kings i. 
32—34,) and, at least on one 
occasion, in the temple sur- 
rounded by the royal guards. 
(2 Kings xi. 12, 13.) 

It was common to anoint the 
person, or some part of it, (as 
the head, feet, hair, &c.) for 
the sake of health or cleanli- 
ness, or as a token of respect, 
and also in connexion with 
religious observances. (Matt, 
vi. 17. Luke vii. 46. John xii. 3.) 
When practised to show re- 
spect, the most expensive 
materials were used, and the 
ceremony was performed in 
such a manner as to denote 
the most humble and submis- 
sive reverence. 

The anointing of the sick 
with oil was also common. 
The healing properties of oil 
are well known, and though 
the cures wrought bv the dls- 
51 



ANO 



AN1 




nlples of our Lord were obvi- 
ously miraculous, they still 
employed the ordinary means 
of cure. (Mark vi. 13.) The 
apostolic direction (James v. 
14) respecting the anointing 
of the sick, shows us that, 
together with prayer, the ap- 
propriate means of healing 
should be employed i n depend- 
ence upon or in the name of 
the Lord. This anointing, it 
will be observed, is commend- 
ed with a view to its healing 
effect, for which purpose it 
was in constant use among the 
Jews. Of course to employ it 
for the professed purpose of 
sanctifying the soul, or pre- 
paring it for death, is sinful 
and highly superstitious. It 
is clear that the use of this 
passage to justify such prac- 
tices fs a gross perversion of 
language. 

The bodies of the dead were 
often anointed to preserve 
them from corruption. (Mark 
xiv. 8; xvi. 1, and Lukexxiii. 
56) 

The Anointed, or Messiah, 
wno is constituted our high 



priest and intercessor, was 
anointed with the Holy Ghost- 
of which the anointing of 
priests under the Jewish dis 
pensation is supposed to be 
typical. (Ps.xliv.7. Isa. lxi. 1. 
Dan. ix. 24. Luke iv. 18. 21, 
Acts iv. 27, and x. 38.) The 
terms anoint, anointed, and 
anointing, are employed also 
in a variety of forms to illus- 
trate the sanctifying influences 
of divine grace upon the souL 
(2 Cor. i. 21. 1 John ii. 20-27. 
Rev. iii. 18.) 

ANT. (Prov. vi. 6, and xxx. 
25.) A little insect, remarkable 
for industry, economy, and 
architectural skill. They arc 
called by an inspired writei 
" exceeding wise." and Cicero 
was so filled with wonder at 
their wisdom, that he declared 
they must have mind, reason, 
and memory. 

The account of the manner 
in which they collect grain 
and prevent it from germinat- 
ing is entirely fanciful, as is 
also the supposition that they 
lay up grain for winter. That 
they provide themselves food 
52 



ANT 

in the season of it, is rightly 
Inferred from their wholecha- 
racter and habits ; and the re- 

E reach of the sluggard is, that 
e lets the summer pass and 
the harvest end, while he is 
indulging in sloth and idle- 
ness. (Prov. vi. 6.) 

That the ant is " exceeding 
wise 5 ' is evident from its his- 
tory and habits, which have 
been investigated by modern 
naturalists. Their habitations 
•are constructed with regular 
stories, sometimes to the num- 
ber of thirty or forty, and have 
large chambers ; numerous 
vaulted ceilings, covered with 
a single roof; long galleries 
and corridors, with pillars or 
columns of very perfect pro- 
portions. 

The materials of their build- 
ing, such as earth, leaves, and 
the fragments 01 wood, are 
tempered with rain, and then 
dried in the sun. By this pro- 
cess the fabric becomes so 
firm and compact, that a piece 
may be broken out without 
any injury to the surrounding 
parts ; and it is so nearly im- 
pervious, that the longest and 
most violent rains never pene- 
trate more than a quarter of 
an inch. 

They are well sheltered in 
their chambers, the largest 
of which is placed nearly in 
the centre of the building. It 
is much higher than the rest, 
and all the galleries termi- 
nate in it. In this apartment 
they spend the night and the 
cold months, during which 
they are torpid or nearly so, 
and require not the food 
which they are fancifully sup- 
posed to lay up. 

To illustrate their industry 
and immense labour, it is said 
lhat their edifices are more 
lhan five hundred times the 
height of the builders; and 
that if the same proportion 
were preserved between hu- 
man dwellings and those who 
5* 



ANT 

build them, our nouses would 
be four or five times higher 
than the pyramids of Egypt, 
the largest of which is~fbur 
hundred and eighty feet in 
height, and requires a base 
of seven hundred. feet square 
to support it. The largest 
of one species of ant does not 
stand more than a quarter 
of an inch high, while their 
nests or houses are from 
twelve to twenty feet high, 
and large enough to hold a 
dozen men. It is scarcely 
necessary to say that the ant 
to which this article refers, is 
the Asiatic or South Ameri- 
can ant, and not that insect 
which we know by the same 
name. 

ANTICHRIST. (1 John ii. 
18. 22.) This word occurs only 
in the epistles of John ; and 
as he uses it, it denotes— 

1. A great power that was 
to arise at a period succeed- 
ing the apostolic days, and 
which would oppose, with 
great virulence and blasphe- 
my, the doctrines and disci- 
ples of Christ. The sams 
power is supposed to be 
meant in 2 Thess. ii. 3. 8, 9 
Rev. xvii. and xviii. 

2. False teachers who are 
hostile to the church of ChrislJ 
and to the spirit and precepts 
of his religion. In this sense 
the same thing is probably 
meant, (1 Tim. iv. 1,) and thjs 
antichrist was in the world in 
the days of the apostles. (1 
John iv. 3.) 

Who is antichrist? has been 
a question of curious and not 
uninteresting speculation for 
ages. The prevailing opinion 
seems to be, that the papal 
power is intended to be repre- 
sented ; and that the history 
of that power thus far corres- 
ponds very accurately in its 
principal features with the 
sure word of prophecy. For 
the grounds of this opinion, 
reference may be had to 
53 



ANT 

Newton, Simpson, Ward, and 
others, on the prophecies. 

ANTIOCH. 1. (Acts xi. 26.) 
ft. city of this name was long 
the capital of Syria. It was 
lituated on the banks of the 
Orontes, about equi-distant 
from Constantinople and 
Alexandria, and was once a 
place of great opulence and 
commercial enterprise. Its ci- 
tizens enjoyed peculiar civil 
privileges, and it ranked as 
the third city of the Roman 
provinces. Paul and Barnabas 
preached here ; and here, too, 
the name Christian was first 
applied to the disciples, whe- 
ther as a term of reproach or 
as a mere distinctive title, is 
;iot certain. The same word 
occurs, Actsxxvi.28, and IPet. 
if. 16. Galileans or Nazarenes 
were terms of reproach ; but it 
is supposed the name Chris- 
tian merely denoted the adhe- 
rents of Christ, or the supposed 
Messiah. (See Christian.) 

The calamities which have 
befallen the city of Antioch are 
probably without a parallel, 
both in respect to number and 
severity. It has been besieged 
and plundered at least fifteen 
times, and in one instance 
117,000 persons were slain or 
taken prisoners. Three times 
has it been visited with famine, 
twice with fire, and once with 
plague ; and four times it was 
overthrown by an earthquake, 
by one of which twenty-five 
thousand persons are supposed 
to have perished. These visi- 
tations of God, connected with 
the sins and idolatries of the 
people, have long since re- 
duced the city to desolation. 
The splendid buildings of 
ancient times have "given 
place to mean hovels, and 
a population of 500,000 souls 
is reduced to 10,000, and these 
are wretched and miserable 
in the extreme. In 1822, 
an earthquake overwhelmed 
even the ruins of She city; 



APE 

so that it may be said, with 
the force of literal truth, that 
every thing relating to Anti- 
och is past. Modern Antioch 
is situated twenty miles east 
of the Mediterranean, and is 
called by the Arabs, Anthakia. 
Most of the houses are built 
of mud and straw, and the 
place exhibits every appear- 
ance of misery and wretched- 
ness. 

2. Antioch (Acts xiii. 14) was 
the name of the capital of the 
province of Pisidia, in Asia 
Minor. Paul and Barnabas 
preached there, and we have a 
fuller abstract of one of Paul's 
sermons at this place, than of 
any of the apostolic discourses. 
A violent persecution was rais- 
ed against them, and they were 
compelled to flee for their 
lives. There were at least 
sixteen cities of the name of 
Antioch in Syria and Asia 
Minor. 

ANTIPATRIS. (Acts xxiii. 
31.) A town between Cesarea 
and Jerusalem, ten or fifteen 
miles from Joppa. It was 
founded by Herod the Great, 
and is distinguished as the 
place to which Paul was con- 
veyed by the Roman guard, to 
escape the conspiracy formed 
against him by the Jews, who 
had agreed to waylay him on 
the following day, and put him 
to death. 

APE. (1 Kings x. 22.) This 
animal, which bears a rude re- 
semblance to the human race, 
both in figure and physical 
capacity, was among the arti- 
cles of merchandise import- 
ed from Ophir, in Solomon's 
ships. 

The ape was an object of 
worship among the Egyptians, 
and is still such in many parts 
of India. We have an account 
of a temple in India, dedicated 
to the worship of the ape, 
supported by seven hundred 
columns, not inferior to those 
of the Roman Pantheon. AD 
54 



APE 



APH 




ape's tooth was found by the 
Portuguese when they pil- 
laged the island of Ceylon 
many years since, and so de- 
sirous were they to redeem it 
as an object of devout wor- 
ship, that the kings of the coun- 
try offered nearly seventy-five 
thousand dollars for it. 

In other temples of India, 
as travellers inform us, not 
less than 10,000 apes are main- 
tained as sacred animals. The 
above engraving shows the in- 
terior of a temple of the ape, 
in the island of Japan, with 
the worshippers bowing in 
adoration of the image of the 
sacred animal. 

APELLES. (Rom. xvi. 10.) 
His origin and residence are 
unknown, but his character 



is given in three words,— ap 
proved in Christ. 

APHARSITES. (Ezra iv. 9.) 
This, with several other tribes 
named in the same connexion, 
are supposed to have been 
colonies from Chaldea, Media, 
and Persia, who settled in Sa- 
maria. 

APHEK. 1. (I Sam. iv. 1- 
11.) A city on the border of 
Judah and Benjamin, east of 
Jerusalem, where the Israel- 
ites were defeated by the Phi- 
listines, and the ark taken 
from them. This place is sup- 
posed to be the same which 
is elsewhere called Aphekah. 
(Josh. xv. 53.) 

2. A city in Issachar, situ- 
ated in the plain of Esdraelon 
not far from Shunem, in the 
55 



APO 

vicinity of which Saul and 
Jonathan fell in battle. (1 Sam. 
xxix. 1.) Its exact site is not 
known. 

3. A city in the tribe of Ash- 
er, also called Aphik, (Judg. i. 
31.) situated in Lebanon, on 
the northern border of Ca- 
naan, where there is now a 
village called Aphka. It was 
here that Benhadad assembled 
tne Syrians, (Josh. xii. 18; 
xiii. 4; xix. 30. 1 Kings xx. 
26,) 37,000 of whom were de- 
stroyed by the falling of a wall. 

S KAH -} See above. 

APHRAH. (See Ophrah.) 
APOLLOMA. (Acts xvii. 
1.) A city of Macedonia, situ- 
ated at the head of the iEgean 
Sea, on a promontory between 
Thessalonica and Philippi. 

APOLLOS. (Acts xviii. 24.) 
He was born at Alexandria, in 
Egypt, of Jewish parents, and 
is described as an eloquent 
man, and mighty in the Scrip- 
tures. As one of John's dis- 
ciples, he had been instructed 
in the elements of the Chris- 
tian faith, and came to Ephe- 
sus to speak and teach the 
things of the Lord. He was 
there more particularly and 
fully taught the doctrines of 
the gospel by Aquila and 
Priscilla, who had themselves 
been favoured with the com- 
pany and instruction of Paul, 
at Corinth and on a voyage 
from that city to Ephesus. He 
afterwards went into Achaia, 
where his labours were crown- 
ed with abundant success. At 
Corinth, too, he was regarded 
as a powerful and successful 
preacher of the gospel. Paul 
had alreadybeen instrumental 
in establishing a church there, 
to the care of which Apollo s 
succeeded. (1 Cor. iii. 6.) The 
members of it were divided 
into parties, some bsing par- 
ticularly partial to Paul, others 
.o Apollos, and others still to 
Jephas. The rebuke of the 



APO 

apostle (1 Cor. i. 12,) is direct 
ed against these partialities, 
in all which the power and 
grace of God seemed to be 
overlooked or disregarded. It 
has been remarked as an ex- 
emplary trait of character of 
these two eminent apostles, 
that the contention of their 
respective friends and admir- 
ers had no effect on their love 
and respect for each other. 
They both refrained from vi- 
siting the church while it was 
distracted with such preju- 
dices and partialities, though 
a worldly ambition might Rave 
selected it as the field and 
the season of self-aggrandize- 
ment. 

APOLLYON. (See Abad- 
don.) 

APOSTLE. 1. (Matt. x. 2.) 
This term was given, origin- 
ally, to the twelve chief disci- 
ples of our Lord. Their names 
were, Simon Peter; Andrew; 
James and John, (sons of Ze- 
bedee ;) Philip ; Bartholo- 
mew; Thomas; Matthew, 
James and Lebbeus, who is 
also called Judas or Jude, 
(sons of Alpheus ;) Simon, the 
Canaanite ; and Judas Isca- 
riot. Christ's charge to them 
is recorded in Matt. x. 5—42, 
and is worthy to be diligently 
studied. The circumsfances 
of their history, as far as they 
are known, will be found un- 
der their respective names. 

After the ascension of the 
Redeemer, we find the names 
of eleven of the apostles re- 
peated, as among those who 
were engaged in prayer and 
supplication at Jerusalem, for 
the descent of the Spirit; and 
Matthias is also named, he 
having been appointed to the 
apostle ship in the place of 
Judas Iscariot. 

The office and commission 
of apostles were remarkable 
in the following particulars : — 
(1.) They were all required 
to have been eye and ear wit- 
56 



A?P 

nesses of what, they testified. 
(John xv. 27. Acts i. 21, 22, 
and xxii. 14, 15. 1 Cor. ix. 1, 
and xv. 8. 1 John i. 3.) (2.) 
They were all called or chosen 
by our Saviour himself. (Luke 
vi. 13. Gal. i. 1.) Even Mat- 
Lhias is not an exception to 
tliis remark, as the determi- 
nation of the lot was of God. 
(Acts i. 24—26.) (3.) They 
were inspired. (John xvi. 13.) 
(4.) They had the power of 
miracles. (Mark xvi. 20. Acts 
ii. 43. Heb. ii. 4.) 

2. The term apostle is ap- 
plied to our Saviour, (Heb. iii. 
1,) and with singular pro- 
priety, as in the character of 
Messiah he is emphatically 
the sent of God. 

APPAREL. (See Clothes.) 

APPEAL. (Acts xxv. 11.) By 
the Roman law every accused 
citizen had a right to carry 
his cause before the emperor 
at Rome, by appeal from the 
judgment of the magistrate. 

APPII-FORUM. (Acts xxviii. 
15.) The place where Paul 
met several of his brethren 
from Rome, when he was on 
his way to that city as a pri- 
soner. It was about fifty miles 
from Rome. The place is now 
called Piperno. and is on the 
Naples road. The name is de- 
rived from the circumstance 
that it is on the Appian way ; 
a road leading from Rome to 
Capua, which was made by 
Appius Claudius ; and that it 
contained a forum or market- 
place, to which pedlars and 
petty merchants resorted in 
great numbers. 

APPLES, APPLE TREE. 
Sol. Song ii. 3. Joel i. 12.) It 
is generally agreed that these 
terms refer to the citron tree, 
and its fruit. The proper apple 
tree is very rare in the east, 
and its fruit is destitute both 
of beauty and fragrance, and 
in both these respects ill ac- 
cords with the allusions to it 



AP. 

in the sacred writings. (Sea 
Biblical Antiquities, vol. i. 
p. 38.) 

Apples of gold in pictures 
op silver (Prov. xxv. 11) is 
a figurative expression, com- 
paring delicious fruit in silver 
baskets, or salvers curiously 
wrought like basket Work, 
and perhaps representing ani- 
mals or landscapes, to sea- 
sonable advice wisely and 
courteously administered. 

Apple of the eye. (Prov. 
vii.2. Zech. ii. 8.) In these 
passages reference is had to 
the keen sensibility of the 
ball of the eye. The same 
figure is used (Beut. xxxii. 10, 
and Ps. xvii. 8) to denote the 
most complete protection and 
security. And in Lam. ii. 18 
the phrase " apple of thine 
eye"* is figuratively used for 

AQUILA. (Acts xviii. 2.) A 
Jew born at Pontus, in Asia 
Minor. Being driven from 
Rome by a decree of the go- 
vernment requiring all Jews 
to leave that city, he and his 
wife Priscilla came to Co- 
rinth, and were dwelling there 
at the time of PauPs first visit 
to that city. (Acts xviii. 1.) 
They were of like occupation, 
(tent makers,) and Paul was 
received and hospitably en- 
tertained at Aquila's house ; 
and they also accompanied 
him from Corinth to Ephesus. 
On some occasion they ren- 
dered Paul very important 
service, and a very warm 
friendship existed between 
them. (Rom. xvi. 3—5. See 
Apollos.) 

AR, (Num. xxi. 28,) or RAB- 
BAH-MOAB, the chief town 
of Moab, was situated twenty 
or twenty-five miles south of 
the river Arnon. It is called 
Rabbah or Great, as the chief 
town of the Ammonites was 
called Rabbah-Ammon, and 
by the Greeks it was called 
57 



ARA 

Areopolis. Its present name 
is El-Rabbi, and modern tra- 
vellers have discovered two 
copious fountains near the 
rums of the ancient city. 
(Num. xxi. 15.) 

ARABIA, (.1 Kings x. 15,) 
called by the natives the 
peninsula of the Arabs, lies 
in Western Asia, south and 
southwest of Judea. It is fif- 
teen hundred miles from north 
to south, and twelve hundred 
from east to west, or about 
four times the extent of the 
kingdom of France. It is 
bounded north by Syria, east 
by the river Euphrates and 
the Persian gulf, south by the 
Indian ocean, and west by the 
Red Sea, Palestine, and part 
of Syria. It is described in 
three divisions, the name of 
each being indicative of the 
face of the soil, and its gene- 
ral character : — 

1. Arabia Deserta (or the 
desert) is a wide waste of 
burning sand, with here and 
there a palm tree, and a 
spring of brackish water. 
This was the country of the 
Ishmaelites, and is inhabited 
by the modern Bedouins. 

2. Arabia Petrea (or 
rocky) comprehends what 
was formerly the land of 
Midian. The Edomites and 
the Amalekites also dwelt 
here, and a very powerful and 
independent tribe of Ishmael- 
ites. It was a land of shep- 
herds, and the scene of some 
of the most interesting events 
in the history of man. Horeb 
and Sinai were within its 
bounds. 

3. Arabia Felix (or hap- 
py) was an exceedingly fruit- 
ful land. The inhabitants, 
who claim their descent from 
Shem, were unlike the shep- 
herds and robbers who occu- 
pied the other districts. They 
aad permanent abodes, sup- 
Dorted themselves by agricul- 



ARA 

ture and commerce, and once 
possessed a high degree of 
wealth and refinement. 

It is supposed that many of 
the articles .mentioned in Ex. 
xxx. 23, 24, particularly the 
balm, were imported from 
Arabia; and even at this day, 
caravans of merchants, the 
descendants of the Cushites, 
Ishmaelites and Midianites, 
are found traversing the same 
deserts, conveying the same 
articles and in ~ the same 
manner, as in the days of 
Moses. 

It has been said, that if any 
people in the world afford, in 
their history, an instance of 
high antiquity, and great sim- 
plicity of manners, the Arabs 
surely do. Coming among 
them, one can hardly help 
fancying himself suddenly 
carried back to the ages im- 
mediately succeeding the 
flood. Of all nations, the 
Arabs have spread farthest 
over the globe, and in all 
their wanderings have pre- 
served their language, man- 
ners, and peculiar customs, 
more perfectly than any other 
nation. 

They have various traditions 
respecting scripture person- 
ages and events ; and for a 
full and lucid view of their po- 
litical and geographical rela- 
tions, see Geography of thh 
Bible, pp. 46—60, and Bedou- 
in Arabs, both by Am. S. S. 
Union. 

ARAD. (Judg. i. 16.) A city ia 
the southern border of Judea,. 
whose king opposed the pas 
sage of the children of Israel 
and even took someof them pri- 
soners, for which they were ao 
cursed and their citydestroyed. 

ARAM. (See Syria.) When 
this word is coupled with some 
other, as Aram-Maachah, it 
means the " Syrians of Maa. 
chah," and so of other similar 
cases. 

58 



AKA 
ARARAT. (Gen. viii. 4.) A 
district of country lying near 
the centre of the kingdom of 
Armenia. It contained seve- 
ral cities, which were the 
residence of the successive 
kings and governors of Arme- 
nia, and hence the word Ara- 
rat is often applied to the 
whole kingdom. The word 
translated the land of Arme- 
nia, (2 Kings xix. 37. Isa. 
xxxvii. 38,) is, in the original, 
Ararat. In the north-east part 
of Armenia is a range of 
mountains, on the summit of 
which the ark rested. It is 
called Agridah by the Turks. 
There are two peaks about 
seven miles apart, the highest 
of which is 15,000 feet (and 
a late French traveller says 
16,000 feet) above the level of 
the sea, and is perpetually 
covered with snow. A modern 
traveller says of it, that when 
viewed from the plain below, 
one would think that the high- 
est mountains of the world 
had been piled upon each 
other, to form this one sublime 
immensity of earth, and rocks, 
and snow ; this awful monu- 
ment of the antediluvian 
world ; this stupendous link 
in the history of man before 
and since the flood. Once the 
population of the whole wide 
world was embraced in one 
small family, and that family 
inhabited this spot. All the 
animal tribes were assembled 
here,— birds, beasts, reptiles, 
and insects. But one lan- 
guage was then spoken. Here, 
too, the bow of the covenant 
was set ; and here was erect- 
ed the first altar, after the 
dreadful catastrophe of the 
destruction of the world. The 
immediate ' vicinity of the 
mountain i3 inhabited by 
Koords, a savage tribe of Mo- 
hammedans. And since the 
last war between Russia and 
Persia, the Russian bounda- 
ries have been so extended as 



ARA 
to embrace Ararat ; and now 
Russia, Persia, and Turkey 
meet at that mountain. (See 
Map, pp. 60, 61.) 

There has been much con- 
troversy as to the fact whether 
the ark rested on this moun- 
tain, chiefly in consequence 
of the phraseology of Gen. xi. 
2, which has been supposed to 
denote that the place where 
the ark rested was east of the 
plain of Shinar, whereas the 
Ararat of Armenia is west of 
it. But this difficulty is alto- 
gether imaginary, for we are 
not told the direction of the 
route which Noah and his 
family took, as if it had been 
said, they "journeyed from 
east to west,''' and came to a 
plain, &c. The phrase, from 
the east, signifies in the ori- 
ginal, before, in respect both 
to time and place ; so that the 
expression only means that in 
their first general migration 
from Ararat, they came to a 
plain, &c. This view of the 
case is confirmed by Jewish 
historians, and the prophet 
Jeremiah (Jer. li. 27) speaks 
of Ararat as one of the coun- 
tries of the north, from which 
an invading force should come 
upon Babylon; and this cor- 
rectly describes the situation 
of Ararat, in Armenia : it is 
almost due north of Babylon. 
(See Evening Recreations, 
by the American Sunday- 
school Union, part i. pp. 17— 
23.) 

ARAUNAH, or ORNAN, (2 
Sam. xxiv. 16,) was a Jebusite, 
who lived at Jerusalem, and 
owned a threshing-place or 
floor, where the temple was 
afterwards built. In conse- 
quence of the sin of David, 
the king, a pestilence was sent 
through the nation, which was 
sweeping off its inhabitants 
at the rate of 70,000 in a clay. 
An angel was seen hovering 
over the threshing-floor of 
Araunah, with his arm lifted 
59 



J / 3 )5 / / / / 4| | ! 

/ XX^> '/It 





61 



ARC 

up for the destruction of Jeru- 
salem. David was humbled, 
and confessed his sin, and 
God, by one of the prophets, 
directed him to go to that spot 
and build an altar there unto 
the Lord. He obeyed, and 
when he came to the spot and 
made known his business, 
Araunah refused to receive 
any thing for it, but offered it 
to him, together with oxen for 
sacrifices, and the timber of 
the threshing instruments for 
fuel. David refused to receive 
them as a gift, as he would not 
offer to the Lord that which 
had cost him nothing. He 
therefore bought the oxen for 
fifty shekels of silver, (2 Sam. 
xxi v. 24,) or $22 50, and the 
whole place for six hundred 
shekels of gold, (1 Chron. xxi. 
25,) or $4524, and offered his 
sacrifices, which were accept- 
ed, and the plague stayed. 

ARBA. (See Hebron.) 

ARCHANGEL. (1 Thess. iv. 
16.) The prince or chief of 
angels. Michael is called the 
archangel, (Jude 9,) and it is 
generally believed that a cre- 
ated, though highly exalted, 
being is denoted by the term, 
and not Him whose goings 
forth have been from of old, 
from everlasting. (Micah v. 
2.) 

ARCHELAUS. (Matt. ii. 22.) 
A son of Herod the Great. On 
the decease of his father, the 
same year that our Saviour 
was born, Archelaus succeed- 
ed to the government of Judea, 
and reigned there when Jo- 
seph and Mary, with the in- 
fant Jesus, were returning 
from Egypt, whither they had 
gone to'escape the fury of He- 
rod. Archelaus, however, was 
much like his father in the 
malignity of his temper, and 
they were therefore still afraid 
to return. 

ARCHER. (Gen. xxi. 20.) 
One who is skilled in the use 
of the bow and arrows, as 



ARE 

Ishmael and Esau were. (See 
Armour.) 

ARCHI. (Josh. xvi. 2.) A 
town on the southern border 
of Ephraim, between Bethei 
and Beth-horon the nether. 
It is celebrated as the birth- 
placeofHushai, David's friend. 
(See Hushai.) 

ARCTURUS. (Jobxxxviii. 
32.) The name of a star, or 
more probably a constellation, 
in the northern heavens. Some 
have supposed that Jupiter 
and the satellites were in- 
tended in the allusion of the 
poet. 

AREOPAGITE, AREOPA- 
GUS. (Actsxvii. 19. 34.) The 
title of the judges of the su- 
preme tribunal of Athens. 
The name is derived from 
Areopagus, {the hill of Mars,) 
which signifies either the court 
itself, or the hill or spot on 
which it was held. It was a 
rocky elevation almost in the 
centre of the city. The tri- 
bunal that assembled here had 
particular cognizance of all 
blasphemies against the hea- 
then gods ; and therefore Paul, 
who so pointedly condemn- 
ed the idolatries of the city, 
while he urged them to seek 
and serve Jehovah as the 
only living and true God, 
was esteemed " a setter forth 
of strange gods," and was 
brought before the Areopagus 
for trial. He there exhibited 
the sin and folly of idol wor- 
ship with such power that 
Dionysius, one of the judges, 
and Damaris, and several 
other persons, believed his 
testimony. 

The place supposed to have 
been Mars' hill is now covered 
with the rubbish of spacious 
buildings ; they are probably 
the ruins of the palace of Di- 
onysius, and the house of the 
archbishop, both of which 
were built after the establish 
mentof the Christian religion 
in Athens. 

62 



ARK 

It is said that the sessions 
of the Areopagus were held 
only in the night, that the 
minds of the judges might not 
be distracted or biassed by 
extraneous objects. 

ARETAS. (2 Cor. xi. 32.) 
The king of Syria, at the time 
the governor of Damascus at- 
tempted to apprehend Paul. 
(Acts ix. 24, 25.) 

ARGOB. (Deut. iii. 4.) A 
district of Bashan, the king- 
dom of Og, belonging to the 
half tribe of Manasseh. It 
lay east of Jordan, near the 
sea of Galilee, and contained 
sixty fortified cities. The go- 
vernor of this place is sup- 
posed to be intended in 2 
Kings xv. 25. 

ARIEL (Ezra yiii. 16) was 
the name of one of Ezra's 
chief men. The original word 
means " the lion of God," and 
Jerusalem being the chief city 
of Judah, whose emblem was 
a lion, (Gen. xlix. 9,) the word 
Ariel is applied to that city. 
(Isa. xxix. 1.) 

ARIMATHEA. (See Rama.) 

ARISTARCHUS (Acts xix. 
29) was a Macedonian, and 
one of those who accompanied 
Paul to Ephesus, and shared 
his labours there. He was 
nearly killed in the tumult 
which Demetrius excited in 
that city, and it is said that he 
was finally beheaded at Rome. 
Paul alludes to him both as 
his fellow labourer and fellow 
prisoner. (Col. iv. 10. Philem. 
24.) 

ARK. (Gen. vi 14.) The 
vessel constructed fcy Noah, 
at God's command, for the 
preservation of himself and 
family, and a stock of the va- 
rious animals, &c, when the 
earth was devastated by the 
fiood. 

It was four hundred and 
fifty feet long, seventy-five in 
breadth, and forty-five in 
height ; and was designed, not 
to sail, but only to float, when 



ARK 

borne up by the waters. It 
had lower, second, and third 
stories, besides what, in com- 
mon vessels, is called the 
hold. A door was placed in 
the side, and it had also a 
window made of some trans- 
lucent substance for the ad- 
mission of light. (See Teach- 
er's Assistant, to vol. iii. 
Union Questions, by the Ame- 
rican Sunday-school Union, 
pp. 40, 41.) 

The ark was constructed 
of gopher wood, and covered 
with bitumen or pitch, to ex- 
elude water, as tar is new 
used for the like purpose. 
The bitumen now found in 
the east, as we are told by 
travellers, is so like the 
Stockholm pitch, that they 
can be distinguished from 
each other only by the pecu- 
liar smell and superior hard- 
ness of the bitumen. 

It is doubtful where the ark 
was built, and also how much 
time was employed upon it. 
On the latter point the weight 
of opinion is, that it was from 
one hundred to one hundred 
and twenty years ; the former 
period being inferred frork 
comparing Gen. v. 32, and vii. 
6 ; and the latter from com- 
paring Gen. vi. 3, with 1 Pet. 
iii. 20. 

The form of the ark is sup- 
posed to have been an oblong 
square, with a flat bottom and 
sloping roof; and the parti- 
cular construction of it has 
been the subject of much cu- 
rious, not to say useless, 
speculation. To show the va- 
riance of opinions, it may be 
enough to say, that in the 
single point of the number of 
apartments, the computation 
has varied from seventy-two 
to four hundred. Some of the 
results of modern investiga- 
tions have, however, been 
highly valuable. The caviller 
has sometimes started difficul- 
ties respecting the capacity o/ 
63 



ARK 

the ark to contain what the 
sacred history informs us was 
put into it; and it has also 
been asked where Noah could 
have acquired skill sufficient 
to construct such a vessel for 
such a purpose. On this point, 
however, the degree of skill is 
in itself conclusive evidence 
of its origin; for after the 
most accurate computations 
by those best versed in ship- 
building, and supposing the 
dimensions given in the sa- 
cred history to be geometri- 
cally exact, it is found that 
the vessel, in all its known 
parts and proportions, is in 
perfect accordance with the 
received principles of naval 
architecture. And on the sub- 
ject of capacity, the point has 
been satisfactorily establish- 
ed, that upon the smallest es- 
timate of the cubit measure, 
the ark was fully adequate to 



ARK 

the purpose for which it was 
prepared; and that besides 
all the room occupied by the 
persons and things which the 
sacred history informs us 
were preserved in it, there 
was space for many species 
of animals which probably 
existed then, and were pre- 
served in the ark, but which 
have now become extinct. 
There can be no doubt, there- 
fore, that the ark was built on 
strictly scientific principles, 
and was proportioned with 
mathematical precision to its 
contents. 

Ark of the covenant. 
(Ex. xxv. 10.) A small chest, 
constructed in a particular 
form and manner, and for a 
specific purpose, by the ex 
press command of Jehovah. 
It was three feet and nine 
inches in length, and two feet 
three inches in width and 




in?:p:n:r:r:r:nt:f';r:r:n:P:r:n:r:n:f:fii^:r;(!:r.:r:r:r:r:r:r:r:r;n:f:n;r:D:n:i 




64 



ARK 

height. It was made of shittim 
wood, and covered with plates 
of gold. A bolder or crown 
of gold encircled it near the 
top, and it was surmounted by 
the mercy-seat, which was of 
eolid gold, and answered the 

J)urpose of a cover or lid to 
he ark. On each end of the 
mercy-seat was placed a gold- 
en image representing che- 
rubim facing inwards, and 
bending down over the ark. 
Two rings of gold were at- 
tached to the body of the ark 
on each side, through which 
passed the staves or poles 
that were used in carrying it 
from place to place. These 
were made of the same wood 
with the ark, and were over- 
laid in the same manner. 
This ark contained, 1. A gold- 
en pot, in which the three 
quarts of manna were pre- 
served. (Ex. xvi. 33.) 2. Aa- 
ron's rod, which miraculously 
budded and blossomed and 
yielded fruit all at once, 
(Num. xvii. 10;) and, 3. The 
tables of the testimony, or the 
tables of the ten command- 
ments, written with the finger 
of God, and constituting the 
testimony or evidence of the 
covenant between God and 
the people. (Deut. xxxi. 26.) 
Hence it is sometimes called 
the ark of the testimony, and 
sometimes the ark of the co- 
venant. (Ex. xxxiv. 29, and 
xl. 20. Heb. ix. 3, 4.) The ap- 
parent contradiction between 
Heb. ix. 3, 4, and 1 Kings viii. 
9, may be reconciled either 
by supposing (what is not im- 
probable) that the contents 
of the ark were different at 
the different periods referred 
to, or that the phrase, " where- 
in" in Hebrews, refers not to 
the ark, but to the remote an- 
tecedent, viz. "the taberna- 
cle which is called the holiest 
of all." 

On the mercy-seat which 
surmounted the ark rested the 
6* 



ARK 

awful and mysteiious symbol 
of the divine presence. "(Lev. 
xvi. 2. Num. vii. 89.) For a 
very full and interesting de- 
scription of the ark of the co- 
venant, and its contents, &c, 
and also of the cherubim and 
Shechinah, or the manifesta- 
tion cf God's presence, see 
Biblical Antiquities, by 
the American Sunday-school 
Union, vol. ii. chap. ii. pp. 50 
—53. 

After the children of Israel 
had passed the Jordan, whose 
waters divided at the approach 
of the ark, (Josh. iii. 14—17,) 
the tabernacle was set up at 
Gilgal, and this sacred vessel 
remained in it for a season. 
It was then removed to Shiloh, 
where it was stationary be- 
tween three and four hundred 
years, (Jer. vii. 12—15;) and 
being then taken out and 
borne before the army, it fell 
into the hands of the Philis- 
tines, at the defeat of the Is- 
raelites near Aphek. (1 Sam. 
iv.) The Philistines took it to 
Ashdod, and placed it by the 
side of their idol god Dagon. 
(1 Sam. v.) But being taught 
in a very surprising manner 
that their profane use of the 
ark was highly displeasing to 
God, they returned it by di- 
vine direction, and with signal 
tokens of divine oversight, to 
the people of Israel, by whom 
it was lodged at Kirjath-jea- 
rim. (1 Sam. vi. and vii.) 
When David had fixed his 
residence at Jerusalem, the 
ark was removed thither with 
sacred ceremonies, and kept 
until the temple was prepared 
to receive it. (1 Kings viii. 
1—11. 1 Chron. xv. 25—28;) 
on which occasion it is sup- 
posed the one hundred and 
thirty-second psalm was writ- 
ten. 

The second temple did not 

contain the ark : whether it 

was seized among the spoils 

when the city was sacked, or 

65 




67 



ARM 

whether it was secreted and 
afterwards destroyed, does not 
appear. The Jews think it 
will be restored when their 
Messiah appears ; but the pro- 
phet, (Jer. lii. 16,) if they would 
believe his testimony, would 
end this and many similar de- 
lusions. 

Wherever the Jews dwelt 
or wandered, they always wor- 
shipped towards the place 
where the ark of the covenant 
rested. (Dan. vi. 10.) 

ARKITE. (Gen. x. 17.) The 
Arkites were a branch of the 
family of Canaan whichsettled 
in Phenicia and Syria. The 
ruins of the city which they 
are supposed to have inhabit- 
ed are now to be seen at Arka, 
twenty-five miles north of Tri- 
poli, and directly opposite the 
northern extremity of Leba- 
non. 

ARM. (1 Sam. ii. 31.) Meta- 
phorically used for strength, 
power, or protection, (Ex. vi. 
6. Isa. lii. 10;) in which last 
passage allusion is made to 
the custom of making the arm 
bare by throwing it out of the 
loose garment or fold, when 
engaged in close combat, so 
that its strength and action 
might be free and unembar- 

ARMAGEDDON. (Rev. xvi. 
16.) The mountain of Meged- 
don, or Megiddo, a city at the 
foot of mount Carmel, and 
noted for scenes of carnage. 
(2 Kings xxiii. 29, 30. Judg. 
v. 19.) 

ARMENIA. (2 Kings xix. 
37.) An inland country at the 
eastern extremity of Asia Mi- 
nor, four hundred and thirty 
miles from east to west, and 
about three hundred from 
north to south. It has the 
Mediterranean on the south- 
west, the Black Sea on the 
northwest, and the Caspian 
Sea on the east, and its west- 
ern boundary is about six 
hundred miles east of Con- 



ARM 

stantinople. The Euphrates! 
the Tigris, and other rivers 
rise within the boundaries of 
Armenia. (See Map, pp. 66, 
67.) It is divided into fifteen 
provinces, of which the cen- 
tral one ' is called Ararat. 
In this province was the 
mountain on which the ark 
rested, and here was the usual 
residence of the imperial 
court : hence this province is 
intended by the term Armenia 
in the Scriptures, and not 
the whole kingdom. Two of 
our American missionaries 
(Messrs. Smith and D wight) 
have recently explored this 
interesting country, and their 
observations are published in 
two volumes, entitled Re- 
searches in Armenia. 

ARMIES, or HOSTS. (1 
Sam xvii. 10.) The armies of 
the Israelites embraced the 
whole male adult population 
of the country, (Num. i. 2, 3 ; 
xxvi. 2,) and when occasion 
required, the entire body was 
readily mustered. (Judg. xx. 
1—11. 1 Sam. xi. 7, 8.) This 
accounts for the prodigious 
numbers which were often as- 
sembled. (2 Chron. xiii. 3; xiv. 
9. See art. War.) The sol- 
diers received no wage«s, and 
each man armed and support- 
ed himself. Hence their cam- 
paigns were short, and gene- 
rally terminated by a single 
battle. Horses were not used, 
it is supposed, until Solomon's 
time. The manner of declar- 
ing war, and the character and 
occupation of exempts, are 
minutely stated. (Deut. xx. 1— 
14 ; xxiv. 5.) And for a very 
interesting sketch of the whole 
military system of the Jews, 
see Biblical Antigiuities, by 
the American Sunday-school 
Union, vol. i. chap. viii. § 6. 

ARMORY. (Sol. Song iv. 
4.) The place in which armour 
was deposited in times of 
peace. (Jer. 1. 25.) 

ARMOUR. (1 Sam. xvii. 54.) 
68 



ARM 

Weapons or instruments of 
defence. These were in ge- 
neral the shield fc j)r buckler, 
the target, the coat of mail, 
the greaves, and the helmet. 

1. The shield or buckler •, 
(1 Kings x. 17. Ezek. xxvi. 8,) 




was probably one of the earli- 
est pieces of armour, for allu- 
sion is often made to it by 
the earliest writers. (Gen. xv. 
1. Ps. v. 12 ; xviii. 2 ; xlvii. 9.) 
It was of various sizes, and 
usually made of light wood, 
and covered with several folds 



ARM 

or thicknesses of stout nide, 
which were preserved and 
polished by frequent applica- 
tions of oil, (Isa. xxi. 5,) and 
often painted with circles of 
various colours or figures. 
(Nah. ii. 3.) Sometimes osiers, 
or reeds woven like basket- 
work, were used to stretch the 
hide upon, and sometimes the 
shield was made either entire- 
ly of brass or gold, or covered 
with thick plates of those me- 
tals. (1 Kings xiv. 26, 27.) 

The shield was held by the 
left arm. The hand passed 
through under two straps or 
thongs placed thus, X, and 
grasped, with the fingers, an- 
other small strap near the 
edge of the shield, as repre- 
sented in the annexed cut, so 




that it was held with great 
firmness. A single handle of 
wood or leather in the centre, 
as represented in the first two 
cuts, was used in later times 
The outer surface was made 
more or less rounding from 
the centre to the edge, and 
being polished smooth, made 
the arrows or darts glance on* 
or rebound with increased 
force ; and the ed^es were 
armed with plates of iron, not 
only to strengthen them, but 
to preserve the perishable 
part from the dampness while 
lying upon the grcund. In 



ARB1 

times of engagement, the 
shields were either held above 
the head, or they were placed 
together edge to edge, and 
thus formed a continuous bar- 
rier. Another form of the 
ancient shield is seen in the 
following cut. 



ARM 




2. The target (1 Sam. xvii. 
6) was a larger sort of shield, 
the relative weight of which 
may be inferred from 1 Kings 
x. 16, 17. It is usually men- 
tioned by the sacred writers 
in connexion with heavy 
arms, while the shield is 
spoken of with the sword, 
dart, and other light arms. It 
probably resembled the great 
shield of the Romans, which 
in some cases was four feet 
high, and two and a half feet 
broad, and so curved as to fit 
the body of the soldier. 

3. The coat of mail, (1 Sam. 
xvii. 5,) or habergeon, (Neh. 
iv. 16. Job xli. 26,) or breast- 
plate, (Rev. ix. 9,) covered the 




body upon and below tha 
breast and back. It consisted 
of two parts, and was fasten- 
ed together at the sides. We 
are told that Goliath's coat of 
mail weighed five thousand 
shekels of brass, or nearly 
one hundred and sixty pounds. 
It was probably formed of 
layers of brass, one upon the 
other, like the scales of a fish. 
Sometimes the coat of mail 
was made of wicker-work, 
covered with a brass plate. 
As it was the principal and 
most complete part of the 
armour, it is a most appropri- 
ate emblem of defence and 
safety. (Isa. lix. 17. Eph. vi. 
14.) 

4. Greaves, or boots, (1 Sam. 
xvii. 6,) were for the proteo 




tion of the legs. They are 
mentioned only as a part of 
the armour of Goliath, and 
were not probably in comraoa 
use among the Hebrews, 
70 



ARM 

though they were almost uni- 
versal among'the Greeks and 
Romans. 

5. Helmet. (Ezek. xxvii. 10.) 
This was a cap, the shape of 
which is seen in the annexed 
figure. It was made of thick 



ARM 




tough hide, and sometimes of 
plated brass, (1 Sam. xvii. 33,) 
and usually crowned with a 
crest or plume as an orna- 
ment. 

Armour-bearer. (Judg. ix. 
54.) An officer selected by 
kings and generals from the 
bravest of their favourites, 
whose service it was not only 
to bear their armour, but to 
stand by them in danger and 
carry their orders, somewhat 
after the manner of adjutants 
in modern service. (1 Sam. 
xvi. 21, and xxxi. 4.) 

Arms were weapons or in- 
struments of offence ; they 
were the sword, the spear, or 
javelin, dart, or lance, the 
bow and arrow, the sling, the 
quiver, and the battle-axe. 

1. The sword. (Gen. xxvii. 
40.) This was a short two- 
edged instrument, resembling 
what we call a dagger. It was 
carried in a sheath or seab- 
oard. (Jer. xlvii. 6. Ezek. xxi. 
9. 30,) and suspended to the gir- 
dle. (Judg. iii. 16. 2 Sam.xx. 8.) 

2. The spear, (Josh. viii. 18,) 
or javelin, (Num. xxv. 7, 8,) j 
or dart, (2 Sam. xviii. 14,) or 
lance, (Jer. 1. 42,) were differ- j 
ent chiefly in length and size. \ 
The spear was a long wooden 
staff, with a stout metal point j 
at one end. The Greek spears I 
were sometimes twenty-five j 
%et long, and the Arabs now ! 



use them fifteen feet long. 
They were required to be long 
enough to reach beyond the 
front rank, when used by those 
who were in the second rank. 
The lance was shaped and 
used like the spear, thougk 
probably a lighter weapon 
The javelin was a short spear. 




cast, as is supposed, with thb 
hand. (1 Sam. xviii. 11.) The 
dart was still smaller than 
the javelin, and used in like 
manner. 

3. The arrow (1 Sam. xx. 
36) was a slender missile, shot 
from a bow, as in modern 
days. (Gen. xxi. 16.) It was 
used in hunting, (Gen. xxvii. 
3.) as well as in combat. (Gen. 
xlviii. 22.) Those who used 
them were called archers. 
Arrows were originally made 
of reeds, and afterwards of 
any light wood. The bows 
were made of flexible wood 
or steel, (Ps. xviii. 34.) and the 
bowstring of leather, horse- 
hair or the tendons of ani- 
71 



ARM 

mals. A deceitful bow (Ps. 
lxxviii.57) is either one which 
eprings back and wounds the 
archer himself, or one which, 
from weakness or other de- 
fects, fails to project the arrow. 
The point of the arrow was 
barbed like a fish-hook. (Ps. 
xxxviii. 2.) Job refers to the 
use of poisoned arrows, (Job 
vi. 4,) and fire was often con- 
veyed by the use of juniper 
wood, which kindled upon the 
combustible baggage or arma- 
ment of the enemy. (Ps. xci. 
5 ; cxx. 4.) It is said that the 
coals of the juniper wood are 
very hot, and it is known that 
the Phenicians and (in later 
times) the Spaniards have 
used arrows for the like pur- 
pose. Arrows were used in 
rtivination. (Ezek. xxi.21.) 

Arrows were kept in a case 
or box called a quiver, which 




ARO 

was slung over the shoulder 
in such a position, that the 
soldier could draw out the 
arrows jvhen wanted. The 
position of the quiver and bow 
is seen in the preceding cut. 
The drawing of the bow was a 
test* of strength, and is still so 
among the Arabians. Hence 
the allusion in Ps. xviii. 34. 

4. The sling (1 Sam. xvii. 
40,) was an early weapon of 
war, by which stones were 
thrown with great force and 
surprising accuracy of aim. 
(Judg. xx. 15, 16.) This skill 
was shown in a remarkable 
degree by the Benjamites, who 
could employ either hand in 
its use with equal adroitness. 
The slingers ranked next to 
the archers in efficiency. 

5. The battle-axe (Jer. 1L 
20) was obviously a powerful 
weapon of war, bui of its form 
and manner of use we have 
now no knowledge. 

The term armour, and the 
various offensive and defen* 
sive articles comprised in it, 
are frequently used figurative- 
ly in the Bible ; and'with re- 
markable force and eloquence 
in Eph. vi. 11—18, where the 
graces of the Christian cha- 
racter are represented as the 
armour of God, in which he 
clothes the believer, and by 
which he is enabled to fight 
the good fight of faith with a 
steady and victorious arm. 

ARMY. (See War.) 

ARNON. (Deut. ii. 24.) The 
principal river east of Jordan, 
and originally the boundary 
between the Moabites and the 
Ammonites ; then between the 
Moabites and Amorites; and 
finally, between the Moabites 
and the tribe of Reuben. It is 
now called the Modjeb or Mu 
jeb, and is about fifty miles 
long, emptying into the Dead 
Sea. The current in winter 
is full and rapid, but in sum- 
mer the channel is nearly dry 

AROER. 1. (Deut. iii. 12, ana 
73 



AR V 

v. 48.) A city on the north 
Dank of the river Arnon. It is 
now called Araayr. The term 
i< the city in the midst of the 
river," (Josh. xiii. 9,) ori- 
ginated in the circumstance 
that the city stood partly on 
the bank and partly on .an 
island formed by the river. 

2. Aroer before Rabbah 
(Josh. xiii. 25) is supposed to 
have been situated on the 
Jabbok, or river of Gad. 

ARPAD, ARPHAD. (Isa. x. 
9.) A city of Syria, always 
mentioned in connexion with 
Hamath, and probably in the 
vicinity of Damascus, but its 
exact site is now unknown. 
(Jer. xlix. 23. Ezek. xxvii. 8. 
See Arvad.) 

ARTAXERXES. (Ezra iv. 
7, and vii. 7. Neh. ii. 1.) A 
king of Persia, who reigned 
forty-seven years, and died 
four hundred and twenty-five 
years before Christ. In the 
-seventh year of his reign he 

fiermitted Ezra to return into 
udea, with such of his coun- 
trymen as chose to follow 
him ; and fourteen years after- 
wards he allowed Nehemiah to 
return and buildup Jerusalem. 
(See Elisama, by the Ameri- 
can Sunday-school Union, pp. 
187, 188.) 

ARTILLERY. (1 Sam. xx. 
40.) Any missive weapons, as 
arrows, lances, &c. 

ARTS. (Acts xix. 19.) Pre- 
tended skill in the practice 
of made, astrology, &c. 

ARUMAH, or RUMAH. 
(Judg. ix. 41. 2 Kings xxiii. 
36.) A village near Shechem, 
where Abimelech lived. 

ARVAD. (Ezek. xxvii. 8- 
11.) Called also Arpad and 
Arphad, and by the Turks, 
Ru-ad. A small village on an 
island of the same name near 
the eastern shore of the Medi- 
terranean, and twenty or 
thirty miles north of Tripoli. 
Modern travellers describe 
Arvad a3 a deserted ruin, 
7 



ASA 

though the site makes a fins 
appearance at a distance. 

ARYADITES. (Gen. x. 18.) 
The people of Arvad were 
called Arvadites, and in the 
time of Ezekiel were gene- 
rally known as mariners and 
soldiers in the Syrian service. 
(Ezek. xxvii. 8—11.) 

ASA (1 Kings xv. 8) was son 
and successor of Abiiam on 
the throne of Judah. He 
began his reign b. c. 955, 
ana reigned forty-one years. 
Though educated in the prin- 
ciples of a false religion, he 
showed, from the first, his de- 
cided opposition to idolatry, 
and even deposed his mother 
Maachah because she had 
made an idol in a grove. The 
first part of his reign was 
peaceful, and he improved the 
opportunity to purify his king- 
dom from idolatry, and to 
build and fortify several ti- 
tles ; and when Zerah, an 
Ethiopian king, invaded his 
territories, with an army of 
a million of men and three 
hundred chariots, Asa met. 
him with six hundred thou- 
sand, and defeated him. Thisv 
memorable battle was fought: 
at Mareshah. (2 Chron. xiv.) 

At the suggestion of Azariah, . 
a prophet whom God specially 
deputed for that purpose,, xlsa 
set about the reformation of 
every abuse in his kinsdom, 
and appointed a solemnfesti- 
val of thanksgiving to God, at 
which all the people were as- 
sembled, and entered into a 
formal covenant with God. 
Baasha, king of Israel, find- 
ing his subjects too much dis- 
posed to go into, Judah and 
dwfrll there, commenced for- 
tifying Ramah, a place near 
the frontiers of both king- 
doms, with a view to cut off 
the passage of emigrants to 
Jerusalem^ and other parts of 
Judah. Asa, though he had so 
long enjoyed the favour and 
protection of God, was now 
73 



ASA 

tempted to forsake him. In- 
stead of trusting in his al- 
mighty arm for deliverance, 
as he had done in years past, 
he sent to Benhadad the king 
of Syria, and prevailed on 
him, even in violation of a 
treaty which existed between 
Benhadad and Baasha, to 
come to the help of Judah, 
against Israel. The Syrian 
king, won by the presents 
which Asa had sent him, im- 
mediately attacked and de- 
stroyed several important ci- 
ties of Israel. Baasha, finding 
his kingdom thus invaded', 
abandoned the fortification of 
Raman, that he might protect 
the provinces of the interior 
from desolation. Asa seized 
the opportunity to demolish 
Raman, and take away the 
stone and timber which were 
collected there, and use them 
in the building of his own 
cities. 

In the mean time, a prophet 
was sent to remind him of his 
• sin and folly in forsaking the 
Lord his God and trusting to 
an arm of flesh, and to warn 
him of the punishment which 
would come upon him for all 
these things. But the heart 
of Asa was already so alien- 
ated from God, that he was 
enraged by the faithful mes- 
sage, and caused the bearer 
of it to be thrown into prison. 

He was afterwards visited 
with a most distressing dis- 
ease of the feet, but even this 
did not lead him to renew his 
tru t in God. He died a. m. 
3090, in the forty-first year 
of his reign; and his burial 
was attended with srreat pomp. 

ASAHEL. (2 Sam. ii. 18, 19.) 
A brother of Joab. (See Ab- 
ner.) 

ASAPH (1 Chron. xxv. 1, 2) 
was a celebrated musician, 
and one of the chief leaders 
of the temple choir. Several 
of the psalms of David are 
entitled, a psalm cf or for 



ASH 

Asaph. (Psalms lxxiii. to 
lxxxiii.) That these were not 
written by Asaph is evident 
from the fact that allusion is 
made in some of them to 
events which took place after 
his death. 

ASCENSION. (SeeCHRisT.) 

ASH. (Isa. xliv. 14.) A well 
known forest tree, of rapid 
growth, the wood of which 
was wrought into the images 
of idolatry. 

ASHAN. (Josh. xv. 42.) A 
city of Judah, situated about 
twenty miles south-west of 
Jerusalem, and probably the 
Chorashan mentioned 1 Sam. 
xxx. 30. 

ASHDOD. (Josh. xv. 47.) One 
of the five capital cities of 
the Philistines, called by the 
Greeks, and known in the 
New Testament, as Azotus. 
(Acts viii. 40.) It was situated 
on the Mediterranean, be- 
tween Askelon and Ekron, 
fifteen or twenty miles north 
of Gaza. Here was the temple 
of Dagon, in which the Philis- 
tines placed the ark. The 
city was more than once cap- 
tured. (2 Chron. xxvi. 6. Isa. 
xx. 1.) A late traveller states 
that Ashdod is to be seen 
from an elevated spot near 
Joppa; and that it abounds 
with fine old olive trees, and 
with fruits and vegetables of 
every kind. Messrs. King and 
Fisk, American missionaries, 
were there in 1S23. 

ASHDOTH-PJSGAH. (Deut. 
iii. 17.) A QilT^f the tribe of 
Reuben, w;mch is elsewhere 
called the 'springs of Pisgah. 
(Deut. iv. 49.) 

ASHER. (Gen. xxx. 13.) The 
son of Jacob, by Zilpah. He 
was one of the twelve patri- 
archs. The portion of the 
holy land assigned to his tribe 
was bounded by Phenicia on 
the west; mount Lebanon on 
the north ; mount Carmel and 
the tribe of Issachar on the 
south, and the tribes of Zebu- 
74 



ASH 

Ion and Naphtali on the east. 
His descendants are called 
Asherites. (Judg. i. 32.) 

ASHES. (Gen. xviii. 27.) To 
cover the head with ashes, or 
to sit in ashes, betokens self- 
abhorrence, humiliation, ex- 
treme grief, or penitence. (2 
Sam. xiii. 19. Esth. iv. 3. Job 
ii. 8. Jer. vi. 26. Lam. iii. 16. 
Jonah iii. 6. Matt. xi. 21.) 
There was a sort of lye made 
of the ashes of the heifer, 
sacrificed on the great day of 
expiation, which was used 
for ceremonial purification. 
(Num. xix.17, 18. SeeHELFER.) 

ASHKENAZ. (Gen. x. 3.) 
A grandson of Japhet, and the 
probable ancestor of those 
who inhabited a country of the 
same name, (Jer. Ii. 27,) lying 
along the eastern and south- 
eastern sjiore of the Black 
Sea. The precise district is 
unknown. (See Minni.) 

ASHTAROTH. 1. A place 
(Josh. ix. 10) "called Astaroth, 
(Deut. i. 4,) and Ashteroth Kar- 
naim, (Gen. xiv. 5,) the word 
karnaim meaning two-homed, 
and having reference to a 
heathen goddess, who was re- 
presented with a crescent, or 




two-horned moon. It was one 
of the chief cities of Bashan, 
and is supposed to be the same 
with the modern Mezaraib, on 
the route of the pilgrims from 
Damascus to Mecca. 

2. An idol ; represented in 
the above cut, (Judg. ii. 13,) 



ASI 

called also Aahtoreth, the god- 
dess of the Sidonians. It was 
much worshipped in Syria 
and Phenir.ia. Solomon in- 
troduced the worship of it. 
(1 Kings xi. 33.) The Pheni- 
cians called it Astarte. The 
four hundred priests of Jeze- 
bel, mentioned 1 Kings xviii. 
19, are supposed to have been 
employed in the service of 
this idol ; and we are told that 
under this name three hun- 
dred priests were constantly 
employed in its service at 
Hierapolia, in Syria, many 
ages after Jezebel's time. 
This idol was also called the 
" queen of heaven," and the 
worship was said to be paid 
to the " host of heaven." It is 
usually mentioned in connex- 
ion with Baal. 

ASHTORETH. (See pre- 
ceding article.) 

ASIA. (Acts ii. 9.) Asia was 
not known to the ancients as 
one of the fuur grand divisions 
of the earth. The name was 
originally applied to a small 
district of Lydia, including 
perhaps Ionia and Soli's. The 
term was gradually enlarged 
in its application, until it em- 
braced the whole of Asia Mi- 
nor, and finally denoted a 
large portion of the eastern 
division of the earth. 

The Asia of the Bible is a 
peninsula, on the western or 
south-western side of the con- 
tinent of Asia, which stretch- 
es into the Mediterranean or 
Great Sea, extending east as 
far as the Euphrates, west to 
the islands of the sea, (see 
Islands.) north to -what is 
now called the Black Sea, 
and south to the Mediterra- 
nean or Great Sea. It includes 
the provinces of Bithynia, 
Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, 
Cilicia, Pamphylia, Pisidia, 
Lycaonia, Phrygia, Mysia, 
Troas, Lydia, Lysia, and Ca- 
ria. 

In the sense in which it \9 
75 



ASP 

used, in Acts ii.9; vi. 9; 
xix. 10. 22. 26, 27. 2 Tim. i. 15. 
IPet. i. 1, it was the Roman 
proconsular Asia, and com- 

Srehends but a portion of Asia 
Iinor, viz. Phrygja, Mysia, 
Caria, and Lydia. Within this 
territory the seven churches 
of Asia were situated. (Rev. 
i. 4. 11.) In Acts xxvii. 2. the 
term Asia may represent Asia 
Minor, but even then it may 
refer only to the western 
coasts. In every other case it 
is so distinguished from other 
portions of Asia Minor, or so 
immediately connected with 
Ephesus, as to lead to the be- 
lief that the Asia of which 
Ephesus was the capital (or 
proconsular Asia) is intended. 

ASKELON. (2 Sam. i. 20.) 
One of the " fenced cities" of 
the Philistines. It was situ- 
ated on the eastern shore of 
the ^Mediterranean, twelve 
miles south of Gaza. After 
the death of Joshua, it fell 
into the hands of the tribe of 
Judah. (Judg. i. 18.) At a short 
distance to the north is a small 
village called Scalona, evi- 
dently a coiruption of the an- 
cient name. 

ASP. (Deut. xxxii. 33.) A 
small but very poisonous ser- 
pent. (Rom. iii. 13.) Their 
venom is cruel, because it is 
so subtle and deadly, and re- 
quires an immediate excision 
of the wounded part. For an 
infant child to play upon the 
hole of such a venomous rep- 
tile would seem to be most 
presumptuous ; and hence the 
force and beauty of the figure 
used by the prophet, (Isa. xi. 
8.) to represent the security 
and peace of the Messiah's 
reign. In Ps. lviii. 4, 5, and 
Eccl. x. 1 1, and Jer. viii. 17, al- 
lusion is made to that singular 
phenomenon, the charming of 
serpents by musical sounds ; 
and the wicked are compared 
to the deaf adder, (or asp.) that 
stoppeth her ear, and will not 



ASS 

be charmed. Whether the rep 
tile is really deaf, or whethei 
it obstructs its hearing, as it 
may easily do by laying one 
ear upon the ground and co- 
vering the other with dust or 
with its tail, is not important 
It is enough that for some 
cause the effort to attract and 
turn it, is vain. All these 
phrases import that musical 
sounds may beguile and dis 
arm some serpents, but not 
others; or that the arts of 
the charmer may be effectual 
sometimes, but not always 
The Arabians tell us that there 
are three classes of serpents, 
and in the first class they 
place those whose poison is 
so fatal as to cause death in 
three hours, and who are not 
subject to the power of the 
charmer ; such, they say, are 
the basilisk and all kinds of 
asps. It is sufficient for the 
full force of the scriptural al 
lusions, that there are ser- 
pents on whom the power of 
the charmer is often exerted 
in vain ; serpents whose stroke 
cannot be parried, and whose 
poison is death. 

ASS. (Gen. xxii. 3.) This 
animal is among the most 
common mentioned in Scrip- 
ture, and constituted a consi- 
derable part of the wealth of 
ancient times. (Gen. xii. 16, 
and xxx. 43. Job i. 3 ; xlii. 12.) 
They were sometimes so nu- 
merous as to require a spe- 
cial keeper. (Gen. xxxvi. 24. 
1 Chron. xxvii. 30.) The ass 
and the ox were the principal 
animals of burden and draft 
(Ex. xxiii. 12.) The domestic 
ass is indeed a most ser- 
viceable animal, and in some 
respects preferable to the 
horse. He subsists on very 
coarse food, and submits to the 
meanest drudgery. His skin 
is remarkably thick, and is 
used at this day for parch- 
ment, drum heads, memoran- 
dum books, &c. Their usual 
76 



ASS 



ASS 




Lfttair is red or dark brown, 
biK sometimes they are of a 
silver white, and these last 
were usually appropriated to 
persons of dignity. (Judg. v. 
10.) So in Gen. xlix. 11, the 
allusion to the ass and the 
vine imports dignity and fruit- 
fulness, and the continuance 
and increase of both in the 
tribe of Judah. There was a 
breed of asses far superior to 
those that were used in labour, 
and which are supposed to be 
referred to in most of the pas- 
sages above cited. 

The female, or she-ass, was 
particularly valuable for the 
saddle, and for her milk, 
which was extensively used 
for food and for medicinal 
purposes. 

The ass was used in agri- 
cultural labour, especially in 
earing (ploughing) the ground, 
and treading it to prepare it 
for the seed. (I3a. xxx. 24, 
and xxxii. 20.) The prohibi- 
tion (Deut. xxii. 10) might have 
besn founded in part on the 
inequality of strength between 
7' 



the ox and the ass, and the 
cruelty of putting upon them 
the same burden ; but was in- 
tended chiefly to mark the 
separation of the Jews from 
surrounding nations, among 
whom such an union of differ^ 
ent beasts was not uncommon. 
So serviceable and indeed es- 
sential to man was this animal 
in ancient times, that to drive 
away the ass of the fatherless 
is reckoned among the most 
atrocious acts of oppression 
and cruelty, (Job xxiv. 3,) as 
depriving an orphan family 
of their only cow would be 
regarded at the present day. 
The attachment of this ani- 
mal to its owner is among its 
remarkable characteristics. 
In this respect it closely re- 
sembles the dog. Hence the 
severity of the^prophet's re- 
buke. (Isa. i. 3.) 

The fact stated in 2 Kings 
vi. 25, is designed to show that 
such was the extremity of the 
famine, that the people were 
not only willing to give an ex- 
orbitant price for a small and 
77 



ASS 
most undesirable portion of 
meat which they were not ac- 
customed to eat, but, breaking 
through all the restraints oT 
religion and superstition, the 
famished citizens seized with 
avidity this unsavoury and 
forbidden food. 

The ass, when dead, was 
thrown into the open field, and 
that part of his flesh which 
was not consumed by beasts 
and bird 3, was suffered to 
putrefy and decay. Nothing 
could be more disgraceful than 
to expose a human body in 
the like manner. (Jer. xxii. 
19, and xxxvi. 30.) 

Much vain discussion has 
arisen respecting the passage, 
Num. xxii. 28. It would be"as 
easy for the Creator of both 
man and beast to take the 
power of speech from the 
former and give it to the 
latter, as it was at first to give 
it to the former and withhold 
it from the latter. The apos- 
tle (2 Pet. ii. 16) seems to have 
received the history like a 
little child, in the plain and 
obvious meaning ol the lan- 
guage. (See Balaam.) 

A" variety ol opinions have 
been entertained respecting 
our Saviour's entrance into Je- 
rusalem, (Matt. xxi. 1—11,) 
whether it was under circum- 
stances of great meanness and 
poverty, or with honour and 
royal parade. The prophecy 
in Zech. ix. 9, was fulfilled, 
and this is all that it con- 
cerns us to know. 

The Arabian ass has alight, 
quick step. In Persia, Syria, 
and Egypt, ladies are accus- 
tomed to ride on asses, and 
they are particularly valuable 
in mountainous countries, be- 
ing more sure-footed than 
horses. Their ordinary gait 
is four miles an hour. 

The ass in his wild or natu- 
ral state is an elegant animal. 
It is often alluded to in the 
-sacred writings. (Job xi. 12; 



ASS 
xxiv. 5, and xxxix. 5—8.) 
They usually roamed in herds 
through barren and desolate 
districts. (Isa. xxxii. 14. Hos. 
viii.9.) One was recently taken 
in a pitfall in Astrachan, and 
added to the Surry Zoological 
collection in England. It is 
described as having a deer- 
like appearance, "standing 
high on the legs, very active, 
of a silvery colour, with a 
dark brown streak alona: the 
back. (See Youth's. Friexd, 
by the American Sunday- 
school Union, vols. ii. and iii. 

ASSEMBLIES, masters op. 
(Eccl. xii. 11.) Tjlis phrase by 
itself is perfectly intelligible, 
and is supposed to refer to the 
leading men or master-spirits 
of the assemblies of the wise 
and curious, which were often 
held in eastern countries, and 
where sages and philosophers 
uttered their weighty sayings. 
The preacher endeavoured to 
clothe the infinitely wise and 
perfect doctrines "which he 
taught in proper language. 
They were the words of truth, 
and were designed to prove 
quickening to" the sluggish 
soul as goads are to the" dull 
ox. (Acts ii. 37.) They were re- 
ceived from the one great Shep- 
herd or Teacher, and came 
with great power as the say- 
ings of the most wise and elo- 
quent of their learned assem- 
blies ; and they would take 
hold of the hearts and con- 
sciences of men, holding them 
to the obedience of the truth, 
as nails driven through a 
sound board firmly bind" and 
fasten it where we will. 

ASSHUR. (Gen. x. 22.) The 
second son of Shem. He pro- 
bably gave name to the coun- 
try of "Assyria. (Hos. xiv. 3. 
Mic. v. 6.) There is some 
doubt whether the reading of 
Gen. x. 11, should not be thus . 
" Out of that land he (that is, 
Nimrod, spoken of in ver. 9> 
went forth into Asshur, or Aa 
78 



ASS 

eyria, and builded Nineveh." 
At any rate, the weight of au- 
thority favours the position, 
that, Nineveh was founded by 
Nimrod. 

ASSOS. (Acts xx. 13.) A 
maritime town of Troas, in 
the north of Mysia, and oppo- 
site the island of Lesbos, now 
called Beiram. 

ASSYRIA. (2 Kings xv. 19.) A 
most powerful empire of Asia, 
the history of which, both in 
its glory and in its overthrow, 
is most significantly told by 
the prophet. (Ezek. xxxi.) It 
was founded probably by Nim- 
rod, one hundred and twenty 
years after the deluge. (See 
Asshur.) In the mostcompre- 
hensive use of the term, it in- 
cluded all the countries and 
nations Jrom the Mediterra- 
nean Sea on the west, to the 
river Indus on the east. It is 
important to observe that by 
the term Assyrians, in the 
sacred writings, is meant the 
people of Assyria proper, or 
the empire of which Nineveh 
was the chief city ; by the 
Babylonians, or Chaldeans, is 
meant the people of the coun- 
try of which Babylon was the 
capital ; and by the Syrians, 
the people of the country of 
which Zobah first, and after- 
wards Damascus, was the 
capital, and whose south and 
south-eastern boundary was 
the land of Canaan. 

The early history of Assyria 
is involved in obscurity. We 
know from the sacred history 
that it was a powerful nation. 
(Num. xxiv. 22.) And its ca- 
pital was one of the most re- 
nowned of the eastern world. 
(See Nineveh.) It fell into 
the hands of the Medes ; the 
monarchy was divided be- 
tween them and the Babylo- 
nians, and the very name of 
Assyria was thenceforth for- 
gotten. (See Geography of 
the Bible, p. 24, and Eve- 
ning Recreations, part i. pp. 



ATIi 

50-— 70, both by the American 
S. Union.) 

ASSURANCE. 1. Op thb 
understanding, (Col. ii. 2) 
is a full knowledge of divine 
things founded on the declara- 
tion of the Scriptures. 

2. An assurance of faith 
(Heb. x 22) is a firm belief in 
Christ, as God has revealed 
him to us in the Scriptures, 
and an exclusive dependence 
on him for salvation. 

3. Assurance of hofe. 
(Heb. vi. 11) is a firm expect- 
ation that God will grant us 
the complete enjoyment of 
what he has promised. 

ASTAROTH. (See Ashta- 

ROTH.) 

ASTROLOGERS. (Dan. ii. 
27.) A class of men who pre- 
tended to foretell future events 
by observing the motions of 
the heavenly bodies. 

ASUPPIM, house of. (1 
Chron. xxvi. 15.) Some one of 
the apartments of the temple 
where the stores were kept. 

ATAD. (See Abel-mizraim.) 

ATHALIAH. (2Kings xi. I.) 
The mother of Ahaziah Ahab. 
king of Israei. was ner lather! 
Omri, king of Samaria, was 
her grandfather, and she mar- 
ried Joram or Jehoram, king 
of Judah. The sacred biogra- 
pher gives her a most odious 
and revolting character. She 
advised her^own son in his 
wickedness, and after Jehu 
had slain him, (see Ahaziah,) 
she resolved to destroy the 
children of her husband by 
his former wives, and then 
take the throne of Judah. But 
Jehosheba, a half sister cf 
Ahaziah, secured Joash, one 
of the children and heirs, and 
secreted him and his nurse 
for six years. In the seventh 
year, every thing being pre- 
pared for the purpose, Joash, 
the young prince, was brought 
out and placed on the throne. 
Attracted by the crowd of 
people who had assembled to 
79 



ATO 

witness the ceremony, and 
unsuspicious of the cause, 
Athaliah hastened to the tem- 
ple. When the populace had 
assembled, and when she saw 
the young king on the throne, 
and heard the shouts of the 
people, and found that all her 
ambitious designs were likely 
to be defeated, she rent her 
clothes and cried out, " Trea- 
son, Treason, 5 ' hoping proba- 
bly to rally a party in favour 
of her interests. But she was 
too late. The priest com- 
manded her to be removed 
from the temple, and she was 
taken without the walls of the 
city, and put to death. 

ATHENS. (Acts xvii. 15.) 
The capital of Attica in 
Greece, situated on the Saro- 
nic Gulf, forty-six miles east of 
Corinth, three hundred south- 
west of Constantinople, and 
five miles fromthe coast. It was 
distinguished not only for poli- 
tical importance and military 
power, but for the eloquence, 
literature, and refinement of 
its inhabitants. Paul visited 
it about a.d. 52, and found the 
people sunk in idolatry and 
idleness. He preached there, 
and took occasion to reprove 
their superstitions, for which 
he was summoned before the 
Areopagus. (See Areopagus. 
See Life of Paul, by the Ame- 
rican Sunday-school Union, 
chapters viii. ix. and x.) 

ATONEMENT. (Lev. iv. 
20. Rom. v. 11.) This word, in 
its popular use, has a variety 
of significations, such as re- 
conciliation, satisfaction or re- 
paration, and expiation. The 
word occurs often in the Old 
Testament, but only once in 
the New ; thougli the subject 
itself is presented, and illus- 
trated, and magnified in every 
variety of form", a>:d by all the 
force of expression, both in 
the gospels and in the epis- 
tles." (Rom. iii— viii. and Heb. 
vii. — x. inclusive.) The word 



ATO 

ransom (Job xxxiii. 24) might 
be rendered atonement, and is 
so rendered in the margin. 
(See also Num. xvi. 46, aDd 
2 Sam. xxi. 3.) 

The great atonement made 
for sin by the sacrifice of our 
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, 
constitutes the grand substan- 
tial principle of the Christian 
faith. The efficacy of it is 
such, that the sinner, though 
under the wrath of God and 
the condemnation of his just 
law, by faith in the atoning 
blood of Christ is brought into 
favour with God, is delivered 
from condemnation, and made 
an heir of eternal life and 
glory. 

The Hebrew word rendered 
atonement signifies covering, 
(Ps. xxxii. l,)~and the Greek 
version of this Hebrew word 
is translated propitiation in 
our Bible ; and may denote 
either that our offences are 
covered, or that we are shield- 
ed and protected from the 
curse, Christ being made a 
curse for us. Generally, wher- 
ever the term occurs, a state 
of controversy, irreconcilia- 
tion, or estrangement is im- 
plied ; and in relation to the 
party offended, it imports 
something done to propitiate. 
(Gen. xxxii. 20. Ezek. xvi. 63.) 
The idea of making an atone- 
ment is expressed by a word 
which signifies to make pro- 
pitiation ; and the apostles, in 
referring to the death of Christ, 
use those very terms which, 
in the Septuagint version of 
the Old Testament, are ap- 
plied to legal sacrifices and 
their effect : thus representing 
the death of Christ, not only 
as a real and proper sacrifice, 
but as the truth and substance 
of all the Levitical types and 
shadows — the true, efficacious, 
and only atonement for sin, 
(1 John ii. 2, and iv.,10 ;) show- 
ing that Christ is not only the 
being or agent by whom the 
80 



AVE 

propitiation is made, but was 
himself the propitiatory sacri- 
fice. 

After all the vain philosophy 
and ingenious speculations of 
men to destroy or modify this 
doctrine, which on the one 
hand reduces sinful man to 
the most humbling extremity, 
and on the other proposes to 
him a perfect and glorious sal- 
vation ; the atonement made 
for him, by the self-sacrifice 
of Christ, remains, and will 
for ever remain, the essential 
principle of the gospel. It will 
for ever illustrafe the dreadful 
sinfulness of sin, the infinite 
purity, justice, and mercy of 
God, and the love of Christ 
which passeth knowledge. No 
teacher of divine truth to sin- 
ful men can build a consistent 
or safe system of instruction 
on any other foundation than 
this. (Matt. i. 21, and xxvi. 28. 
Mark x. 45. John i. 29, and 
x. 10—18.) He who rejects the 
atonement, and tramples un- 
der font the blood of the Son 
of God, can point out no way 
in which a sinner can escape 
the damnation of hell. 

ATTALIA, (Acts xiv. 25,) 
known now as Satalia or Se- 
talie, a city of Pamphylia on 
the Mediterranean, and was 
visited by Paul and Barnabas, 
on their tour through Asia 
Minor. 

AUGUSTUS. (Luke ii. 1.) 
The nephew and successor of 
Tulius Cesar, and emperor of 
Rome, at the time of our Sa- 
viour's birth. He reigned for- 
ty-one years, and was succeed- 
ed by Tiberius Cesar. (Luke 
ill. 1. See Cesar.) 

AVEN. 1. (Amos i. 5.) A 
plain in Syria, called also the 
Valley of Lebanon, because 
lyiac between the two ranges 
of the nrmntams of Lebanon. 
(Josh. xi. 17.) The site of it is 
supposed to have been where 
Baal-beck now is, thirty miles 
north of Damascus. 



AZA 

2. (Hos. x. 8.) Bethel, which 
is sometimes called Bethaven, 
or house of iniquity, is here 
called Aven, or iniquity itself, 
to denote the extreme depra- 
vitv which prevailed there. 

3. (Ezek. xxx. 17. See On.) 
AVENGE, AVENGER. 

(Luke xviii. 8. 1 Thess. iv. 6.) 
Vengeance is an act of justice; 
revenge is an act of passion. 
Hence" injuries are revenged - , 
crimes are avenged. The act 
of avenging, though attended 
with the infliction of pain, is 
oftentimes an act of humanity, 
and always supposed to be an 
act of justice. God is avenged 
of his enemies, when he vin- 
dicates his own law, and go- 
vernment, and character, and 
punishes their transgressions. 
An avenger is the agent or 
instrument by w T hom the 
avengement is visited on the 
offending party. 

Avenger of blood was a 
title given to one who pursued 
a murderer or manslayer, by 
virtue of the ancient Jewish 
law, to avenge the blood of one 
who had b«;en murdered or 
slain. (See Cities of Refuge.) 

AVHM. (Josh, xviii. 23.) 
Supposed by some to be the 
same with the Hivites or 
Avites, who dwelt near Gaza, 
and who were supplanted by 
the Philistines. 

AVOUCH. (Deut. xxvi. 17, 
18.) To avouch, in this con- 
nexion, imports a solemn and 
deliberate choice of God as a 
leader and portion, and an 
avowed determination to obey 
him ; and on the part of God 
a solemn covenant to succour 
and exalt the Israelites as his 
people. 

AZARIAH. (2 Kings xiv. 21.) 
There are at least sixteen per- 
sons of this name mentioned 
in the Old Testament. The 
most distinguished of them 
w;as Azariah, (called also Uz- 
ziah,) the son and successor 
of Amaziah, on the throne of 
81 



AZA 

Judah. He was in many re- 
spects an excellent king ; but 
being elated by his prosperity, 
he aspired to execute the of- 
fice of a priest, and to offer 
incense in the temple. In 
this he was resisted by the 
priests, and while enraged by 
their interference, the leprosy 
broke out upon his forehead, 
and remained upon him till 
the day of his death ; so that 



AZO 

he was obliged to spend th<» 
latter part of his life in soli- 
tude. (2 Chron. xxvi. 21 .) 

AZEKAH. (Josh. xv. 33.) A 
place in the tribe of Judah, 
about twelve miles east of 
Bethlehem, and twenty south 
of Jerusalem. The army of 
the Philistines encamped near 
this place at the time Goliath 
tell before David. 

AZOTUS. (SeeAsHDOD.) 



BAA 

BAAL, or BEL. (1 Kings 
xviii. 21. Isa. xlvi. 1.) 
The name by which several 
nations of the east worship- 
ped the sun ; and which was 
also applied to other objects 
of idolatrous worship. An- 
cient writers tell us that the 
Phenicians supposed the sun 
to be the only lord of hea- 
ven, styling him Beel-Samen. 
which means lord of heaven. 
As he was worshipped under 
different forms in different 
places, he was designated, by 
adding the place— as Baal- 
Berith, Baal-Gad, Baal-Peor, 
meaning Baal of Berith or the 
Shechemites— Baal of Gad— 
and Baal of Peor or the Moab- 
ites ; and these diferent names 
were all included under the 
general name Baalim. (IKings 
xviii. 18.) 

Baal, Bel, or Belus was 
worshipped by the Carthagi- 
nians, Babylonians, Assyri- 
ans, and others ; and some 
have supposed he was the 
same with Moloch, to whom 
the Ammonites made their 
cruel and bloody sacrifices. 
Human victims were offered 
to Baal, as we learn from Jer. 
xix. 5. Elevated places were 
selected for his worship, and 
his priests and prophets were 
very numerous. Sometimes 
the tops of the houses were 
devoted to this purpose. (2 



BAA 

Kings xxiii. 12. Jer. xxxii. 29.) 
Baalim and Ashtaroth were 
the general names of all the 
gods and goddesses of Syria, 
Palestine, and the neighbour- 
ing countries. The worship 
of "Baal is supposed to have 
been general throughout the 
British islands, and to this 
day there are various super- 
stitious observances in Ire- 
land, Scotland and Wales, 
which very closely resemble 
the ancient worship of Baal. 
A town in Perthshire, on the 
borders of the Scotch high- 
lands, is called Tilliebeltane^ 
that is, the eminence or rising 
ground of tttfe fire of Baal. 
An enclosure of eight upright 
staves is made where it is 
supposed the fire was kindled, 
and a well in the vicinity is 
held in great veneration : af- 
ter drinking from it, the peo- 
ple pass around the temple 
nine times, in a procession. 
In Ireland, Beltein is one of 
the festival days, and the fires 
are made early on the tops of 
the hills, and all the cattle are 
made to pass through them. 
This, it is supposed, secures 
them from contagion and dis- 
ease for that year. 

The cut represents an an 
cient figure of Baal and Mo 
loch, standing in the portico 
of a temple, in the centre of 
which is a pine tree. Both 
82 



BAA 



BAA 




these idols were worshipped 
in a variety of forms, accord- 
ing to the various tastes and 
superstitions of their devo- 
tees. 

House of Baal (1 Kings 
xvi. 32) is the same with the 
temple (or place of worship) 
of Baal. 

We have a most interest- 
ing account of the manner 
in which the worshippers of 
Baal were confounded and 
punished by Elijah at mount 
Carmel, in 1 Kings xviii. (See 
also Life of Elijah, by the 
A. S. Union, chap, vii.) 

Baalah. (See Kirjath.) 

Baal-gad, Baal-hermon. 
^Josh. xi. 17; xii. 7, and Judg. 
iii. 3.) A city in the valley of 
Lebanon, supposed to have 
been under mount Hermon, 
and most probably the same 
as Baal-hermon (1 Chron. v. 



23.) A comparison of the pas- 
sages in which this place is 
named, would incline us to 
the opinion that it was situ- 
ated somewhere in the north, 
ern limit of Joshua's conquest; 
all the country from it to Ha- 
math, including Anti-Leba- 
non, remaining unconquered. 

If this opinion is correct, 
the modern Balbec cannot be 
the ruins of Baal-gad, as it 
has been called, for that is in 
Ccele-Syria, north of Damas 
cus, and much farther north 
than the Israelites under Jo- 
shua pushed their victories. 

Baal-meon. (Num. xxxii. 
38. Ezek. xxv. 9.) A city of 
the tribe of Reuben, called 
also Beth-meon, (Jer. xiviii. 
23,) and Beth-baal-meon. (Jcsh. 
xiii. 17.) 

Baal-peor. (Ps. cvi. 28.) 
It is said under the article 
83 



BAA 

Baal that Baal-peor was the 
name of the image of Baal, 
which was worshipped at 
Peor ; but there is some rea- 
son to suppose that it was also 
the name of some other idol 
god ; and from the connexion 
of the passage in Psalms just 
cited, it has been conjectured 
that it might have been the 
same with the heathen god 
Pluto, to whom sacrifices were 
offered to appease the manes 
of the dead. 

Baal-pep. a zim. (2 Sam. v. 
20.; A place in the valley of 
Rephaim, a few miles south- 
west of Jerusalem, where Da- 
vid conquered the Philistines. 
The name in the original is 
significant of this victory, and 
hence the allusion in Isa. 
xxviii. 21. 

Baal-zebub. (See Beelze- 
bue.) 

Baal-zephon. (Ex. xiv. 2. 
9. Num. xxxiii. 7.) A sta- 
tion of the Israelites at the 
northern extremity of the 
Red Sea, corresponding to 
Suez, where there was pro- 
bably a temple for the wor- 
ship of Baal. Bruce supposes 
it to be the name of a light- 
house or signal station, at~the 
north entrance of the bay, 
as the Hebrew word zephon 
means north. 

BAANAH. (2 Sam. iv. 2.) 
One of the sons of Rimmon, 
and an officer in the army of 
Ishbosheth, Saul's son. In 
company with his brother 
Rechab, he entered the house 
of Ishbosheth at noonday, and 
stabbed him as he was lying 
upon the bed. Taking the head 
of their victim with them, 
they fled to David, at Hebron, 
supposing that he would re- 
ward them liberally for the 
head of such an enemy ; but 
so far from it, he was indig- 
nant at their cruel and cow- 
ardly conduct, and forthwith 
caused them to be slain, their 



BAB 

hands and feet to be cut off, 
and their bodies to be publicly 
suspended over the pool at 
Hebron. 

BAASHA (1 Kings xv. 1G) 
was the son of Ahijah, and 
commander-in-chief of a por- 
tion of the army of Tsraei. 
When Nadab, king of Israel, 
was besieging Gibbethon, a 
city of the Philistines, Baasha 
termed a conspiracy against 
him and murdered him, and 
immediately usurped the 
throne, which he held for 
twenty-four years. To secure 
himself against any disturb- 
ance from" the family of Jero- 
boam, (the rightful heirs of the 
throne.) he caused them all to 
be put to death. By this ciuel 
act he undesignedly fulfilled 
the prophecy respecting Jero- 
boam's posterity. (1 Kings xiv. 
10.) 

Baasha followed in the 
wicked ways cf Jeroboam, 
and was visited with the most 
fearful judgments of God. 
The warning he rece' /ed of 
the consequences of 1 la con- 
duct (1 Kings xvi. 1 -5) did 
not induce him to forsake 
his evil course. B s reign 
was filled with war »nd trea- 
chery, and his fami y and re- 
latives were cutoff According 
to the prediction. (' Kings xvi, 
9,11. See Asa.) 

BABEL, towei of, (Gen. 
xi. 4-9.) was built ■ i the plain 
of Shinar, by the £ ascendants 
of Noah, probablj from three 
hundred to five hundred years 
after the flood, to strve as a na- 
tional rallying point, and thus 
to secure their union and con- 
centrate their feelings and in- 
terests, and to prevent their 
dispersion. Their design was, 
that the whole world should 
be one vast kingdom, and that 
Babel should be its capital or 
chief city. 

The height and extent of 
the edifice^ according to the 
original design, must have 
84 



BAB 



BAB 




been prodigious. Chronolo- 
gists suppose they were em- 
ployed three years in collect- 
ing the materials, and twenty- 
two years upon the building ; 
and an ancient tradition tells 
us that the bricks (or blocks, 
as they may better be called) 
of which it was constructed, 
were twenty feet long, fifteen 
Droad, and seven thick. 

Their vain and presumptu- 
ous design was frustrated by 
the miraculous interposition 
of God, who confounded their 
language, so that it was im- 
possible for them to under- 
stand each others speech. 
This event cbliged them to 
separate into distinct compa- 
nies or tribes, and to settle 
in different districts of the 
earth. 

The sacred history informs 
us that in the construction 
of the tower they used slime 
for mortar. The word slime 
is supposed to denote a kind 
of bituminous mortar, (in dis- 
8 



tinction from clay mortar,) 
which was capable of resist- 
ing the effect of moisture. 
This material still abounds 
on the river Euphrates, a3 we 
are informed by modern tra- 
vellers. 

In the supposed ruins of 
Babylon are found jbitumen, 
mortar, and clay. The sun- 
dried brick were larger than 
the kiln-burnt, and resembled 
a thick, clumsy clod of earth, 
with chopped straw scattered 
through to bind it. 

Much doubt prevails as to 
the precise location of this 
tower. Capt. Mignan visited 
a mound on the eastern bank 
of the river Euphrates, about 
four miles and a half from 
modern Hilleh, in the pasha- 
lik of Bagdad. 32° 25' N. lat 
44° E. lonsr. from Greenwich. 
It is called' by the natives El 
Mujelhbah, '"the overturn- 
ed. " He describes the ruin as 
of a vast oblong shape, com- 
posed of hard cement, and of 
85' ~ 



BAB 

kiln-burnt and sun-dried brick 
or tile, which measured thir- 
teen inches square by three 
inches thick. Bitumen, vitri- 
fied and petrified brick, shells, 
and glass, were strewed 
around'. Capt. M. thinks that 
this must be the ruin of the 
ancient tower, and Major Ren- 
nel, the distinguished geogra- 
pher, is of the same opinion. 

Another traveller who visit- 
ed the ruins in 1779 says— 
"It appears almost like a 
mass 01 earth, being erected 
of bricks dried by "the sun, 
amazingly thick, and betwixt 
every tfiree or four feet there 
is a layer of reeds. Its height is 
at least one hundred and sixty 
feet ; but we found no remains 
either of a door or stairs." 

It has been thousht by very 
learned men that the tower in 
the temple of Belus, in Baby- 
lon, is the same with the tower 
of Babel. If this opinion is 
correct, we have the testimo- 
ny of Herodotus as to its di- 
mensions. He tells us that 
it was a square tower, built 
in the form of a pyramid, 
each side of which measured 
at its base a furlong, making 
the whole structure half a 
mile in circumference ; and 
its height, according to an- 
other historian, was six hun- 
dred and sixty feet; exceed- 
ing by sixty feet the highest 
of the Egyptian pyramids. 
Around the outside of the 
building there was a winding 
passage from the bottom to the 
top, and so broad as to permit 
carriages to pass each other. 
It contained many spacious 
apartments, which became 
part of the temple of Belus, 
after it was converted to pur- 
poses of idolatry. The tem- 
ple of Belus was greatly en- 
larged by Nebuchadnezzar, 
and its ruins are now called 
Birs Nimrcod. 

This is the most stu- 
pendous and surprising mass 



BAB 

of all the remains of Baby- 
lon. It is found in a desert 
about six miles south-west of 
Hilleh, and is called by the 
Jews, Nebuchadnezzar's pri- 
son. The evidence that there 
once existed on this spot a 
magnificent pile of buildings, 
of the richest, most expen- 
sive and durable materials; 
and that it was destroyed long 
since by violence, is perfectly 
conclusive. (See Babylon. 
See also Evening Recrea- 
tions, by A. S. Union, vol. ii. 
pp. 50—62.) 

Babel is one of the cities 
mentioned in Gen. x. 10, as 
the beginning of the kingdom 
of Nimrod ; probably mean- 
ing one of the cities founded 
by him, or one of the chiel 
cities of his kingdom. 

BABYLON. (Ps. cxxxvii. 1.) 
The chief city or mother ol 
Chaldea. (Jer. 1. 12.) It is alse 
called Sheshach. (Jer. Ii. 41.) 
It was one of the earliest and 
most celebrated cities (^anti- 
quity, and in the reign of Ne- 
buchadnezzar acquired such 
strength and glory as to be- 
come the seat of universal 
empire and the wonder of the 
world. (See Chaldea.) 

The city stood on the river 
Euphrates, by which it was 
divided into two parts, eastern 
and western; and these were 
connected by a bridge of won- 
derful construction. "The wall 
was at least forty-five miles in 
circumference ; and would of 
course include eight cities as 
large as London and its ap- 
pendages. It was laid out in 
six hundred and. twenty-five 
squares, formed by the inter- 
section of twenty-five streets 
at right angles. The walls, 
which were of brick, were at 
least seventy-five feet high 
and thirty-two broad. A trench 
surrounded the city, the sides 
of which were lined with 
brick and water-proof cement. 
The towers, palaces, and 
66 



BAB 

Hanging gardens with which it 
was adorned and magnified, 
and the pride and luxury of its 
inhabitants, are described in 
the Life of Daniel, by the Am. 
S. S. Union, chap. vii. and ix. 

As the river was liable every 
year to overflow its banks, 
canals were made to carry off 
the water ; and along the sides 
of the main channel immense 
banks were constructed as a 
still farther protection. To 
facilitate the construction of 
these works, the waters of the 
Euphrates were turned tem- 
porarily into a basin about 
forty miles square and thirty- 
five feet deep, which was dug 
for the purpose. 

This magnificent city was 
the subject of some of the 
most remarkable'prophecies. 
Among them are lsa. xiii. 1— 
22 ; xi v. 22-24; xxi. 9; xlvii. 1— 
7. Jer. xxv. 11, 12; 1.24.46; li. 
11.36.39.57. The fulfilment 
of these prophecies has been in 
many points literal. The city 
was invested by the victorious 
armies of Cyrus, b. c. 540, and 
after a blockade of two years 
was at last carried by strata- 
gem. On the night of a jjreat 
festival, the waters of the 
river were turned off, and the 
channel through the city be- 
came a highway for the enemy. 
By this channel the army of 
Cyrus passed in, under the 
walls, at midnight ; and their 
approach was not suspected 
until the different detachments 
met at the palace gate ; and 
all who were not slain sub- 
mitted to the conqueror. (See 
Belshazzar.) 

This was the end of the 
glory of Babylon. From that 
time its grandeur decayed. 
About twenty years after the 
victory of Cyrus, the city at- 
tempted to throw off the yoke, 
but it was again entirely sub- 
dued. Forty years afterwards 
Xerxes plundered the city of 
much of its remaining wealth, 



BAC 

and laid the temple of Belus 
in ruins. Then it suffered a 
steady decline until aDout the 
end of the fourth century. We 
are credibly informed that its 
walls were used by the Per- 
sian princes as an enclosure 
for wild beasts, preserved for 
the chase. And now, so utterly 
is the city destroyed, that the 
precise spot on which it stood 
is a matter of conjecture. 
(See Elisama, ch. ii. v. vl 
Life of Daniel, ch. xiii. xiv. 
Evening Recreations, vol. 
ii. pp. 63—74, all published by 
the Am. S. S. Union. 

Babylon the Great. (Eev. 
xvii. 5.) As Babylon of old 
was the chief of all idolatrous 
cities, she is taken a3 a fit 
emblem of the enormous guilt 
and extensive influence of 
idolatrous and papal Rome, 
each in its turn being the mo- 
ther of harlots and of the abo- 
minations of the earth ; the 
former corrupting the heathen 
world with her fornications, 
and the latter the Christian. 

It should be observed that 
the term Babylon is used to 
denote, (1.) Only the city. (Isa. 
xiii. 19; xxi. 9; xlviii.20.) (2.) 
The inhabitants of the city 
in distinction from the Chal- 
deans or inhabitants of the 
province. (Ezek. xxiii. 15. 17.) 
(3.) The province of Babylon 
and the Babylonian empire. 
(2 Kings xxiv. 1 ; xxv. 27. Ps. 
cxxxvli. 1. (4.) After the em- 
pire came under the dominion 
of Persia, the Persian kings 
are called kings of Babylon. 
(Ezra v. 13. Nch. xiii. 6.) 

BABYLONIANS. (See As- 

SYRIA.) 

BACA. (Ps. lxxxiv. 6.) This 
is probably the general name 
of any dreary or desolate way ; 
and of course the allusion in 
the cited passage is to Ihe joy 
of the worshippers on their 
way up to Jerusalem, which 
shall make the wilderness ap- 
87 



BAK 

pear to rejoice and blossom, 
and fill a thirsty land with 
springs of water. 

BADGERS' SKINS. (Ex. 
xxv. 5.) The animal which 
we know as the badger was 
unknown in Arabia, nor would 
Us skin be suitable for the 
purposes mentioned in the sa- 
cred writings. The prevailing 
opinion is, that skins of a deep 
blue colour are meant, without 
designating the animal from 
which they were taken. 

BAHURIM. (2Sam.iii.16; 
xvi. 5 ; xvii. 18.) A place in 
the tribe of Benjamin, east of 
Jerusalem, which has many 
interesting connexions with 
the life ofDavid, to which the 
passages cited refer. (See 
Ahimaaz.) 

BAGS. (2Kingsxii. 10. Luke 
xii. 33.) These were made of 
various sizes, each to contain 
a precise amount of money. 
We read that the workmen 
on the temple were paid in 
bags, which were probably de- 
livered to them sealed. At 
this day in eastern nations 
money passes in bags from 
hand to hand under the seal 
©f a banker or other public 
officer, and without counting, 
as it is paid by one to another. 
If the seal is genuine and un- 
broken, the exact value of 
each bag is known at sight. 

BAKE. (Gen. xix. 3.) The 
business of baking in early 
times was principally, if not 
exclusively, the work of wo- 
men. (Lev. xxvi. 26. I Sam. 
viii. 13. 2 Sam. xiii. 8. Jer. vii. 
18.) In Rome, as Pliny tells 
us, there was no such thing as 
a public baker for five hun- 
dred and eighty years. It 
geems probable from Jer. 
xxxvii. 21, and Hosea vii. 4 — 
7, that public bakers were 
known in those days, and in- 
nabited a particular section of 
\he city of Jerusalem. 

Cakes were thin bread, not 
unlike modern sea-biscuit, 



BAL 

baked upon the hearth, and 
sometimes covered with hot 
embers or ashes. Other me- 
thods were employed. (Lev. 
ii. 4, 5. 7.) Parched corn is 
familiar to most children in 
America, and this simplest 
way of preparing grain for 
food is common in the rudest 
state of society. Perhaps, 
however, the parching was 
only preparatory to bruising 
or grinding. Ancient histori- 
ans say that the people of for- 
mer days, being without mills, 
parched their grain. This is 
the parched corn mentioned 
as part of the present to David, 
(2 Sam. xvii. 28,) and was also 
the food which Boaz gave to 
Ruth. (Ruth ii. 14. See Bread 
Oven.) 

BALAAM (Num. xxii. 5) 
was the son of Beor or Bosor, 
and a native of Pethor, a vil- 
lage of Mesopotamia. Whe 
ther he was a prophet di 
vinely inspired, or only a 
pretender, does not appear; 
that he was an unrighteous 
man is not conclusive evi- 
dence that he was not a pro- 
phet of God employed for a 
particular purpose. (1 Sam. x. 
10. 1 Kings xiii. 18-20. Matt, 
vii. 22. John xi. 51.) 

The history of Balaam is 
given us in Num. xxii. xxiii. 
xxiv. and xxxi. He lived when 
the children of Israel were 
journeying from Egypt to the 
promised *land. Their num- 
bers were very large, and the 
kings of the country through 
which they passed, and whe 
did not know of their miracu- 
lous supply of food, were fear- 
ful that a famine would be 
occasioned by their depreda- 
tions, or that they would at> 
tempt to conquer all befora 
them. Among these was Ba 
lak, king of Moab. 

He knew that he could not 
contend with such a formida- 
ble host, and supposing that 
the God of the Israelites was 
83 






BAL 

like the gods of the heathen, 
ready to bless and to curse 
according to the caprice or 
interest of their votaries, he 
Bent for Balaam, who had the 
reputation of a famous diviner 
or idol priest, to come and 
curse the armies of Israel. 

God signified to Balaam that 
the Israelites were blessed, 
and should not be cursed. 
This was done in such a way 
as to deter Balaam from going. 
Balak sent again and offered 
a large reward, and because 
Balaam was not again posi- 
tively forbidden by God to go, 
he accepted the tempting offer, 
and returned with the messen- 
gers to Moab. (2 Pet. ii. 15.) 

On his way, however, he was 
informed, by a most extraordi- 
nary and significant miracle, 
that his course was wicked 
and perverse, and he was ef- 
fectually restrained from doing 
what Balak had sent for him 
to do. So far from it, he was 
led to pronounce a prophetic 
blessing on the Israelites, in 
language which for eloquence 
and force is not surpassed in 
the whole scope of Hebrew 
poetry. 

Balaam, finding himself thus 
restrained from cursing Isra- 
el, suggested to Balak a much 
more" certain method of de- 
stroying them. This was by 
tempting them to mingle in 
the sinful pursuits and indul- 
gences of the Moabites. (Rev. 
li. 14.) This stratagem was 
successful. The Israelites 
were so far ensnared as to 
cause the destruction of twen- 
ty-four thousand of their men. 
(Num. xxv. 1—9.) 

Balaam himself fell shortly 
after in an engagement which 
took place between the Israel- 
ites and the Midianites. 

The miracle by which the 
dumb ass was enabled to speak 
With a man's voice has been 
the frequent subject of cavil 
and ridicule with unthinking 
8* 



BAL 

men ; but when we consider 
that the power of God alone 
gave to any of his creatures the 
faculty of speech, and might 
as easily have given it to the 
brute as to the human race, 
we need not wonder that he 
should in a single case, and for 
a specific purpose, confer that 
power on a dumb animal. 
Certainly we must admit that 
the miracle was most signifi- 
cant and appropriate to the 
occasion, for as God was about 
to restrain the tongue of Ba- 
laam, and make him say what 
it was not in his heart to 
say of Israel, it was well to 
show him how entirely the 
power of thought and speech 
was within divine control. 
And indeed, as Bishop Newton 
has well observed, the ase 
being merely passive, the 
restraint of Balaam's tongue 
was a greater miracle than 
the freedom of the tongue of 
the ass. (See Ass.) 
BALADAN. (See Hezeki- 

AH.) 

BALAK (Num.xxii.2) was 
a king of the Moabites. Th« 
chief incidents of his history, 
so far as we have them, are 
found under the article Ba- 
laam. 

BALANCES. (Lev. jtfx. 36.) 
In the early perioda of the 
world, gold and silver were 
paid by weight ; s^ tl at per- 
sons employed it traffic of 




BAL 

any kind, carried with them 
a pair of scales or balances, 
and different weights, (gene- 
rally stones of different sizes,) 
in a pouch or bag. Fraudu- 
lent men would "carry two 
sorts of weights, the lighter to 
sell with and the other to buy 
with. This explains the allu- 
sion, Mic. vi. 11. The fore- 
going cut of a balance is copied 
from one of the most ancient 
of Egyptian monuments, and 
is probably the same with 
those used by the Israelites. 

BALDNESS, (Isa. iii. 24,) 
when voluntary, was a token 
of mourning and great dis- 
tress. (Ezek. vii. 18.) A chief 
reason why involuntary bald- 
ness was regarded as disgrace- 
ful, was, that it gave occasion 
to the suspicion^ of leprosy, a 
disease which usually destroy- 
ed the hair. Hence baldness 
is declared by the law not to 
be conclusive evidence, of un- 
cleanness. (Lev. xiii. 40.) And 
hence too the. expression used 
towards Elisha by some child- 
ren in Bethel, " Go up, thou 
bald-head," indicated great 
contempt for him as a prophet 
of the Lord, and was signally 
punished. (2 Kinssii. 23.) 

BALM. (Gen. xxxvii. 25.) A 
resinous substance obtained 
from the balsam tree. It is a 
native of Abyssinia, but flou- 
rishes upon or near the moun- 
tains of Gilead, and is hence 
called the balm of Gilead. 

It was once an important 
article of merchandise among 
the eastern nations, (Ezek. 
xx vii. 17,)*and was celebrated 
for its healing properties. No- 
thing can exceed the elo- 
quence and tenderness of the 
language employed by the pro- 
phet Jeremiah to express his 
grief and disappointment that 
the chosen people of God {the 
daughter of Ziori) should re- 
main spiritually wounded and 
Jiseased, when there was a 
iiealing balm of unfailing vir- 



BAN 

tue, and a '-hysician of divine 
skill to administer it; and 
both within their reach. (Jer. 
viii. 22; xlvi. 11, and li. 8.) 

BAMAH. (Ezek. xx. 20.) 
The general name of any high 
place. 

BAND. (Acts xxi. 31.) A 
band of Roman soldiers con- 
sisted of the tenth part of a 
legion ; of course, it varied 
according to the size of the 
legion, from four hundred to 
seven hundred soldiers. The 
word is often used figuratively 
bv the sacred writers ; as in 
Efos. xi. 4, where it denotes 
persuasive arguments or in- 
fluences; andln Ps. lxxiii. 4 
where it signifies apprehen 
sioif and terror at the proa 
pect of death. 

BANNERS, (Jsa. xiii, 2.) oi 
STANDARD, (ka. xlix. 22,) oi 
ENSIGN, (Isa. v. 26,) are pro- 
bably used indiscriminately 
by the sacred writers. A stand- 
ard pertained to each of the four 
grand divisions of the army 
of Israel, (Num. i. 52,) distin- 
guished from each other by 
colours, and perhaps by some 
embroidered figure. Another 
standard for subdivisions waa 
probably nothing more than a 
common spear richly burnish- 
ed or ornamented. The Egyp- 
tian prmces used a standard 
like this, surmounted with a 
ball of gold. There was an- 
other standard in use among 
the Jews, which is called a 
beacon. (Isa. xxx. 17.) It was 
stationary ; erected on lofty 
mountains, and used as a ral- 
lying: token. (Comp. Isa. xviii. 
3; lxii. 10— 12. Jer. iv.5,6.21 : 
vi 1. 17 : li. 12. 27. 

It was customary to give a 
defeated party a banner, as a 
token of protection ; and it 
was regarded as the surest 
pledge of fidelity. (Ps. xx. 5; 
lx. 4. Sol. Song ii. 4.) Some 
writers have supposed that the 
ancient TevvisU ensign was a 



long pole, on the top of which 
was a grate not unlike a chaf- 
ing dish, made of iron bars 
and supplied with lire, the 
size, height, and shape of 
which denoted the party or 
company to whom it belonged. 
This seems rather to describe 
the night-torches of Eastern 
encampments. The shape, 
&c. of the Roman standards 
are seen under the article 
Abominable. 

God's lifting or setting up a 
banner is a most expressive 
figure, and imports his pecu- 
liar presence, protection, and 
aid in leading and directing 
his people in the execution of 
his righteous will, and giving 
them comfort and pe Jbe in his 
service. (Sol. Song ii. 4.) 
BANQUET. (See Feast.) 
BAPTISM. (Matt. iii. 7.) An 
ordinance or religious rite, 
which was in use before our 
Saviour's ministry commenc- 
ed, (see John's Baptism ;) but 
which he recognised and made 
obligatory upon his disciples 
as a~Christian ordinance. In 
the due administration of this 
rite, the washing of water be- 
comes the sign or emblem of 
inward purification from sin 
and uncleanness, while the 
subject of the rite is intro- 
duced into a peculiarrelation 
to Christ and his church. 

BAPTIZEn FOR THE DEAD. 

(1 Cor. xv. 29.) Various inter- 
pretations have been put upon 
this phrase. The most simple 
and natural explanation is 
perhaps the most likely to be 
correct. We shall therefore in- 
terpret this by other passages 
of similar import. Paul, who 
wrote this epistle, speaks, in 
his letter to the Romans, of 
some who are buried with 
Christ in baptism unto death ; 
wherein also they are risen 
with him unto newness of life. 
(Rom. vi. 4.) And again in his 
etter to the Colossians he 
speaks of those who were bu- 



BAP 

ried with Christ in baptism, 
and were risen with him 
through the faith of the ope- 
ration of God, who hath raised 
him from the dead. (Col. ii. 
12.) From these expressions 
we may infer that the apostle 
regarded baptism as the sym- 
bol of a present resurrection 
from the death of trespasses 
and sins, to a life of holiness ; 
and also as a symbol of a par- 
ticipation in the future and 
final resurrection. But, if 
there is no such thing as a 
resurrection from the dead, 
then the ordinance, in this 
view, is vain and useless. 
The substance of the argu- 
ment is, that if the dead nse 
not, the ordinance of baptism 
could have no authority, be- 
cause Christ, in whose name it 
was administered, could not 
have risen, and it could be of 
no use, because upon the sup- 
position that the dead rise not, 
those to whin it was adminis- 
tered would never live beyond 
the present life. This inter 
pretation is confirmed by an 
examination of verses 30 and 
32 of the context. 

Baptize with fire. (Matt, 
iii. 11.) This expression has 
been thought to denote the mi- 
raculous effusion of the Holy 
Spirit, of which we have an 
account in Acts ii. 3, 4. On 
that occasion the descent of 
the Holy Ghost was not only 
attended, with miraculous 
gifts, but with the visible em- 
blem of fire; thus literally 
fulfilling the prophecy of John 
above cited. Others think 
that an allusion was intend- 
ed, on the one hand, to the 
various divine internal opera- 
tions and influences which 
should attend the dispensation 
of the gospel by Jesus Christ ; 
and on the other, to the fiery 
visitations which should come 
upon those who embraced the 
gospel and upon those who 
rejected it: upon the former 
91 



BAR 

for their purification, and up- 
on the latter for their destruc- 
tion. 

B ARABS AS. (Matt, xxvii. 
16.) A noted criminal at Je- 
rusalem, who was in confine- 
ment for sedition and murder 
when Christ was condemned. 
It was the custom of the Ro- 
mans to release some one pri- 
soner at the time of the Jewish 
passover. The Jews were 
permitted to name any one 
whose release they might par- 
ticularly desire. The policy of 
this provision was obviously 
to conciliate the favour of the 
Jews towards the Roman go- 
vernment. 

Pilate seems to have been 
anxious to avail himself of 
the Roman custom for the de- 
liverance of Christ, but the 
Jews chose rather to show 
favour to a robber and a mur- 
derer, and to put their long 
promised Messiah to a violent 
and ignominious ^eath. 

The custom is said to have 
prevailed among the Vene- 
tians as lately as the close 
of the eighteenth century, to 
release a prisoner at the an- 
nual commemoration of our 
Saviour's resurrection. 

BARACHIAS. (Matt, xxiii. 
35.) There is some uncertain- 
ty as to the individual to whom 
reference is made in this 
verse. It might have been 
the Zecharias of whose death 
we have an account in 2 
Chron. xxi v. 20. 21 ; for though 
he is there called the son 
of Jehoiada, it was common 
among the Jews for the same 
individual to have two names. 
It is probable, however, that 
the prophet Zechariah, who is 
expressly called the son of 
Barachiah, (Zech. i. 1,) was 
assassinated, and that the fact 
was known by tradition. The 
Jews evidently understood the 
allusion, or ^hey ^ould have 
denied the charge 



BAR 

BARAK (Judg. iv. 6) was the 
son of Abinoam, and was dis- 
tinguished for his share in the 
conquest of Sisera and the de- 
liverance of Israel from long 
and severe oppression. A 
history of the transaction, and 
a copy of their sublime tri- 
umphal song, are given in 
Judg. iv. and v. (See Debo- 
rah.) 

BARBARIAN. (1 Cor. xiv. 
Jl.) This term is used to de- 
note a stranger or foreigner, 
who does not speak the^ lan- 
guage of the country in which 
he sojourns ; of course in its 
scriptural use it does not im- 
port any rudeness, or savage- 
ness of nature or manners* 
(Acts xxviii. 2. 4, and Rom. i. 
14.) 

BARJESUS (Acts xiii. 6) 
was a sorcerer who resided 
with Sergius Paulus, at Pa- 
phos, on the isle of Cypnu, 
when Paul and Barnabas were 
there. Sergius Paulus wa* an 
officer of high rank under the 
Roman government, and was 
anxious to receive religious 
instruction from the two mis- 
sionaries. But Barjesws, see- 
ing that his occupation and 
influence would cea*« wher- 
ever the light of thn gospel 
should come, opposed himself 
to Paul and Barnabas, and 
tried to dissuade Paulus from 
giving heed to thtir preach- 
ing. Paul gave him a most se- 
vere reproof, immediately af- 
ter which the wicked man was 
struck with blin.dness, as a 
rebuke from God. (See Ser- 
gius Paulus.) 

BAR-JONA. (SeePsTER.) 

BARLEY. (Ex. ix. 31.) A 
well known ipecies of grain 
used for bread, (Judg. vii. 13. 
John vi. 9. 13,) and also as 
food for horses and dromeda- 
ries. (1 Kings iv. 28.) 

BARNABAS. (Acts iv. ?6.) 
A L^rite of the island of Cy. 
p -us, an^ an ea.ly convert * » 
92 



BAR 

the Christian faith. His ori- 
ginal name was Joses, but as 
he had remarkable powers 
of speaking or exhorting the 
people, and of administering 
consolation to the afflicted, he 
was surnamed Barnabas, a 
Syriac term, signifying the 
son of consolation and ex- 
hortation. 

Barnabas was one of those 
who gave up all his worldly 
substance, and all his strength 
and influence to the support 
and spread of the gospel. He 
was a faithful and devoted 
missionary, a distinguished 
preacher," the frequent com- 
panion of Paul, (Acts ix. xiii. 
xiv. xv.) and a large sharer 
in the labours and sufferings 
which attended the early pro- 
pagation of Christianitv. 

BARSABAS. (Acts i. "23, and 
xv. 22.) He was one of the 
candidates for the vacancy in 
the apostleship, occasioned 
by the apostasy of Judas ; and 
was also appointed to aceom- 

Jany Paul and Barnabas from 
erusalem to Antioch, on an 
important embassy. He is 
called one of "the chief among 
the brethren." 

BARTHOLOMEW (Matt. 
x. 3) is supposed to be the 
same person who is elsewhere 
called Nathanael. This opi- 
nion is formed in part upon 
the fact that Bartholomew is 
not mentioned in John's list 
of the names of the disciples; 
nor is Nathanael mentioned 
by the other evangelists. Be- 
sides this, Philip and Natha- 
nael are associated together 
by John, and in the parallel 

fiassages of the other evange- 
ists Philip and Bartholomew 
are associated. These circum- 
stances, though not conclu- 
sive evidence, make it proba- 
ble that they were one and the 
same person. 

BARTIMEUS. (Mark x. 43.) 
A son of Tiraeus, who was 
instantly cured of blindness 



BAR 

by our Saviour in the vicinity 
of Jericho. 

BARUCH, (Jer. xxxvi. 4,) 
the secretary of the prophet 
Jeremiah, was of a distinguish- 
ed Jewish family. (Comp7Neh. 
xi. 5, and Jer. xxxvi. 4'.) His 
personal friendship for Jere- 
miah was strong and constant. 
When God commanded the 
prophet to commit to writing 
the prophecies that he had 
uttered, he employed Baruch 
in this service, who wrote the 
words as Jeremiah dictated 
them. Baruch was afterwards 
required to read these prophe- 
cies to the Jewish princes or 
chiefs, who were assembled 
in the temple. 

The princes were surprised 
and offended, and forthwith 
communicated to the king the 
substance of what Baruch had 
read, having before taken the 
writing from Baruch and de- 
posited it in one of the offices 
of the temple. 

Jehoiakim, the king, order- 
ed the offensive writing to be 
read in his presence, and he 
became so much exasperated, 
that before the reading of it 
was half finished, he seized the 
paper and cut it in pieces and 
threw it into the fire ; at the 
same time orders were given 
to arrest both the prophet and 
his secretary, but they had 
concealed themselves 

The prophecies were again 
dictated by Jeremiah and 
written out by Baruch, and 
afterwards Baruch was em- 
ployed to carry to Babylon a 
ion? letter from Jeremiah, pre- 
dicting the judgments which 
should come upon that mighty 
city. t 

After he returned from that 
mission Jerusalem was be- 
sieged, and Jeremiah and Ba- 
ruch both thrown into prison. 
After the city surrendered 
they were released, and per- 
mitted to accompany each 
other wherever thev chose to 
93 



BAS 

fo. There is some reason to 
elieve that Baruch survived 
the prophet a few years, but 
when and where he died is 
Unknown. (See Jeremiah. 
Also Life of Jeremiah, by 
the Am. S.S. Union, chap, vii.) 

BARZTLLAI (2 Sam. xix. 31) 
was a Gileadite, and a fast 
friend of David when he was 
in exile on account of Absa- 
lom's revolt. 

The rebellion had been sup- 
pressed, and David was on his 
way back to Jerusalem. Bar- 
zillai accompanied the king 
across the Jordan, and was 
about to return to his own 
land, but David, in gratitude 
for the old man's kindness, 
invited him to go up to Jeru- 
salem, and spend the residue 
of his days at the court. This 
Barzillai declined on account 
of his great age and infirmi- 
ties, but his son went up with 
ihe king in his stead The 
Jialogue on this occasion is 
one of the most touching pas- 
sages to be found on the page 
of history. 

David, in his final charge to 
Solomon, enjoined it upon him 
.o show kindness to Barzil- 
>ai's family, and even to make 
ihem members of the royal 
Household. (1 Kinss ii. 7.) 

BASHAN. (Num. xxi. 330 
A. hilly district lying east of 
.he Jordan, and between the 
mountains of Hermon on the 
north, and those of Gilead on 
ihe south. The more modern 
narae is Batanea. The an- 
cient name of the whole pro- 
vince was probably derived 
rom the hill of Bashan, a 
nigh mountain which was si- 
tuated near its centre. (Ps. 
lxviii. 15.) This district was 
formerly remarkable for its 
stately oaks, (Isa. ii. 13,) rich 
pasturase, (Mic. vii. 14,) and 
fine cattle. (Ps. xxii. 12.) 

In the time of Moses it was 
governed by a monarch named 
Og, who allied himself to Si- 



BAT 

hon, the king of the Amorites, 
to make war on Israel, and 
was defeated and overthrown 
at Edrei. (Num. xxi. 33—35.) 

Modern travellers describe 
the country as abounding with 
magnificent scenery, resem- 
bling that of many parts of 
Europe. Its hills are still 
clothed with forests ; its deep 
valleys are traversed by re- 
freshingstreams ; its meadows 
are verdant and fertile, and 
its pasturesoffer an abundance 
to the herds and flocks that 
wander through them, and 
give life and animation to the 
scene. 
BASON. (SeeLAVER.) 
BAT. (Lev. xi. 19.) An un- 
clean beast, whose resting 
places are caves, old ruins, 
and filthy and desolate places. 
Hence the allusion, Isa. ii. 20. 
It has no resemblance to a 
bird except that it can fly, and 
the organs it uses for this pur- 
pose are altogether different 
from those of a bird. (For a 
minute description and cut, 
see Natural History of the 
Bible, and Youth's Friend, 
vol. vi. both by the Am. S. S 
Union.) 
BATH. (See Measures.) 
BATH-SHEBA (2 Sam. xi. 
3) was the wife of Uriah, an 
officer in David's army. Her 
beauty proved a snare to Da- 
vid, for he not only committed 
adultery with her, but he 
treacherously procured the 
death of her injured hus- 
band. 

BATTERING-RAM. (Ezek. 
iv. 2, and xxi. 22.) This was a 
long beam of strong wood, 
usually oak. One end was 
shaped like a ram's head, and 
when driven repeatedly and 
with great force against the 
wall of a city or fortification, 
either pierced it or battered it 
down. (See War. See also note 
at the close of Destruction 
of Jerusalem, by the Am. S. 
S. Union.) 

94 



BEA 

BATTLE-AXE. (See Ar- 
mour.) 

BATTLEMENT. (Deut. 
xxii. 8.) A wall, parapet, or ; 
other structure around the flat 
roofs of eastern houses, de- 
signed as a partition from an 
adjoining building, or to pre- 
vent persons from falling off. 
It is sometimes used in a more 
extensive sense to denote the 
fortifications of a city. (Jer. v. 
10.) A traveller says that at 
Aleppo, where the houses join 
each other, the battlements 
are so low that he could walk 
over the tops of a dozen houses 
without interruption. 

BAY TREE. cPs.xxxvii.35.) 
Perhaps the cedar; perhaps 
any native tree that is suffer- 
ed to grow wild, or without 
transplanting; but more pro- 
bably the laurel, from which 
triumphal crowns were made 
for the victors and heroes of 
ancient days. It was of the 
family of e% r ergreens, and was 
well used as an emblem of the 
undecaying strength and un- 
changing prosperity which 
seems sometimes to be the 
portion of the wicked in this 
transient world. The laurel 
of our southern States would 
well illustrate the idea of the 
psalmist. 

BDELLIUM. (Gen. ii. 12.) 
Supposed by the Jews to be 
the pearl or some other pre- 
cious stone. There is a gum 
produced in the East Indies 
which has the same name, 
and is thought by many to be 
the article referred to in the 
cited passage. It resembles 
myrrh in colour, and is of a 
bitter taste. (Num. xi. 7.) 

BEACON. (Isa. xxx. 17.) A 
mark or signal, erected in 
some conspicuous place for di- 
rection, or for security against 
danger. Thus the Jews, when 
reduced in number and dis- 
tressed in circumstances by 
reason of God's severe judg- 
ments upon them, were a bea- 



BEA 

con to all other people and 
nations to avoid the like sin. 
(See Banners.) 

BEANS. (Ezek. iv. 9.) A 
well known garden vegetable, 
which was "'anciently often 
mixed with other vegetable 
substances in making bread. 

BEAU. (Prov. xvii. w 12.) The 
brown bear, now confined to 
the milder climates of Eu- 
rope, is probably the species 
of this animal which is men- 
tioned in the Bible. The at- 
tachment of the female to her 
young is proverbial, for no- 
thing enrages her so much 
as to see her whelps hurt or 
taken from her. Hence the 
allusion, 2 Sam. xvii. 8. Hos. 
xjii. 8, and also the passage first 
above cited. (See Youth's 
Friend, by Am. S. S. Union, 
vol. ii.) 

BEARD. (Lev. xiii. 29.) 
Among the Jews much atten- 
tion was paid to the beard. 
To show any contempt to- 
wards it by plucking it or 
touching it, except from re- 
spect or courtesy, was es- 
teemed a gross insult, while 
to kiss it, respectfully and 
affectionately, was regarded 
as a signal mark of friend- 
ship. Tearing out the beard; 
cutting it entirely off, or neg- 
lecting to trim and dress it, 
were all expressions of deep 
mourning. (Ezra ix. 3. Isa. 
xv. 2. Jer. xli. 5, and xlviii. 
37.) 

The Arabians at this day 
cherish great respect for the 
beard. 1'hey solemnly swear 
by it; and their meet sig- 
nificant and comprehensive 
phrase to express their good 
wishes for a friend is, " May 
God preserve your blessed 
beard." A Turk was asked 
why he did not cut off his 
beard as Europeans do. " Cut 
off my beard !" he replied 
with deep emotion, "God 
forbid !" «A.nd we are told of 
an Arab who was wounded in 
95 



BEA 

the jaw, and chose to hazard 
his life rather than to have 
his beard cut off, that the 
surgeon might examine the 
wound. Hence the keenness 
of the insult offered to David's 
ambassadors. (2 Sam. x. 4, 5.) 
And hence too, the force of 
that passage where the pro- 
phet is made to stand in the 
place of Jerusalem, and to re- 
present, in his own person, the 
severe judgments that were to 
L-e inflicted on her. (Ezek. v. 
1-5.) 

The Egyptians were accus- 
tomed to leave a small tuft of 
beard on the extremity of the 
chin. The Jewish law (Lev. 
xix. 27) forbad an imitation of 
this heathen fashion. 

BEAST. (Gen. ii. 19.) This 
word is generally used to dis- 
tinguish all animals from man, 
as in Ps. xxxvi. 6. Sometimes 
quadrupeds only are denoted 
by it, as Lev. xi. 2; and in 
Gen. i. 24,25, it is supposed to 
refer to creatures that roam 
at large. Beasts were created 
on the sixth day, and were 
named by Adam. There is no 
doubt that every species of 
animal now existing upon the 
earth had its origin on that 
day. The apostle describes 
some of his opposers as wild 
beasts, so furious and brutal 
was their treatment of him. 
(1 Cor. xv. 32.) A similar use 
is made of the word in Ps. 
xxii. 12. 16. Eccl. iii. 18. Isa. 
xi. 6-8. and in 2 Pet. ii. 12 ; 
and Jude 10, to denote a class 
of wicked men. 

Under the ancient dispen- 
sation the beasts were some- 
times made to participate ex- 
ternally in the observance of 
religious ceremonies, (Jonah 
iii. 7, 8,) and suffered, with 
men, the judgment of God. 
(Ex. ix. 6, and xiii. 15. Ps. 
cxxxv. 8. Jer. vii. 20, and xxi. 
6. Ezek. xxxii. 13; xxxviii. 



BED 

^0. Hos. iv. 3. See Cleaji 
and Unclean.) 

BEATEN WORK. (Ex.xxv. 
J 8.) Not cast, but wrouaht. 

BEATEN OIL. (See Olive.) / 

BED. (Gen. xlvii. 31.) The < 
floors of the better sort ol 
eastern houses were of tile or 
plaster, and were covered 
with mats or carpets ; and as 
shoes were not worn on them, 
and the feet were washed, and 
no filthy habits of modern 
times prevailed, their floors 
seldom required sweeping or 
scrubbing. (Matt. xii. 44. 
Luke xv. 8.) Thick, coarse 
mattresses were thrown down 
at night to sleep upon. ' The 
poorer people used skins for 
the same purpose. Such beds 
were easily moved, (Matt, ix 
6 ;) and on two or three sides 
of the room was a bench, 
generally a foot high and 
three feet broad, covered with 
a, stuffed cushion. This bench 
or couch, was used both for ly- 
ing and sitting upon; but at one 
end of the room it was more 
elevated, and this was the 
usual place of sleeping. (2 
Kings l. 4 ; xx. 2. Ps. cxxxii. 
3. Amos iii. 12.) It was some- 
times unattached to the build- 
ing and moveable, like a settee 
or sofa, and was made of wood, 
ivory, (Amos vi. 4,) or other 
materials. (Deut. iii. 11.) This 
knowledge of the construction 
of eastern beds relieves of 
difficulty such passages as 
Ex. viii. 3. 2 Sam. iv. 5—7. 
Ps. vi. 6. Mark iv. 21. 

Probably some part of the 
day-clothing served for bed 
clothes. (Ex. xxii. 26, 27. Deut. 
xxiv. 12, 13.) 

That bedsteads were known 
to the Jews is not improbable, 
inasmuch as they were in use 
in Egypt, as we learn from 
figures on their monuments, 
of which the following i3 a 
cut. 

96 



BEE 



BKB 




BEE. (Dent. i. 44.) The ho- 

ney-bee is probably the only 
species alluded to in the Bible. 
They must have been very 
numerous in Canaan, as ho- 
ney was a common article of 
foo'd (1 Kings xiv. 3. Ps. lxxxi. 
16. Sol. Song v. 1. Isa.vii. 15) 
and comme/ce. (Ezek. xxvii. 
17.) 

The disposition of bees to 
take vengeance on any one 
who disturbs their hive is al- 
luded to in Ps. cxviii. 12. 

The figurative expressions 
in Isa. vii. 18, compared with 
Zech. x. 8, may allude either 
to a practice of calling bees 
from their hives by a hissing 
sound, or to the known habit, 
in one species of the insect, 
of going forth to labour at the 
short buzzing sound which 
a queen-bee makes with her 
wings, while she is perched 
on the top of her cell. 

Wild bees often laid up 
their honey in hollow trees or 
the clefts of rocks. (Ps. lxxxi. 
16.) There was a kind of wild 
honey deposited by other in- 
sects on the leaves of trees so 
abundantly as often to fall in 
drops upon the ground. This 
is the substance mentioned in 
1 Sam. xiv. 25. 27, and per- 
haps the same is intended in 
Matt. lii. 4. (See Youth's 
Friend, by the American S. S. 
Union, vol. iv. 
9 



BEELZEBUB, or BAAL- 
ZEBUB, (Matt. x. 25,) was an, 
idol god of the Ekronites, and 
was probably worshipped as 
the patron deity of medicine. 
(2 Kings i. 3.) The word sig- 
nifies " the god of flies." 
There is reason to believe 
that whatever his peculiar at- 
tributes were, he was one of 
the chief gods of the heathens, 
and hence the prince or chief 
of devils is called Beelzebub, 
(Matt. xii. 24. Luke xi. 15,) 
a term which would be easily 
understood by the Jews, who 
were taught to regard all idols 
as devils. (Deut. xxxii. 17. 
2 Chron. xi. 15. Ps. cvi. 37. 
1 Cor. x. 20.) 

BEER. (Judg. ix. 21.) A 
place between Jerusalem and 
Shechem,to which Jotham fled 
from Abimelech his brother. 

Beer-elim, or Beer. (Num. 
xxi. 16. Isa. xv. 8.) A station 
of the Israelites in Moab, 
where God caused water to 
spring up out of the sand for 
their refreshment. 

BEER-LAHAI-ROI. (Gen. 
xvi. 14.) A place in the south- 
ern border of Canaan, near the 
desert of Shur, which receiv- 
ed its name in consequence 
of the appearance of an angel 
to Hagar, when she was in 
exile. "The name of the place 
signifies " the .well of him that 
liveth and seeth me." 
97 



BEG 

BEEROTH. (Josh, ix. 17. 
2 Sam. iv. 2, 3.) A city of Ben- 
jamin, situated at the foot of 
the hill on which Gibeon was 
built, a few miles north-east 
of Jerusalem*. 

A place of the same name 
was also a station of the Isra- 
elites, (Deut. x. 6,) and is call- 
ed Bene-jaakan. (Num.xxxiii. 
SI.) 

BEER-SHEBA. (Gen. xxi. 
31.) This was at first the 
name- of a well near which 
Abraham long resided, (Gen. 
xxi. 33,) and Isaac after him. 
(Gen. xxvi. 32, 33.) It after- 
wards became a town of con- 
siderable note. It was situated 
about twenty miles south of 
Hebron, at the southern ex- 
tremity of the land of Canaan, 
as Dan was at the northern 
extremity. Hence the expres- 
sion (Judg. xx. 1) from Dan 
to Beer-sheba, denoted the 
whole length of the land, as 
also did the expression from 
Beer-sheba to mount Ephraim 
(2 Chron. xix. 4) represent the 
whole length of the kingdom 
ofjudah. TThe town was with- 
in the territory of Judah, and 
fell finally into Simeon's 
hands. (Josh. xv. 28, and xix. 
2.) At Beer-sheba resided the 
sons of Samuel, (1 Sam. viii. 
2;) and in later times the 
place was given to idolatry. 
(Amos v. 5 ; viii. 14.) 

BEETLE. (Lev. xi. 22.) An 
animal entirely different from 
the insect known to us by that 
name, ^rom the connexion 
it is supposed to have been of 
the locust family. 

BEEVES, (Lev. xxii. 19,) as 
used in the Bible, is synony- 
mous with the term cattle, in 
its modern use. As they di- 
vide the hoof and also chew 
the cud, they were reckoned 
amone clean animals. 

BEGGAR, BEGGING. (1 
Sam. ii. 8. Mark x. 46.) The 
poor among the Hebrews were 
much favoured. They were 



BEL 

allowed to glean in the Gelds 
and to gather whatever the 
land produced in the year in 
which it was not tilled. (Lev. 
xix. 10; xxv. 5, 6. Deut. xxi v. 
19.) They were also invited to 
feasts. (Deut. xii. 12; xiv. 29, 
and xxvi. 12.) The Israelite 
could not be an absolute pau- 
per. His land was inaliena- 
ble, except for a certain term, 
when it reverted to him or his 
posterity. And if this re 
source was insufficient, ha 
could pledge the services of 
himself and family for a vain. 
able sum. Those who were 
indigent through bodily infirm- 
ities, were usually taken care 
of by their kindred. A beggar 
was sometimes seen however 
and was regarded and abhor 
red as a vagabond. (Ps. cix. 
10.) In later times they were 
accustomed to have a fixed 
place at the corners of the 
streets, (Mark x. 46,) or at the 
gates of the temple, (Acts iii. 
2,) or of private houses. (Luke 
xvi. 20.) 

BEHEMOTH. (Job xl. 15.) 
The same word which is here 
translated behemoth, is else- 
where translated beast, (Job 
xxxv. 11. Ps. lxxiii. 22 5 ) or cat- 
tle. (Ps. 1. 10.) The animal 
described as the behemoth in 
the passage first above cited, 
was of prodigious size and 
strength, and corresponds bet- 
ter with the hippopotamus, or 
river horse of Egypt, than 
with any other animal now 
known. For a particular de- 
scription and cut of this ani- 
mal, see Natural History 
of the Bible, p. 39, and 
Youth's Friend, vols. i. and 
iii.. all by the Am. S. S. Union. 

BEKAH. (See Measures.) 

BEL. (See Baal.) 

BELIAL. (Deut xiii. 13.) 
This word, in the original, 
signifies worthlessness, and is 
applied by the sacred writers 
to such lewd, profligate, and 
vile perS3ns as seem to regard 



BEL 

neither God nor man. (Judg. 
xix. 22, and 1 Sam. ii. 12.) 
Hence the question of the 
apostle (2 Cor. vi. 15) to the 
citizens of Corinth, which was 
remarkable for its lewdness 
and profligacy, has great force: 
"What concord hath Christ 
with Belial," the prince of li- 
centiousness and corruption 1 
Milton represents Belial as 
one of the fallen spirits : 

Belial came last, than whom a spirit 

more- lewd 
Fell not from heaven, or more gross to 

love 
Vice for itself. 

BELIEVE. (See Faith.) 
BELL. (Zech. xiv. 20.) Bells 
were attached to the bottom 
of the high-priest's robe, that 
he might be heard when he 
went into or came out of the 
holy place. (Ex. xxviii. 33. 35.) 
Many of the eastern kings 
and nobles wear bells in tne 
same manner at this day, not 
only for ornament, but to give 
notice of their approach. Bells 
were hung upon the bridles 
or around the necks of war- 
horses: hence a horse not 
trained to war was called, by 
the Greeks, a horse who had 
never heard the sound of 
bells. We are told that bells 
were used on the horses at 
the funeral of Alexander the 
Great. The Arabian ladies 
In the royal presence have lit- 
tle gold bells fastened to their 
legs,necks,and elbows, which, 
when they dance, make an 
agreeable sound. A custom 
of this kind probably prevail- 
ed in the time of Isaiah, to 
which he alludes. (Isa. iii. 18.) 
BELSHAZZAR (Dan. v. 1) 
was the son or grandson of 
Nebuchadnezzar, (Dan. v. 18,) 
and the last king of Babylon. 
During the siege of the city of 
Babylon he gave a sumptu- 
ous entertainment to his cour- 
tiers, and impiously made use 
of the temple furniture (of 
which Nebuchadnezzar had 



BEN 

plundered the temple at Jeru- 
salem) as drinking vessels. 
In the midst of the festivities, 
however, a miraculous appear- 
ance was seen upon the wall 
of the banqueting room, which 
filled the king and his guests 
with amazement and horror ; 
and when explained by Da- 
niel, it was found to be a 
warning to the king of his 
own death, and of the over- 
throw and destruction of his 
kingdom, which took place in 
the course of the succeeding 
night. (See the particulars 
of this event, and a cut repre- 
senting the impious feast,in the 
Life of Daniel, by the Am. 
S. S. Union, chap, xiv.) 

BELTESHAZZAK. (Dan. i. 
7.) The name given to the 
prophet Daniel at the court 
of Nebuchadnezzar. 

BENAIAH (2 Sam. xxiii. 20) 
was the son of Jehoiada, and 
distinguished for his enter- 
prise and bravery on several 
occasions. (2 Sam. xxiii. 20— 
23.) He was an adherent of 
Solomon against the preten- 
sions of Adonijah, (1 Kings L 
36,) and after putting Joab to 
death succeeded to the com- 
mand of the army. (1 Kings 
ii. 29—35.) 

BENHADAD. 1. (1 Kings xv. 
18.) King of Syria, in the time 
of Asa king of Judah, with 
whom he formed an alliance 
against Baasha king of Israel. 
(See Asa, Baasha.) Perhaps 
he was the same with Hadad 
the Edomite, who rebelled 
against Solomon. (1 Kings xL 
25.) 

2. (1 Kings xx. 1.) King of 
Syria, and a son of the prece- 
ding. He was a proud, boast- 
ing, and licentious man, and 
seemed to be hardened against 
all rebukes. (1 Kinss xx. 10 
—12. 16. See Ahab.) He 
declared war against Jehu- 
ram king of Israel, but the 
prophet Elisha disclosed Ben- 
riadad's plana so accurately 
99 



# 



BEN 

/hat Jehoram was able to de- 
feat them. (2 Kings vi. 8—33. 
See Elisha.) 

In the siege of Samaria, 
which took place some years 
afterwards, that city was re- 
duced to the greatest extremi- 
E. The Syrian army, under 
snhadad, was lying around 
the wails, when, in the course 
of the night, they were led to 
conceive "that they heard the 
noise of an immense army in 
motion. Supposing that the 
city had been succoured by 
supplies of men and pro- 
visions from abroad, and ter- 
rified with the fancied tumult 
of their approach, the Syrians 
lust at daybreak lied for their 
lives, leaving their camp, with 
all their horses, asses, provi- 
sions; utensils, &c. just as 
they were, and their garments 
and vessels scattered all along 
the road by which they had 
fled. The citizens of Samaria 
were thus unexpectedly re- 
lieved, and supplied with an 
abundance of food. 

The next year Benhadad, 
being sick, sent Hazael to in- 
quire of the prophet Elisha 
whether he would recover; 
and he received for answer, 
that the king might certainly 
recover and "yet would surely 
die. Hazael also was informed 
by the prophet, that he would 
be elevated to the throne of 
Syria, and would be guilty of 
enormous wickedness. The 
very next day Hazael, with 
his own hand, murdered Ben- 
hadad, and became king of 
Syria. (2 Kings viii. 15. See 
Hazael.) 

3. (2Kingsxiii. 3.) Another 
person of the same name, and 
son of Hazael. He suffered 
several defeats from the hand 
of Jehoash, king of Israel, 
and was compelled to relin- 
quish all the land of Israel 
which his father Hazael had 
obtained in conquest. (2 Kings 
xiii 25.) 



BER 

BENJAMIN (Gen. xxxv. 

18) was the youngest son oi 
Jacob and Rachel. His mother 
died immediately after his 
birth, which took place near 
Bethlehem, when the family 
were on their journey from 
Padan-aram to Canaan. With 
her dying breath she called 
him Benoni, (the son of my 
sorrow,) but his father gave 
him the name of Benjamin, 
(the son of my right hand.) 

The tribe of Benjamin had 
their portion of the promised 
land adjoining Judah, and 
when ten of the tribes revolt- 
ed, Benjamin continued stea- 
dy in its attachment to Judah, 
and formed a part of that 
kingdom. (1 Kings xii. 17. 23.) 
The' prophetic history of the 
tribe is told in Gen. xlix. 27, 
and Deut. xxxiii. 12. 

Paul was a descendant of 
this tribe. (Phil. iii. 5. See 
Jacob and his Sons, by the 
Am. S. S. Union, pp. 87—98.) 

BEREA, (Acts xvii. 10,) now 
Veria. A city of Macedonia, 
about twenty miles west of 
Thessalonica, near mount 
Pindus. The Bereans were 
honourably distinguished for 
their diligence in searching 
the Scriptures, under the 
preaching of Paul. For this 
and other causes it was a 
place of much interest in the 
days of the apostles. (Acts 
xvii. 10. 15, and xx. 4.) It 
now contains about 20,000 in- 
habitants, (chiefly Turks and 
Greeks,) and produces rice, 
fruit, and marble, and has 
manufactures of cotton. 

BERITH. (Comp. Judg. viii. 
33, and ix. 46. See Baal.) 

BERNICE, (Acts xxv. 13. 
23,) or BERENICE, as the 
name is sometimes spelled, 
was the daughter of Agrippa, 
surnamed the Great, and sis 
ter to the younger Agrippa, 
king of the Jews. She was a 
woman of licentious charac- 
ter, and was present, inereat 



BET 

pomp, at the hearing of Paul ; 
before Festus at Cesarea. 

BERODACH - BALADAN, 
called also Merodach-Bala- j 
dan. (Isa. xxxix. 1. See Heze- j 
kiah.) 

BERYL. (Ex. xxviii. 20.) A 
precious stone, found chiefly i 
in Brazil and Ceylon, the pre- j 
vailing colour of which is j 
green. (Sol. Sons v. 14. Ezek. I 
i. 16, and x. 9. Rev. xxi. 20.) 

BESOM. (Isa. xiv. 23.) An 
instrument used for sweeping. 

BESOR, or BEZOR, (1 Sam. 
xxx. 9, 10. 21,) signifying cold, 
was the name of a brook over 
which David passed in pur- 
suit of the Amalekites who 
had pillaged and burnt Zik- 
lag. It falls into the Mediter- 
ranean below Gaza. The sup- 
posed channel of it was cross- 
ed in 1823 byMessrs.Fiske and 
King, American missionaries, 
about five miles below Gaza. 

BETHABARA. (John i. 28.) 
The name of a town on the 
east bank of Jordan, where 
there was a ford across the 
river; whence the name,(Aowse 
of passage.) At this place 
John baptized ; and here, too, 
it is supposed the Israelites 
crossed trie Jordan, under the 
conduct of Joshua. It lay about 
thirty miles north-east of Jeru- 
salem, and is probably the 
same with Beth-barah. (Judg. 
vii. 24.) 

BETHANY. (Mark xi. 1.) 
A village on the south-east 
side of the mount of Olives, 
about two miles from Jerusa- 
lem. It was the residence of 
Lazarus and his sisters. (John 
xi. 1.) Christ often resorted 
thither, especially during the 
last few days of his ministry, 
and it was the scene of some 
of the most interesting events 
of his life. (Matt. xxi. 17; xxvi. 
6. Mark xi. 11 , 12 ; xiv. 3. John 
xi. 1—46, and xii. 1—3.) Betha- 
ny was visited in 1823 by 
Messrs. Fiske and King, Ame- 
rican missionaries, and is de- 
9* 



EET 

scribed as a small Mussul- 
man village, on the declivity 
of a hill, and all around un- 
even and rocky. Travellers 
are shown the pretended 
place of Lazarus' grave, and 
the ruins of the house where 
he and his sisters lived. (See 
OiiAR, p. 143, and Selumiel, 
pp. 160. 168, both by the Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

BETHARBEL. (Hos. x. 14.) 
This is supposed to denote no 
particular place, but, accord- 
ing to the original significa- 
tion of the word, to import 
such fruitful countries as had 
been conquered and spoiled by 
some well known chieftain. 

BETHA YEN. (Josh. vii. 2.) 
A place belonging to the tribe 
of Benjamin, and lying east 
of Bethel. (1 Sam. xiii. 5. See 
Bethel.) 

The wilderness op Beth- 
aven (Josh, zviii. 12) formed 
part of the northern boundary 
of the tribe of Benjamin. 

BETH-BAAL-MEON. (See 
Baal-meon.) 

BETHBARAH. (See Beth- 
abaraO 

BETHEL. (Gen. xxviii. 19.) 
When Jacob was journeying 
towards Mesopotamia to avoid 
the fury of his brother Esau, 
he lodged at a place near the 
city ofXuz, and was favoured 
with a remarkable vision of 
the Almighty. For this cause 
he named the place and the 
adjoining city, Bethel, {house 
of God.) It was situated east of 
a line running from Shechem 
to Jerusalem, and at about 
an equal distance from each. 

Bethel was the residence 
of one of the Canaanite kings, 
and the Ephraimites, to whom 
it was assigned in the division 
of the land, were unable to 
gain possession of it until 
they were aided by the trea- 
chery of one of the inhabit- 
ants. (Judg. i. 22—26.) 

The tabernacle was station- 
ed a long time in this place, 
101 



BET 

and Jeroboam placed one of 
his golden calves here, (1 
Kings xii. 28. 33,) from which 
circumstance, probably, Amos 
was induced to call it Beth- 
aven, (the house of idolatry.} 
And hence also the phrase 
" coming to Bethel" was pro- 
verbially expressive of idola- 
trous worship in general. 
(Amos' iv. 4, and v. 5. Hos. x. 
5.8.) Part of the prophecy oi 
Amos was directed specially 
against this city, (iii. 14,) and 
was fulfilled in the time of 
Josiah, (2 Kings xxiii. 15 ;) and 
the prophet himself was di- 
rected to flee from the place. 
At that time Bethel was proba- 
bly the residence rf the king 
of Israel. (Ames vii. 10—13.) 

BETHER, (Sol. Songii. 17,) 
or mountains of perfume, as 
it is found in an ancient trans- 
lation. It is not certain that 
this name is applied to any 
particular place. It may per- 
naps denote those tracts of 
uneven country which were 
the favourite resort of the hart 
and roe. (Sol. Song iv. 6. 8, 
and viii. 14.) 

BETHESDA, (John v. 2,) 
(house cf mercy.) The He- 
brew name of a pool or reser- 
voir of water in the city of 
Jerusalem. There were two 
pools of this kind, one of 
which was called the Upper 
Pool and the other the Pool of 
Siloam. (Comp. 2 Kings xviii. 
17. Neh. iii. 15. John ix. 7.) 
The pool of Bethesda had re- 
markable medicinal proper- 
ties, which made it a common 
resort for invalids, for whose 
accommodation porches or 
small apartments were pro- 
vided. The opinion has been 
expressed that these proper- 
ties were natural, or that 
they were communicated by 
something thrown into the 
water. It is to be observed 
however, (1.) That their heal- 
ing virtue extended to what- 
ever disease a man might 



BET 

have, however various and 
even opposite their character. 
(2.) Only the one who first 
stepped in was cured. (3.) If 
the agency by which the heal- 
ing influence was imparted 
was natural, and within the 
power of man, there seems to 
be no good reason why it 
should not have been con- 
stantly employed. The better 
opinion seems to be, that the 
healing virtue yas miracu- 
lous; that the angel was a 
messenger from God ; and that 
the troubling of the waters 
was an unusual motion to give 
notice to the invalids of the 
arrival of the favoured mo- 
ment. (See Selumiel, by the 
Am. S. S. Union, pp. 104. 111.) 

Travellers tell us of a place 
now seen in Jerusalem, which 
is supposed to have been once 
the pool of Bethesda. It is 
one hundred and twenty feet 
long, forty broad, and eight 
deep; and at one end there 
are evidently the remains of 
three or more arches which 
may be the ruins of the porch- 
es. (For a beautiful sketch of 
Bethes:!a, as given by Rosen- 
mueller, and a description of 
its appearance, see Views op 
Palestine, by the Am. S. S. 
Union, p. 5.) 

BETH-HORON. (Josh. x. 
10.) Two villages lying on 
the border of Ephraim and 
Benjamin, about twelve miles 
north-west of Jerusalem, were 
calledUpper and Nether Beth- 
horon. It is plain that one 
of them was on an eminence, 
and the other in a valley. 
(Comp. Josh. x. 10 and 11.) 

Beth-horon was fortified by 
Solomon. (1 Kings ix. 17.) Mo 
dern travellers Have found an 
Arab village twelve miles from 
Jerusalem, on the way from 
Jaffa, (Joppa,) which it is sup- 
posed might have been the 
site of Upper Beth-horon. 

BETH-JESHIMOTR.(Josh. 
xiii. 20.) A city of the tribe 
102 



BET 

of Reuben on the eastern shore f 
of the Dead Sea. It was for- 
merly in possession of the Mo- 
abites, and after remaining in 
the tribe of Reuben until the 
Assyrian captivity, it fell back 
into the hands of the Moab- 
ites. (Ezek. xxv. 9.) 

BETHLEHEM, (Gen. xxxv. 
19.) called also Bethlehem 
Ephratah, (Mic v. 2.) was so 
inconsiderable a place as to 
be omitted m the general lists 
of the citiePof Judah. (Josh, 
xv. Neh. xi.) It was the birtli- 
place of David, (Luke ii. 4. 
11.) and was still more sacred 
and celebrated as the birth- 
place of the Redeemer. (Matt. 
ii. 1. Luke ii. 4—6.) 

It is situated upon an emi- 
nence overlooking Tekoah, 
nine miles south ; and is about 
six miles south-west from 
Jerusalem. The place has 
been often visited by mo- 
dern travellers. Mr. Fisk, 
an American missionary, was 
there in 1323, and speaks of 
its appearance as like a pile 
of rocks, with here and there 
a patch of verdure ; and Mr. 
Whiting, another American 
missionary, was there in 1834. 

Four or five miles from Je- 
rusalem is the (so called) tomb 
of Rachel, and about two miles 
beyond that, is Bethlehem. 
(Gen. xlviii. 7.) At this tomb 
Mr. W. turned off, taking the 
road to Hebron, that he might 
visit the pools of Solomon, 
which lie in a narrow, sloping 
valley, three miles south-west 
of Bethlehem. 

The village of Bethlehem in 
17S4 was supposed to contain 
six hundred men capable of 
bearing arms ; but the ravages 
of war and oppression have re- 
duced it to* a very miserable 
state. When Mr. Whiting was 
there, it had just suffered se- 
verely from some tyrannical 
measures of the government ; 
and he passed over the ruins 
of houses and fields that had 
jiast then been demo i: s^p(U 



BET 

and parks of olive and fig- 
trees which had been cut down 
by order of the pasha, to pu- 
nish their proprietors for an al- 
leged rebellion and flight. (See 
Life: 'of David, ch. i., Omar, 
p. 16, and Selumiel, p. 160, 
all by the Am. S. S. Union.) 

BETH-MAACHAH. (2 Sam. 
xx. 14, 15.) Same with Abel- 
beth-maachah. 

BETH-MEON. (See Baal- 
Meon.) 

BETH-NIMRAH. (See Nim- 

RIM.) 

BETH-PEOR. (Deut. iv. 46.) 
A city of Moab, famous for the 
worship of Baal. (See Baal.) 
" The valley over against" 
Beth-peor, in the land of Mo- 
ab, is distinguished as the 
place where Moses repeated 
the law to the people of Israel. 
It was also his burial-place, 
and was not far from mount 
Nebo. 

BETHPHAGE. (Matt. xxi. 
1.) A small village on the 
south-east of mounfOlivet, ad- 
joining Bethany on the west. 
(Comp. Luke xix. 28—40, with 
Matt. xxi. 1—11. See Selu- 
miel, by the Am. S. S. Union, 
p. 160.) 

BETH-REHOB. (See Re- 
hob.) 

BETHSAIDA. (Matt, xi.21.) 
There were at least two towns 
of this name in Judea. One 
was situated on the east bank 
of the river Jordan, near the 
place where it falls into the 
sea of Tiberias. Near this vil- 
lage was the desert or wilder- 
ness of Bethsaida. (Matt. xiv. 
15—21. Luke ix. 10.) The other 
town was called Bethsaida of 
Galilee, and was situated on 
the west of Jordan, near the 
sea of Tiberias. This was the 
birthplace of Andrew, Peter, 
and Philip. (Mark xiv. 70. 
John i. 44.) 

BETH-SHAN. (lSam.xxxi. 
10.) Same with Beth-shean. 

BETH-SHEAN. (Josh. xvii. 
11.) A town on the west of Jor- 
dan, twenty-five miles south 



BET 

of the sea of Tiberias, and 
for a long time known by the 
name of IScythopolis. It was 
situated on the borders of 
Galilee and Samaria, upon 
the edge of the great plain of 
Jordan. It is now a ruin call- 
ed Bysan, containing seventy 
or eighty houses, the inhabit- 
ants of which are, to the last 
aegree, poor and miserable, 
owing to the depredations 
they constantly suffer from 
the Bedouins. In the time of 
Saul it was probably a posses- 
sion of the Philistines, as they 
exposed his body on its walls 
after his defeat in the battle 
of Gilboa. (1 Sam. xxxi. 10.) 
It was afterwards attached to 
Judah. (1 Kin^s iv. 12.) 

BETH-SHEMESH. (Josh, 
xv. 10.) At least three different 
places are mentioned in the 
Bible under this name. 

1. One of them belonging to 
the tribe of Naphtali. "(Josh. 
xix. 38. Judg. i. 33.) 

2. Another was in Egypt, 
(Jer. xliii. 13,) supposed to be 
the Heliopolis of the Greeks, 
and is called On. (Gen. xli. 
45. 50.) It is about five miles 
from the modern Cairo. 

3. And the third was a city 
of Judah, (2 Kings xiv. 11,) 
situated on the borders of 
Dan, thirty miles south-west 
of Jerusalem, and sometimes 
called Irshemesh. This last 
place was distinguished by 
the circumstance that the ark 
was sent thither by the Phi- 
listines, and a vast number of 
men, who looked into it from 
vain curiosity, were swept off 
by a pestilence. (1 Sam. vi. 
12—20.) It was also remark- 
able for the battle that was 
fought there between Israel 
and Judah, in which the lat- 
ter were defeated, and the 
king taken prisoner. (2 Kings' 
xiv. 11-13.) 

BETROTH. (Deut. xxviii. 
30.) A man and woman were 
betrothed or espoused, each to 



BEZ 

the other, when they were en 
gaged to be married. It is giv- 
ing one's troth (i. e. faith ox 
promise) to marry at a future 
time. 

Among the Jews this rela- 
tion was usually determined 
by the parents or brothers, 
without consulting the parties 
until they came to be betrothed. 
The engagement took place 
very early ; though it was not 
consummated, by actual mar- 
riage, until the s^use was at 
least twelve years of age. 

The betrothing was per- 
formed a twelvemonth or 
more before the marriage; 
either in writing or by a piece 
of silver given to the espoused 
before witnesses. During this 
interval, however, from the 
time of espousals to the mar- 
riage, the woman was consi- 
dered as the lawful wife of the 
man to whom she was be- 
trothed ; nor could . the en- 
gagement be ended by the 
man without a bill of divorce ; 
nor could she be unfaithful 
without being considered an 
adulteress. (For a full account 
of the whole ceremony of 
marriage, and of the spiritual 
relation which the term de- 
notes, see Biblical ANTiaui- 
ties, vol. i. chap. vi. § 1, and 
Omar, p. *46, both by the Am. 
S. S. Union. See also article 
Marriage.) 

BEULAH. (lsa. lxii. 4.) 
A word signifying married, 
which the prophet applies to 
the Jewish church, to import 
the intimacy of its relation to 
God. 

BEZALEEL. (Ex. xxxi. 2.) 
A famous artificer, who re- 
ceived wisdom and instruction 
directly from God, to qualify 
him for the work of building 
the tabernacle and preparing 
its various furniture. 

BEZEK. (Judg. i. 4.) A city 
in the tribe of Judah, where 
the Canaanites suffered a se- 
vere slaughter, and their king 
104 



BIN 

was taken prisoner. (See 
Adoni-bezek.) It was at Be- 
zek that Saul mustered his 
army before the attack on Ja- 
besh-gilead. 

Ancient geographers speak 
of two towns by the name of 
Bezek, situated near each 
other, about seventeen miles 
from Sichem, on the way to 
Beth-shan. 

BiER. (Luke vii. 14.) The 
bed or frame onwhich the dead 
body is conveyed to the grave. 
Probably they were made (as 
coffins are in modern times) 
more or less expensive in 
shape and ornament, accord- 
ing to the circumstances and 
rank of the deceased. (2 Chron. 
xvi. 14. See Burial.) 

BILDAD. (Job ii. 11.) One of 
Job's three friends who visit- 
ed him in his affliction, and 
whose arguments, in justifica- 
tion of God's dealings, occupy 
chap, viii. xviii. and xxv. of 
the book of Job. (See Job.) 
The name Shuhite is proba- 
bly derived from Shuah, son 
of Abraham and Keturah, 
whose descendant he is sup- 
posed to have been. 

B1LHAH. (Gen. xxix. 29.) 
The handmaid of Rachel, and 
the mother of Dan and Naph- 
lali. (Gen. xxxv. 25.) 

BILL. (Luke xvi. 6, 7.) Any 
written paper containing a 
statementol particulars claim- 
ed or promised ; as a bill of 
services, bill of expenses, bill 
of fare, &c. Bill (or writing) 
of divorcement, (Deut. xxiv. 
1—4. Matt. v. 31,) was a writ- 
ing given by the husband to 
the wife, in virtue of which, by 
the Jewish law, the marriage 
relation was dissolved. 

BIND. (Matt. xvi. 19.) Bind 
and loose, as used in this and 
parallel passages, are syno- 
nymous with command and 
forbid. The expression, to 
bind the laio upon one's hand, 
&c. is figurative, and implies 
$u intimate acquaintance with 



B1R 

it, and a constant rej r J to its 
precepts. The Jews ( fttiued 
it literally, and he net? the cus- 
tom of wearing phyJ'icteries. 
(See Phylacteries.) Rolls or 
volumes of writing were tied 
up. Hence the expression, 
Isa. viii. 16. 

BIRDS. (Lev. xiv. 4.) Birds, 
as well as beasts, were di- 
vided into clean and unclean, 
but not by external marks, as 
in the case of quadrupeds. 
Those which were forbidden 
are named, and were probably 
well known by those names 
to the Jews, though not now 
known to us by those names. 
In general, the ravenous kinds 
feeding on flesh were forbid- 
den. 

There was a humane law m 
the Jewish code which forbade 
the taking a mother-bird, 
though her young might be 
taken. The common mode 
of taking^ birds was with a 
snare. (Fs. exxiv. 7. Prov. 
vii. 23. Amos iii. 5.) A speck- 
led bird (Jer. xii. 9) proba- 
bly means any strange bird, 
which, as is well known, other 
birds are accustomed to attack 
and pursue. 

BIRTHRIGHT. (Gen. xxv. 
31.) The first-born son among 
the Jews enjoyed special pri- 
vileges above his brethren, 
and these privileges were 
hence called his birthright, or 
his right by birth. Among 
these privileges were, conse- 
cration to the Lord, (Ex. xxii. 
29 ;) great dignity, (Gen. xlix. 
3;) a double portion of his 
father's estate£'(Deut. xxi.17;) 
and (in the royal families) 
succession to the kingdom. 
(2 Chron. xxi. 3.) The eldest 
son seems to have been re- 
garded,in the father's absence, 
as in some respects his re 
presentative. 

The paternal blessing was 

also in a peculiar sense the 

right of the first-born, though 

the right itself and all the 

105 



BIT 

blessings of it might be for- 
feited or transferred, as in the 
case of Jacob and Esau. (Gen. 
xxv. 33.) Reuben and Joseph. 
(1 Chron. v. 1.) But whoever 
enjoyed it was regarded as in- 
vested with great dignity and 
superiority. Hence the phrase . 
is used figuratively to denote 
the chief or highest, or lowest, 
(Job xviii. 13. Isa. xiv. 30,) and 
to confer such a rank on one is 
to constitute him the first-born. 
(Ps. lxxxix. 27. Col. i. 15.) 

Hence the peculiar force 
and appropriateness of the 
titles given to the Divine Re- 
ceeraer. (Rom. viii. 29. Col. i. 
18. Heb. i. 2. 4. 6; xii. 23. 
See Biblical Antiquities, by 
the Am. S. S. Union, vol. i. 
chap. vi. § ii.) 

BISHOP. (1 Tim. iii.2.) The 
word in its original means 
overseer, as Joseph was in 
Potiphar's house, (Gen. xxxix. 
4,) or as the three thousand 
six hundred men were in So- 
lomon's temple, (2 Chron. ii. 
18,) or as Uzri was of the Le- 
vites. (Neh. xi. 22.) In the 
New Testament, however, the 
term is used to denote an of- 
ficer or officers of the church, 
but their precise rank or juris- 
diction is a matter of contro- 
versy. Paul describes the 
qualifications for the office 
particularly in his letter to 
Timothy. (1 Tim. iii. 2-7.) 
Christ is figuratively called 
the shepherd, and bishop of 
souls. (1 Pet. ii. 25.) 

BISHOPRIC. (Acts i. 20.) 
The jurisdiction, charge, or 
office of a bishop. 

BITS. (See Harness.) 

BITTER, (Jer. ii. 19,) and 
BITTERNESS, (Pro v.xi v. 10,) 
are words used figuratively to 
denote the severity of sorrow 
or suffering. 

BITTER HERBS. (Ex. xii. 
8.) The Jews were command- 
ed to eat the passover with a 
salad of bitter herbs ; and 
their modern historians sup- 



pose that hoarhcund, wild ret- 
tuce, tansy, &c. were used, aa 
they still are by the Jews in 
some countries. The use of 
them on that occasion was 
intended to call to their re- 
membrance the severe and 
cruel bondage from which God 
delivered them when they 
were brought out of Egypt. 

BITHRON. (2 Sam. ii. 29.) 
This is not probably the name 
of any particular place, but a 
general term denoting a range 
of hills and vales. 

BITHYNIA. (Acts xvi. 7.) A 
province of Asia Minor. It is 
bounded on the east by Paph- 
lagonia, north by the Black 
Sea, and south by Phrygia and 
Galatia. It is directly oppo- 
site to Constantinople. The 
gospel was introduced into 
this province at an early pe- 
riod. (Comp. Acts ii. 9, and 
1 Pet. i. 1.) There is a re- 
markable testimony in eccle- 
siastical history, to the purity 
and firmness of the Christians 
of Bithynia, at the close of 
the first and the beginning of 
the second c*ntury. 

BITTERN. (Isa.xxxiv. II.) 
Some bird of solitary habits 
that frequents ruins and other 
desolate places. The bird, 
known in modern days by 
this name, inhabits fens and 
marshes, and has a deep 
hoarse cry, which is often 
heard, in the twilight, from 
its lonely haunts. The lan- 
guage of prophecy (lsa. xiv. 
23, and xxxiv. 11. Zeph. ii. 
14) imports the utmost soli- 
tude and desolation. 

BLACK.BLACKNESS, (Job 
xxx. 30. Joel ii. 6,) are words 
used figuratively, to denote 
shame, terror, perplexity, des- 
pair, mourning, &c. We often 
findthem employedat thisday, 
in eastern writings, to express 
shame and confusion. 

BLAINS. (Ex. ix. 90 Burn- 
ing pustules or ulcers, whicsi 
106 



BLA 

broke out upon the Egyptians 
and all their beasts, and con- 
stituted the sixth plague. The 
ashes from the ^furnaces 
(brick-kilns, perhaps) were 
taken by Moses, a handful at 
a time, and scattered to the 
winds; and wherever it fell, 
on man or beast, it caused 
this dreadful disease to ap- 
pear. Perhaps reference is 
made to this plague in Deut. 
xxviii. 27. 

BLASPHEMY. (Col. ill. 8.) 
The word in its original use 
denotes all manner of detrac- 
tion or calumny, such as is 
expressed by the terms rail, 
revile, speak evil, &c. ; but in 
the restricted sense of the 
Scriptures, and of common 
use, it denotes reproachful, 
irreverent, or insulting lan- 
guage concerning God or any 
of his names or attributes. 
(Lev. xxiv. 10—16.) "Whoever 
thinks of the character of 
God as infinitely holy, just, 
and good, will not be surpris- 
ed that this offence is regard- 
ed as very heinous, and is so 
fearfully punished. There is 
no reason to suppose that the 
sin of profane swearing, so 
common at this day, is less 
odious and offensive to God 
than it was in the time of 
Moses. 

Blasphemy against the 
Holy GSost, (Matt. xii. 32,) 
such as the Pharisees were 
guilty of when they ascribed 
;he miracle of curing the 
blind and dumb man (who 
was also possessed with a de- 
vil) to the agency of Beelzebub 
v»r Satan, is^declared to be un- 
pardonable. 

Many persons are appre- 
hensive that they have fallen 
into this sin, and hence give 
themselves up to despair ; but 
it is probable, that however 
dangerous and fatal may be 
our offences against the Holy 
Spirit in rejecting his gra- 
cious influences and refusing 



BLE 

to yield to his persuasions, 
(Heb. vi. 4—8, and x. 26—31,) 
the fear is sometimes ground- 
less. How near the ridicule 
and contempt of religion and 
its ordinances, the ^sporting 
with the work of the Holy 
Spirit on men's hearts, and 
the unbelief in and opposition 
to the Scripture, which is all 
given by this divine Agent, 
may approach to the fearful 
extremity of guilt which the 
unpardonable sin must in- 
volve, the judgment of the 
great day will reveal. 

BLEMISH. (Ex. xii. 5.) 
Whatever renders a person 
or thing imperfect. The 
priests under the Jewish law 
were required to be free from 
personal blemishes, and the 
defects which were accounted 
blemishes are particularly de- 
scribed. (Lev. xxi. IS— 20, and 
xxii. 20—24.) So also of ani- 
mals. (Deut. xv. 21.) The word 
is figuratively used, (2 Pet. ii 
13, and (spots) Jude 12.) 

BLESS, BLESSED, BLESS 
ING. (Gen. xii. 2; xxii. 17 
18.) These words are of fre- 
quent occurrence in the sa- 
cred writings, and their par- 
ticular force may generally 
be determined by Ihe con- 
nexion. 

Men are said to bless God 
when they ascribe to him the 
praise and glory which are 
due to him. (Ps. cxlv.) God 
blesses men in bestowing up- 
on them continually mercies, 
spiritual and temporal. (Job 
xlii. 12. Ps. xlv. 2.) And men 
are said to bless their fellow 
creatures when, as in ancient 
times, in the spirit of prophe- 
cy they predicted blessings to 
come upon them. This was 
the kind of blessing which 
the patriarchs pronounced 
(Gen. xlix.) So Moses blessed 
Israel. (Deut. xxxiii.) 

The form of blessing pre 
scribed by the Jewish "ritual 
(Num. vi 23— 27) is admirably 
' 107 



BLO 

simple and sublime. It was 
pronounced standing, with a 
loud voice, and with the Hands 
raised towards heaven. (Luke 
xxiv. 50.) National blessings 
and cursings were sometimes 
pronounced. (Deut. xxvii. and 
xxvili. Isa. xix. 25.) 

The cup of blessing, (1 
Cor. x. 16,) and cup op sal- 
tation, (Ps. cxvi. 13,) are ex- 
pressions derived, as we sup- 
pose, from a custom preva- 
lent among the Jews at their 
feasts. 

The master of the feast took 
a cup of wine in his hand, 
and solemnly blessed God for 
it, and for all the mercies 
which were then acknowledg- 
ed. It was then passed to all 
the guests, each of whom 
drank of it in his turn. The 
aptness and force of the fig- 
ures employed in the above 
passages are thus made obvi- 
ous. 

Blessing, valley of. (See 
Vat t w ^ 

BLOOD (Ex. xxix. 12) is the 
fluid of life in the animal 
body. Its use was expressly 
prohibited to Noah when eve- 
ry thing else was. freely given 
him. (Gen. ix. 4.) By the 
Jewish law also, it was ex- 
pressly and solemnly forbid- 
den. (Lev. xvii. 10, &c.) 

The reason of this interdic- 
tion is,probably,because blood 
was sacredly appropriated. 
(Lev. xvii. 11.) The Jewish 
ritual abounds with the use 
of blood, (Heb. ix'. 22,) and the 
manner of employing it is 
stated with minuteness in 
Heb. ix. and x., where also its 
use and effects are shown in 
striking contrast .with the 
blood shed upon the cross. 
(See also Acts xx. 28. Horn. v. 
9. Eph. i. 7. Col. i. 14. Heb. 
vii. 27\ 1 John i. 7.) 

The prohibition of eating 
blood or animals that are 
Strangled, has been always 
rigidly observed by the Jews. 



BOA 

\n the Christian church, the 
custom of refraining from 
things strangled, and from 
blood, continued for a long 
time. In the council of the 
apostles held at Jerusalem. 
(Acts xv.) it was declared 
that converts from paganism 
should not be subject to the 
legal ceremonies, but that 
they should refrain from idol- 
atry, from fornication, from 
eating blood, and from such 
animals as were strangled, 
and their blood thereby re- 
tained in their bodies; which 
decree was observed for many 
ages by the church. 

ft, is oDserved that the no- 
tion, that the blood of the vic- 
tims was peculiarly sacred to 
the gods, is impressed on all 
ancient pagan mythology. (See 
Christ.) 

Avenger of blood. (See 
Avenge.) 

BLUE. (See Colours.) 

BOANERGES. (Mark iii. 
17.) The name given by Christ 
to James and Jonn. Some have 
supposed that this name indi- 
cated the power which those 
apostles should exert in the 
introduction of the gospel dis- 
pensation. It seems trifling 
to suppose that it refers to the 
mode or tone of their preach- 
insr. 

BOAR. (Ts. lxxx. 13.) This 
is the original sto.ck of the 
common Epg; and, in a wild 
state, is a very furious and 
formidable animal. Modern 
travellers tell us that they are 
found in ereat numbers on the 
banks oi" the Jordan, and 
among the reeds of the sea of 
Tiberias. The allusion of the 
psalmist, in the above pas 
sage, may be to the coming 
forth of the animal from the 
shady marsh or woods; or it 
may be to his well known ha- 
bit of turning up the earth in 
search of roots for food, and 
in this way destroying culti- 
vated ground. (For a particii- 
108 



BOO 

tar description and cut, see 
Natural History of the 
Bible, by the Am. S- S. TTnion. 
art. Boar.) 

BOAZ, or BOOZ, (Kuth ii. 
1,) was a descendant of Judah ; 
and through him is traced the 
regular succession of Jewish 
kings. (Matt. i. 5.) Boaz was 
a man of wealth, and of great 
respectability ; and, from his 
conduct towards his poor kins- 
woman, Ruth, we suppose him 
to have been a man of strict 
integrity, and of an estimable 
character. (See Affectionate 
Daughter-in-law, or Life of 
Ruth, by the Am. S. S. Union, 
ch. iii. iv. and v.) 

BOLLED. (Ex. ix. 31.) The 
expression, jiax teas boiled, 
means that it was podded, or 
nearly in a state to be gather- 
ed, and of course the loss of 
it was much more severe than 
it would have been at an ear- 
lier stage of its growth. 

BOND, BONDAGE, BOND- 
MAN,BONDWOMAN,BOND- 
MAID. (See Servant.) 

BONNETS, (bee Clothes, 

JVTlTRE.) 

BOOK. (Ex. xvii. 14/) What 
we call books were unknown 
to the ancient Jews, at least 
in their present convenient 
form. Letters were engraved 
on stone, brick, metal, (as 
lead and copper,) or wood, 
and also on cloth and skins, 
and at a later period onparch- 
ment. (2 Tim. iv. 13.) Tablets 
of lead and brass or copper, of 
great antiquity, have been dis- 
covered in modern times. 

The earliest mode of pre- 
serving inscriptions was by 
engraving on a rock. Such 
inscriptions often occur to the 
eastern traveller. 

The writing table mentioned 
Luke i. 63, was probably a 
tablet covered with wax, or 
otherwise prepared to be writ- 
ten upon. (Deut. xxvii. 2. 3.) 
Such tablets were used in Eng- 
land as lately as the year 1300. 
10 



BOO 

Leaves and the bark of trees 
were also used, and were often 
prepared with much skilL 
The people of Ceylon write 
with a bodkin on broad and 
thick leaves, cut into narrow 
slips ; and these leaves, being 
fastened together,make books, 
which they call Ollas. The 
missionaries often prepared 
tracts in this form, before pa- 
per and printing were intro-, 
cluced upon the island. la 
Sumatra, and among the Indi- 
ans of North America, bark is 
still used for making letters 
and pictures. 

Leather, and linen or cotton 
cloth, were also used. These 
were prepared in the form of 
long rolls, twelve or fourteen 
inches wide, and fastened at 
each end to sticks, (like the 
rollers to which maps are at- 
tached,) and which were roll- 
ed together till they met mid 
way. Sometimes these leaves 
were connected in the form 
of modern books, and opened 
in the same way. In this case 
the sheets were fastened to * 
rods, and these rods passed 
through rings, and thus fonr*» 
ed the back of the book. 

The writing was gener? XLj 
in capital letters, and wit) iout 
punctuation or division f 
words; and when used the 
reader unrolled, the W L S. as 
far as the place which he 
wished to find, and kept be* 
fore him just so muc'n as he 
would read, thus: 




BOO 

The pages re seeded the 
following in their general ap- 
pearance, though they were 

INTHEBEGI WORDWASG 

NNINGWAST ODTHESAME 

HEWORDAN WASINTHEB 

DTHEWORD EGINNINGW 

WASWITHG ITHGODALL 

ODANDTHE THINGSWER 

These columns could be di- 
vided from one another, and 
used separately, as we may 
cut the columns of a newspa- 
per which is printed on one 
side only, and arrange the ex- 
iracts as we like. Sometimes 
the reading was what is called 
furrow-wise. The first line 
was from right to left, and the 
second from left to right, and 
so on, alternately, like plough- 
ing a field. The roll or book 



BOO 

of course wider and longer 
than these, and were read 
from right to left : 

EMADEBYHI INHIMWASLI 

MANDWITHO FEANDTHEL1 

UTHIMWASN FEWASTHELI 

OTANYTHIN GHTOFMENA 

GMADETHA NDTHELIGHT 

TWASMADE SHINETHIND 
John i. 1 — 5. 

of curses, which Ezekiel saw, 
was thirty feet long and twen- 
ty wide. The writing was 
usually on one side, but not 
always. (Ezek. ii. 10.) 

When the roll was done 
with, it was carefully deposit 
ed in a case. The following 
cut shows the end of the roll 
in its place; and also the 
inkstand or bottle, with the 
cover thrown off, and the reed 
pen or style : 




Another form of the scroll, 
and also a collection of sheets 
in the shape of a modern book, 



secured, as above described- 
with rings and rods, are re- 
presented as follows : 





BOO 

A very good idea may be 
formed of an ancient roll by 
supposing a common newspa- 
per to have rods or rollers at 
the right and left sides. The 
reader takes hold of the rods, 
and unrolls the sheet until he 
comes to the desired column. 
Thus in Luke iv. 17, the 
phrase "opened the book," 
would properly read " unroll- 
ed the scroll," and in ver. 20, 
for " closed the book," read 
"rolled up the volume," or 
"scroll." This shows the 
force of the figure, (Isa. xxxiv. 
4,) where the heavens are re- 
presented as rolled together, 
as suddenly as the opposite 
ends of an unrolled scroll fly 
to meet each other, when the 
hand of the reader is with- 
drawn from it. 

A kind of paper was made 
from the stalk of an Egyptian 
vegetable called papyrus, or 
paper reed, which is still 
found in various parts of In- 
dia. (See Bulrush.) The stalk 
was slit, with a needle, into 
plates or layers as broad 
%and thin as possible. Some 
of them were ten or fifteen 
inches broad. These strips 
were laid, side by side, upon a 
flat horizontal surface, and 
then immersed in the water 
of the Nile ; which not only 
served as a kind of sizing, but 
also caused the edges of the 
strips to adhere together as if 
glued. The sheets, thus form- 
ed, were dried in the sun, and 
then covered with a fine wash, 
which made them smooth and 
flexible. They were finally 
beaten with hammers, and 
polished. Twenty or more of 
these sheets were sometimes 
connected in one roll. 

The pen or style* was made 
cf some hard substance, per- 
haps not unlike the instru- 



* Hence the word style, signifying 
one's manner of writing— easy style, 
elegant style, &c. 



BOO 

ments used by glaziers to cut 
glass. (Jer. xvii. 1.) Upon ta- 
blets of wax an instrument 
was used, one end of which 
was pointed, to mark the let- 
ter^ and the other broad and 
flat, to make erasures. Pens 
or styles of copper are now 
used by the Ceylonese. On 
soft substances, like linen or 
papyrus, the marks were 
painted with a fine hair pen- 
cil, as is practised among the 
Chinese to this day. 

Most of the eastern nations 
now use the reed-pen, which 
is split with an instrument 
used as we use the penknife. 
(Jer. xxxvi. 23.) The pith is 
removed, and the bark or rind, 
being split like a quill, retains 
and properly sheds the ink. 
It is not hard or stiff enough 
to be used long without mend- 
ing. We have half a dozen 
of them from India now on our 
table. (See Pen.) 

Ink was prepared from a 
variety bf substances. (See 
Ink.) And those who were 
skilful in writing wore an 
inkhorn fastened to the gir- 
dle, (Ezek. ix. 2>) which is the 
present mode among the Per- 
sians and the Moors of Bar- 
bary. (See Inkhorn.) 

As tables were unknown, 
the paper, or other substance 
written upon, was laid upon 
the knees, or held firmly with 
the left hand. 

A sealed book was a roll 
fastened together by a band 
or string, and a seal affixed to 
the knot. (Isa. xxix. 11.) 

Book of the generation 
(Gen. v. 1. Matt. i. 1) signifies 
the genealogical history or 
records of a "family or nation. 

Book of the living, (Ps. 
lxix. 28,) and the kindred 
phrase, book of life, (Rev. 
xxi. 27,) are supposed to allude 
to the genealogical lists or re- 
gisters kept by the Jews, from 
which the names of the dead 
were erased. (Isa. iv. 3.) The 
111 



BOS 

aptness and force of the figu- 
rative use of the terms is suf- 
ficiently obvious. 

Book op judgment. (Dan. 
vii. 10.) The allusion here is 
probably either to the prac- 
tice of opening books of ac- 
count to settle with servants 
or labourers, or to the custom 
of the Persian kings to have 
a book in which a daily record 
is made of special services 
performed by any of their 
subjects, and of the rewards 
which were given to the indi- 
viduals. (Esth. vi. 1—3.) 

Book of the wars of the 
Lord, (Num. xxi. 14,) Book 
of Jasher or the righteous, 
(Josh, x.,13, and 2 Sam. i. 18,) 
and Book of the Chroni- 
cles (or annals) of the kings 
of Judah and Israel, (1 Kings 
xiv. 19. 29,) are the names of 
ancient writings known to 
the Jews, but not preserved in 
the sacred canon. 

The remark of the wise 
man, (Eccl. xii. 12,) on the 
subject of making books, is 
supposed to amount to this : — 
" That the propensity of some 
men to collect and amass 
books for libraries is insatia- 
ble ; that it is a business to 
which there is no end ; the 
designation of one leading to 
that of another, and that again 
of another, and so on intermin- 
ably ; and that the much study 
connected with this endless 
labour and ' weariness of the 
flesh' may render its votary a 
fit subject of the admonition, 
that 'the conclusion of the 
whole matter,' or the great 
end of life, i is to fear God and 
keep his commandments.'" 
(See Writing.) 

BOOTH. (See Garden.) 

BORDER. (See Clothes.) 

BORROW. (Ex. xii. 35.) 
The meaning of the word 
here translated borrow is 
ask, and does not imply any 
promise to return. 

BOSOM. (John xiii. 23.) 



BOT 

The dress of the Jews was 
such as allowed them to carry 
within a fold in the bosom of 
the robe what could not be car- 
ried in the hand. Hence the 
expressions Isa. xl. 11, and 
Luke vi. 38. It was also used 
to denote a place of rest and 
security. Hence the term 
Abraham's bosom is figura- 
tively spoken of as the abode 
of Lazarus. (Luke xvi. 23.) 
No name, awakened such as- 
sociations in the mind of a Jew 
as that of Abraham. (Luke 
xiii. 28. John viii. 33. 39. 57. 
Acts xiii. 26.) The use of this 
term (John i. 18) imports also 
the peculiar, mysterious, and 
perfect unity of the Father and 
Son. 

BOSSES. (Job xv. 26.) The 
prominent or projecting parts 
of the buckler, and of course 
the thickest and strongest. 

BOTTLE. (Gen. xxi. 14.) 
Ancient bottles were made of 
the skins of animals, which 
were properly dressed for the 
purpose. The openings of the 
skin were closed, except at 
the neck, through which th# 
liquor was to be'received and 
discharged, and which was 
fastened by a string like a bag 

The following is copied from 




BOW 

a fragment of the Antiquities 
of Herculaneum, and repre- 
sents a young woman pouring 
wine from a bottle into a cup. 
They were of course of dif- 
ferent sizes, as the skins of 
kids, goats, or oxen might be 
used. Bruce describes par- 
ticularly a bottle which he 
saw in Arabia, made in this 
manner, of an ox-skin, which 
would hold sixty gallons, and 
two of which were a load for 
a camel. 

Our missionaries in eastern 
countries frequently speak of 
the goat-skins and leathern 
bottles in which they carry wa- 
ter in their journeys. Where 
the travelling is rough,and the 
vessels likely to strike against 
each other, they are made of 
the safest materials that can 
be found. The skins or bottles 
used for new wine were of 
the freshest and most flexible 
kind, in order that they might 
the better endure the process 
of fermentation. (Matt. ix. 17.) 
The effect of smoke on a 
skin-bottle would be to black- 
en and shrivel it. (Ps.cxix.83.) 
BOW. (See Armour.) 
Bow. A posture. (Gen. 
xxxvii. 10.) To bow down 
one's self is expressive of 
great reverence and humility. 
(Gen. xxiv. 26. 48. 1 Kings i. 
53, and ii. 19-) It was a com- 
mon mode of salutation in the 
east to kneel upon one knee, 
and bow the head until it 
touched the ground. (See 
Prayer.) 

It is still the custom in many 
eastern nations for subjects to 
kneel before the throne of the 
king, and bow their heads 
slowly, till they touch the 
earth. Sir William Jones, 
in his history of Nadir Shah, 
says, that as Nadir approach- 
ed", the people bowed their 
heads with shame, and touch- 
ed the earth with the forehead 
of humiliation. 
BOWELS. (1 Kings iii. 26.) 
10* 



BRA 

This term is used by the pa 
cred writers evidently in a 
figurative sense, for affections 
or emotions of the heart. (Col. 
iii. 12. 1 John iii. 17.) 

BOX TREE. (Isa. xli. 19.) 
An evergreen, whose perfect 
proportions, beauty of foliage, 
and utility might illustrate 
the prosperity and grace 
which God would bestow on 
Zion. (Isa. Ix. 13.) 

BOZRAH, (Gen. xxxvi. 33,) 
called by the Greeks and Ro 
mans Bostra, was situated 
about twenty-four miles south 
east of Edrei. It is often men 
tioned in the Scriptures as 
the chief city of Edom. (Isa 
xxxiv. 6, and lxiii. 1. Jer. xlviii. 
24, and xlix. 13. 22. Amos i. 
12.) It is called by Jeremiah 
a city of the Moabites, and i* 
was probably taken from Am 
mon by the Edomites, and 
again from the Edomites by 
the Moabites. As it was situ- 
ated upon the confines of seve- 
ral countries who were often 
at war with each other, these 
changes were likely to hap- 
pen. It is now the largest 
city in that district, and has 
been celebrated as a strong- 
hold of the Nestorians. 

The prophecies respecting 
this place, some of which are 
cited above, are among the 
most wonderful and sublime 
on record. 

BRACELET. (Gen. xxiv. 
30.) An ornament (chain or 
clasp) worn on the arm. 
Among eastern princesses it 
is a badge of royalty, and was 
probably regarded as such in 
the time of David. (2 Sam. i. 
10.) The royal bracelet was 
of much richer materials, and 
was worn above the elbow; 
the common bracelet was 
woru on the wrist. (Ezek. 
xvi. 11.) 

BRANCH. (Ps. civ. 12.) 

This word is often figuratively 

used by the sacred writers, 

(Ps. lxxx. 15. John xv. 5, 6,) 

113 



BRE 

and is also one of the titles 
of the Messiah. (Isa. xi. 1, 
comp. with Isa. liii. 2. Zech. 
iii. 8, and vi. 12.) The family 
of Jesse is represented under 
the figure of the stock of a 
tree, firmly rooted; and the 
coming of Christ from the 
seed of David is represented 
as the shooting forth of a 
branch, which is here called, 
by way of distinction and 
eminence, < THE BRANCH;' 
for it may well be said 
that Christ, even in his com-^ 
mon nature, far surpassed* 
all the house of David, in 
the dignity, power, and glory 
Doth of his person and office. 

BRASS. (Gen. iv. 22.) The 
composition which we call 
brass was invented as late as 
the thirteenth century. That 
which is called brass in the 
sacred writings was probably 
what we call copper. It was 
used for a variety of purposes 
about the temple, and also for 
fetters, (Judg. xvi. 21. 2 Kings 
xxv. 7,) armour, (1 Sam. xvii. 
5, 6,) and musical instruments. 
(1 Chron. xv. 19. ICor.xiii. 1.) 
The words brass, brazen, &c. 
occurring under the words 
Armour, Altar, Book, &c 
are used in conformity with 
the common English transla- 
tion of the Bible, and not with 
technical accuracy. 

BRAZEN SEA. (See La- 
ver.) 

BRAZEN SERPENT. (See 
Serpent.) 

BREAD. (Gen. xiv. 18.) The 
bread of the Jews was gene- 
; rally made of wheat. Barley 
; and other grains were some- 
times used. (Judg. vii. 13.) 

The materials were prepared 
as in modern days. (See Mill, 
Sieve.) The process of knead- 
ing it was performed in knead* 
ing-troughs, (Gen. xviii. 6. Ex. 
xii. 34. Jer. vii. 18,) or wooden 
bowls, such as the Arabians use 
at this day for a like purpose. 

It has been supposed by 



BRE 

some that the kneading wa§ 
done upon a circular piece of 
leather, such as is now used in 
Persia, and which would be 
more properly called a knead- 
ing-bag, as it draws up like 
a knapsack, in the manner 




represented in the above cut. 
Either of the utensils would 
be easily transported. Very 
simple leaven was used in 
th • dough. The loaves were 
shaped like a plate, and when 
leavened, were ordinarily of 
the thickness of one's little 
finger. (See Table.) 

The unleavened bread was 
very thin, and was broken, 
not cut. (Lam. iv. 4. Matt. 
xiv. 19; xv. 36; xxvi. 26.) 
It has been said that the thick- 
ness or thinness of the -loaves 
was regulated by the time 
they were to be kept; that 
which was to be kept longest 
being made thick,that it might 
retain its moisture. This is 
contrary to modern philoso- 
phy on this subject, as we see 
in the manufacture of ship, 
bread. (For the manner of 
baking, see Ovens, Cake.) 

The term bread is often used 
for food or provisions in gene- 
ral. 

Bread corn (Isa. xxviii. 
28) is used for wheat, barley, 
or any other grain from which 
bread was made. 

The figurative expressions, 
bread ofsorrows,(Ps.cxxxu.2,) 
and bread of tears, (Ps. Ixxx 
114 



BRE 

6,) may denote that the suffer- 
ing or sorrow and the shed- 
ding of tears had become as 
much a part of the portion 
of every day as one's daily 
bread. So the bread of wick- 
edness,(Pro\. iv.17,) and bread 
of deceit, (Prov. xx. 17,) de- 
note not only a living or 
estate obtained by fraud" and 
sin, but that to do wickedly is 
as much the portion of a 
wicked man's life as to eat 
his daily bread. 

Shew-brbad (Ex. xxv. 30) 
was unleavened bread pre- 
pared anew every Sabbath, 
and presented hot on the 
golden table, in twelve loaves 
of a square or oblong shape, 
according to the number of 
the tribes of Israel. Salt and 
incense were presented at the 
same time. It is supposed 
that the loaves were placed 
either in two piles or in two 
rows, with six loaves in each, 
and it was called shew-bread, 
or bread of the face, or the 
bread of setting before, be- 
cause it stood continually be- 
fore the Lord. 

The old loaves were re- 
moved every Sabbath, (Lev. 
xxiv. 8,) and as a general 
rule, were to be eaten by the 
priests alone, and by them 
only in the court of the sanc- 
tuary. (1 Sam. xxi. 1—6. Matt. 
xii. 3, &c.) 

The figure below represents 
the commonly received im- 
pression respecting the shape 




BRI 

and appearance of the table 
of shew-bread. The dotted 
lines represent the front row 
of loaves ; the residue being 
concealed by these. 

BREAKFAST. (See Meals.) 

BREASTPLATE. 1. (Ex, 
xxviii. 15.) A part of the offi- 
cial dress of the Jewish high- 
priest, the general appearance 
of which is supposed to be 
given in the cut upon the ad- 
joining page. It was a piece 
of embroidered work, about 
ten inches square, and made 
double with a front and 
lining, so as to answer for a 
pouch or bag. It was adorned 
with twelve precious stones, 
as represented in the cut on 
the following page. 

The two upper corners were 
fastened to the ephod, from 
which it was not to be loosed, 
(Ex. xxviii. 28,) and the two 
lower corners to the girdle. 
The rings, chains, and other 
fastenings were of gold or 
rich lace. It was called the 
memorial, (Ex. xxviii. 12. 29,) 
inasmuch as it reminded the 
priest of his representative 
character in relation to the 
twelve tribes; and it is also 
called the breastplate of judg- 
ment, (Ex. xxviii. 15,) perhaps 
because it was worn by him 
who was, instrumentallv, the 
fountain of justice and judg- 
ment to the Jewish church. 
Others think it is because the 
Urim and Thummim were 
annexed to it. (See Urim and 
Thummim.) 

2. (Eph. vi. 14.) The breast 
plate was also that article of 
ancient armour which pro 
tected the breast. (See Ar- 
mour.) Its figurative use in 
the passage above cited, and 
also in Isa. lix. 17, is suffi- 
ciently obvious. 

BRICK (Gen. xi. 3) was a 
building material among the 
Jews; but the size of theii 
bricks was much larger than 
ours. Bricks found among tha 
115 




ruins of Babylon are a foot 
equare, and resemble tile ra- 
ther than brick. They were 
usually hardened by the heat 



of the sun, although kiln 
were not unknown. (2 Sam. 
xii. 31. Jer. xliii. 9. Nah. iii. 
14.) It is said that the mate 
116 



BRO 

rials of brick and mode of 
manufacturing them have 
lately been discovered in 
some ancient monument, by 
an Italian traveller. 

BRIDE, BRIDEGROOM, 
BRIDE-CHAMBER. (See 
Marriage.) 

BRIDLE. (See Harness.) 

BRIGANDINE. (Jer. xlvi. 
4.) Supposed to be the same 
with the habergeon and coat 
of mail. (See Armour.) 

BRIMSTONE. (Fs. xi. 6.) 
A well known mineral sub- 
stance, exceedingly inflamma- 
ble, and when burning emits 
a suffocating smell, we are 
told that the cities of the plain 
were destroyed by a rain (or 
storm) of fire and brimstone. 
There is nothing incrediole 
in this, even if we suppose 
natural agencies only were 
-'employed in it. The soil in 
that and in many other parts 
of the earth is such, that a 
violent eruption might fill the 
air with inflamed substances, 
falling down in streams of 
liquid fire upon those devoted 
cities. The word is often 
figuratively used. (Job xviii. 
15. Isa. xxxiv. 9.) Whether 
the word is used literally or 
not, in the passages which de- 
scribe the future sufferings of 
the wicked, we may be sure 
that it expresses all which the 
human mind can conceive of 
^excruciating torment. 

BROTHER, BRETHREN. 
(Gen. iv. 2, and xlii. 13.) A 
term which properly denotes 
the nearest consanguinity, 
that is, male children of the 
same parents, as in the texts 
above cited; but sometimes 

Sersons of more remote kin- 
red, or of the same nation, 
(Gen. xiii. 8. Esth. x. 3. Acts 
vii. 25. 37. and xiii. 26,^) or even 
those who are clo-sely united 
in affection. (2 Sam. i. 26.) In 
the New Testament the term 
tS more frequently applied 
to the spiritual relationship 



BUR 

which the true followers of 
Christ sustain to him and to 
each other. (Matt. xii. 50. 
Rom. xiv. 10. 2Thess. ii. 13.) 
BUCKLER. (See Armour.) 
BUILDINGS. (See Dwell- 
ings.) 
BUL. (See Month.) 
BULLS of Bashan. (Ps. 
xxii. 12.) Bulls in the rich 
pastures of Bashan, being 
well fed, were strong and 
ferocious; hence they are 
chosen as symbols of cruel 
and persecuting enemies. (See 
Bashan.) 

BULRUSH. (Isa. xv iii. 2.) 
A species of reed, which is 
found on the marshes of the 
Nile. It grows to the height 
of twelve or fifteen feet. The 
stalks were pliable, and capa- 
ble of being interwoven very 
closely, as is evident from its 
being used in the construction 
of arks. (Ex. ii. 3. 5.) It was 
from this vegetable that the 
papyrus was derived, which 
was used for writing. (See 
Book.) It was made of the 
inside bark, which was cut 
into strips, and the edges ce- 
mented together and dried in 
the sun. The fact, that the pa- 
pyrus was used for food when 
prepared in one way, and for 
writing when prepared in an- 
other way, explains the pas- 
sages in which the eating of 
books, &c. is mentioned. (Jer. 
xv. 16. Ezek. iii. 1. 3. Rev. x. 
8 — 10. For the appearance of 
the bulrush, see a beautiful 
engraving, illustrating that 
article, in Natural History 
op the Bible, also Youth's 
Friend, vol. v., both by the 
Am. S. S. Union.) 
BULWARK. (See War.) 
BURDEN. (Hab i. 1.) This 
word, when used in connex- 
ion with some city or nation, 
(as the burden of Moab, the 
burden of Nineveh, &c.) ex- 
presses the disastrous or ca- 
lamitous import of the pro 
phecy. 

117 



BUR 

The " burden of the desert 
of the sea," (Babylon,) the 
** burden of the valley of vi- 
sion," (Jerusalem,) and simi- 
lar expressions, are explain- 
ed by their subject or con- 
nexion. 

BURNING-BUSH. (See 
Moses.) 

BURNT-OFFERING. (See 
Sacrifice.) 

BURIAL, BURY. (Gen. 
Xxiii. 4. Matt. xxvi. 12.) It 
was customary among the 
Jews for the children or near 
kindred to close the eyes of 
the dying, (Gen. xlvi. 4,) and 
a loud and general wailing 
followed the decease, (John 
xi. 19. 31. 33,) and continued 
many days after burial. The 
body of the deceased was 
washed and laid out. (Acts 
ix. 37.) It was wrapped in folds 
of linen cloth, and the head 
bound around with a napkin. 
It is said that Lazarus was 
bound, hand and foot, with 
grave clothes, (John xi. 44;) 
and it is supposed by many 
that each limb had its sepa- 
rate wrapper, as it was cus- 
tomary in Egypt to wrap even 
each linger in a separate cloth | 
or band, so that hundreds of 
yards of cloth are often un- I 
wound from one of their ! 
mummies. When thus bound 
around, it was placed on a I 
bier, in readiness to be borne ' 
to the grave. (See Bier, Em- 
balm.) 

The climate, and the un- 
cleanness which was con- 
tracted, under the law, from 
contact with a dead body, or 
even coming into the same 
apartment with it, would natu- 
rally lead to the custom of 
early interments. In Persia, 
we are told, it is not custom- 
ary to keep the dead over two 
or three hours ; and the Eu- 
ropean Jews universally bury 
their dead early. There were 
many exceptions in this re- 
spect, however. The practice 



BUR 

of embalming was not general 
among the Jews, though spices, 
&c. were used in their burials. 
(2 Chron. xvi. 14. John xix. 
40.) Jacob and Joseph (whose 
bodies were embalmed) both 
died inJSgypt, where the art of 
embalming was very skilfully 
practised. In Jacob's case we 
are told, that Joseph com- 
manded his servants, the phy- 
sicians, to embalm his father, 
and then he was placed in a 
coffin in Egypt. And thence 
his body was carried to Mach- 
pelah, in Canaan, and buried. 
(Gen. 1. 2. 7, 8.) Coffins were 
used in Egypt and Babylon ; 
but are unknown in the east, 
even at the present day, ex- 
cept when a body is to be con- 
veyed to a distant place. (See 
Embalm.) 

All civilized . nations have 
been agreed in attending with 
some solemnity the burial of 
their dead. Among the Jews, 
the bier was followed to the 
grave by a few of the nearest 
relations. (2 Sam. iii. 31. Luke 
vii. 14.) Other persons attend- 
ed, and sometimes mourners 
(or rather wallers by profes- 
sion) were employed to attend 
the body. (Jer. ix. 17. Ezek. 
xxiv. 17. Amos v. 16. Matt. ix. 
23.) This is the custom now 
in many eastern nations. 

An English missionary in 
the East Indies speaks of hav- 
ing seen a number of women 
and girls assembled to lament 
over the grave of a lad who 
had been killed by a wild 
buffalo, ten days before. The 
mother sat on the earth at one 
end of the grave, and leaning 
upon it, cried out, "Oh, my 
child! oh, my child!" The 
others stood around her, cry- 
ing out and exhibiting every 
sign of distress. (Gen. 1. 3. 10 
Jer. xxxi. 15.) 

Certain places were appro- 
priated by the Jews to the 
purpose of burying the dead, 
and they were both public and 
118 



BUR 

private. (Gen. xxiii. 4; 1. 13. 
Judg. viii. 32; xvi. 31. 2 Sam. 
ii. 32; xxi. 14. 2 Kings xxiii. 6. 
Jer. xxvi. 23.) They were usu- 
ally selected in gardens* (2 
Kingrs xxi. 18.26. John xix.41,) 
or fields, (Gen. xxiii. 11,) or 
caves in the sides of the moun- 
tains, (2 Kings xxiii. 16, 17,) 
or in rocks, (Isa. xxii. 16;) 
and to be unburied was re- 
garded as exceedingly dis- 
graceful. (1 Sam. xvii. 44—46. 



BUR 

2 Kings ix. 10. Ps. cxli. 7. Jer 
viii. 2, and xxii. 19.) The 
grave was called the house or 
home of Ihe dead. (Job xxx. 
23. Eccl. xii. 5.) The burial 
places were usually in retired 
situations, and hence were the 
resort of demoniacs, (Matt, 
viii. 28,) and were usually 
without the city walls, but not 
always. (Josh. xxiv. 30. 33. 
1 Sam. xxv. 1 ; xxviii. 3. 2 
Kings xxi. 18. 2 Chron. xvi. 




Entrance, to a tomb at Thebes, in Egypt. 



119 



BUR 



BUR 




Interior of a sepulchre in Judza, vjith the relics of a body. 



14; xxiv. 16; xxxiii.20. Neh. 
iii. 16.) Though solitary, they 
were selected with reference 
to shade, prospect, &c. (Gen. 
xxiii. 17; xxxv.8. 1 Sam. xxxi. 
13.) 

The cuts on this and the 
preceding page represent the 
general appearance of east- 
ern tombs. 

The desire to be buried 
with one's kindred was very 
strong, (2 Sam. xix. 37 ;) and 
it is remarkable that the 
Jews, as a people, in all their 
dispersions and sufferings, re- 
tain an ardent desire to be 
buried in their own land. 



It was not unusual for a 
single family to have, near 
their dwelling house, a small 
building, without door or win- 
dow, built of stone or other 
durable materials, which was 
called the sepulchral house, or 
family mansion for the dead. 
Dr. Jowett describes them, and 
says they are not uncommon 
in eastern nations at the pre- 
sent day. 

It is supposed by travellers 
that the tombs of Joseph and 
Joshua, and some others which 
were hewn in rocks, and the 
location of which is minutely 
described in the Bible, are 




BUT 

Still seen. The preceding cut 
represents the ground plan 
of a sepulchre which Maun- 
drell found and explored, in 
Aradus, (Arpad,) in Syria. 

Through an old and dilapi- 
dated entrance he gained ad- 
mission, by seven or eight 
Steps, to the chamber a, eleven 
feet long, and about nine wide. 
This is a kind of ante-cham- 
ber. On the right, by a nar- 
row passage, he entered a 
chamber 6, ten feet by eight. 
This contained six cells for 
corpses, two opposite to the 
entrance, four at the left hand, 
and one not quite finished at 
the right. On the other side 
of the ante-chamber c is a 
similar chamber, with eleven 
cells, not quite so large. Two 
narrow passages, seven feet 
long, lead to the apartment d. 
The cut will now serve to ex- 
plain itself in some measure. 
The average height of the 
rooms is six feet. 

The sepulchres of the Jews 
were sometimes expensively 
built, and adorned or garnish- 
ed; and were whitened at short 
intervals, so as to make them 
conspicuous, that they might 
be avoided for their ceremo- 
nial uncleanness. Hence the 
force of our Lord's reproof. 
(Matt, xxiii. 27.) Sometimes 
titles or inscriptions were 
placed on them. (2 Kings 
xxiii. 17.) To build a sepul- 
chre for a man was an ex- 
pression of respect and ho- 
nour. (Matt, xxiii. 29. Luke 
xi. 48.) 

That sepulchres were not 
always closed may be inferred 
from several passages of the 
Bible. (2 Kings xiii. 21. Ps. v. 
9. See Aceldama. See also 
Omar, pp. 167—173, and Se- 
lumtel, p. 188, both by the 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

BUSHEL. (See Measures.) 

BUTLER. (Gen. xl. 1. 13.) 
An honourable officer of the 
king's household, called cup- 



BUT 

Dearer, (Neh. i. 11,) it being 
his duty to fill and bear the 
cup or drinking vessel to the 
king. The chief butler had 
the charge and oversight of 
the rest. "(Gen. xl. 2.) 

BUTTER. (Gen. xviii. 8.) 
As this word is used in the 
Scriptures, it probably means 
sour or coagulated milk, 
which, when mingled with 
water, is still regarded as a 
very agreeable ancl refreshing 
beverage by eastern nations. 
(Job xx. 17.) Their butter, 
such as it was, might havs 
been sometimes clarified and 
preserved in jars, as at the 
present day in Asia, and when 
poured out resembles rich oil. 

The figurative expression in 
Job xxix. 6, "I washed my steps 
with butter]" 1 denotes prima- 
rily the abundance with which 
the patriarch was blessed ; but 
it is also supposed by some to 
refer to the great quantities of 
cream which his herds pro- 
duced, and which were trod- 
den into butter. This fanci- 
ful interpretation aside, the 
passage seems to be self-ex- 
planatory ; the figurative allu- 
sion to butter having the same 
force and effect as that to oil. 

The place of butter, as a ge- 
neral article of food in the 
East, was supplied in some 
measure by the vegetable oil 
which was so abundant. 

Butter was made by pour- 
ing the milk into a goat-skin, 
and then shaking or treading 
it to and fro, in a uniform di- 
rection, until the separation 
of the butter took place. The 
butter mentioned in Judg. v. 
25, was probably cream, or a 
preparation of which cream 
was a component part. It is 
not improbabwthat the bottle 
of milk was no other than a 
skin which she had been 
using as a churn, and that the 
refreshment was butter-milk, 
presented in the richest ves- 
sel that was at hand. Butler- 
121 



BUT 

milk is still esteemed a most 
refreshing beverage by the 
Arabs. 

Butter and honey were used 
together, and were esteemed 
among the richest productions 



BYT 

of the land. And travellers tell 
us that the Arabs use cream or 
new butter mixed with honey 
as a principal delicacy. 
BYTHINIA. (See Bithy- 

NIA.) 



CAI 

CAB. (See Measures.) 
CABINS, (Jer.xxxvii.16,) 
or cells, were probably niches 
or apartments within the dun- 
geon, for the separate confine- 
ment of prisoners. The idea 
conveyed is, that the prophet 
suffered the most severe and 
loathsome imprisonment. 
C&SAR. (See Cesar.) 
C^SAREA. (SeeCESAREA.) 
C^ESAREA-PHILIPPI. (See 
Cesarea-Philippi.) 

CAIAPHAS (John xi. 49. 51) 
was the high-priest of the 
Jews at the time of our Sa- 
viour's trial. The office was 
formerly held for life, but at 
this time it was filled and va- 
cated at the pleasure of the 
Roman government. 

The wonderful miracle of 
raising Lazarus from the dead 
convinced many of the Jews 
that Christ was sent from God; 
and the Pharisees, alarmed 
at the increase of his follow- 
ers, summoned a council, and 
pretended that their liberties 
were in danger ; that the Ro- 
mans would become jealous 
of them, and that their de- 
struction was inevitable if 
something was not done at 
once to check his progress. 
Caiaphas was a member of 
the council, and expressed his 
decided opinion in favour of 
putting Jesus to death, as the 
only way of saving the nation 
from the evils which his suc- 
cess would bi#g upon them. 
His language was— " Ye know 
nothing at all ; nor consider 
that it is expedient for us that 
one man should die for the 
people^ and that the whole 
nation parish not.' 1 



CAI 

This counsel was wicked 
and unjust in the highest de- 
gree ; but as there was no of 
fence charged, it seemed the 
only plausible excuse for 

Eutting Christ to death. The 
igh-priest's language on this 
occasion was prophetic,though 
he did not intend it so. He 
was a wicked man, but the 
Spirit of God made use of him 
to declare the divine pur- 
poses, and as he was high- 
priest, all his declarations 
were clothed with authority. 

The evangelist, in giving an 
account of this extraordinary 
occurrence, enlarges on the 
prophetic language of the 
nigh-priest, and shows the ex- 
tent and blessedness of the 
dispensation of mercy through 
Jesus Christ. Nothing of this, 
however, was in the mind ol 
the cruel and bigoted high- 
priest. 

After Christ was arrested, 
he was arraigned before Caia- 
phas, and an effort was made 
to produce false testimony 
sufficient for his condemna- 
tion. This expedient failed, 
i.or thoagh two persons ap- 
peared to testify, they did not 
agree, and at last Caiaphas 
put our Saviour himself upon 
oath, that he should say whe- 
ther he was indeed Christ, the 
Son of God, or not. 

The answer was of course 
in the affirmative, and was ac- 
companied with a declaration 
of his divine power and ma- 
jesty. The high-priest pre- 
tended to be greatly grieved 
at what he considered the 
blasphemy of our Saiiour't 
pretensions, and forth r#h ££ 



CAI 

pealed to his enraged enemies 
to say if this was not enough. 
They answered at once that 
he deserved to die, and then, 
in the very presence of Caia- 
phas, and without any re- 
straint from him, they fell up- 
on their guiltless victim with 
insults and injuries. 

As Caiaphas had no power 
to inflict the punishment of 
death, Christ was taken from 
him to Pilate, the Roman go- 
vernor, (John xviii. 28,) that 
his execution might be duly 
ordered. (See Annas.) 

CAIN. (Gen. iv. 1.) The first- 
born of Adam and Eve, and, 
of course, the first-born of the 
human race. He was also the 
first murderer, and the victim 
of his malice was his own bro- 
ther. (See Abel.) He was in- 
stigated to this violence by 
envy; his brother's offering 
having been accepted by God, 
while his own was refused. 
On this account he became 
dejected and angry, and the 
Lord inquired of him why he 
indulged these sinful feelings. 
If he would do well, as Abel 
had done, he would be equally 
accepted; and if not, the sin 
must be upon his own head. 
Certainly lie had no cause of 
anger towards Abel, who was 
still ready to acknowledge 
nim as his elder brother, and 
to yield to him all the privi- 
leges of birthright. The ex- 
postulation was of no avail. 
They were together in the 
field, and Cain took his life. 

When the inquiry was put 
to him, where his brother Abel 
was, Cain evaded the ques- 
tion, saying, "Am I my bro- 
thers keeper 7" But the Lord, 
as if to express the greatness 
of his crime, (Gen. iii. 13,) re- 
plied, "What hast thou 
done 1 The voice of thy bro- 
ther's blood crieth unto me 
from the ground," where it was 
ehed, or where the body was 
buried; and the dreadful sen- 



CAK 

tence was immediately passed 
upon him which doomed him 
to fruitless toil, and to the life 
of a fugitive and vagabond. 
Thus was he banished from 
society, (the face of the earthy 
and from the favour of God. 
The miserable man seemed 
conscious for a moment of the 
enormity of his guilt. He ex- 
claimed, " My punishment is 
greater than I can bear," or 
(as it may be rendered) my 
iniquity is greater than that it 
may be forgiven ; and he was 
afraid that when it was known 
what an abandoned outlaw he 
was, he would be killed by 
any one that should find him. 
To prevent this, God not only 
threatened an extraordinary 
punishment upon any one 
who should kill him, but, as 
we suppose, he distinguished 
him from all other men by 
some visible mark or token, 
so that whoever met him 
should know at once, who he 
was. Several commentators 
maintain that this mark or 
token was designed to assure 
Cain himself of his personal 
safety, and not to point him 
out to others. 

The unhappy man left his 
home, and took up his abode 
in the land of Nod, a country 
east of Eden, where his family 
increased, and where he found- 
ed a city. (See Nod.) 

CAKE. (1 Kings xvii. 13 ; 
xix. 6.) The cake was made 
of common dough, with or 
without leaven. Sometimes it 
was kneaded with oil, and 
sometimes only rubbed over 
or anointed with it, (Ex. 
xxix. 2,) and baked in flat 
pieces of the thickness of a 
plate upon th^ hot sand or 
bricks. (Gen. xviii. 6.) Other 
utensils were used. (Lev. ii. 1. 
4, 5. 7.) " Tlie cake not turn- 
ed" (Hos. vii. 8) is a figurative 
expression, illustrating the 
mixture of truth and idolatry, 
(Jews and Gentiles among the 
123 



CAL 

Ephrainiites,) by dough baked 
on one side only, and there- 
fore neither dou^h nor bread. 

Among the Bedouins the 
dough is flattened into thin 
cakes, and baked immediate- 
ly, either on the coals or in a 
shallow earthen vessel, like a 
frying-pan, or perhaps only a 
flat iron plate laid upon a few 
stones, and a fire kindled un- 
derneath. (Lev. ii. 5.) 

In Persia convex iron plates 
are often used, but in either 
way the bread was so very 
thin that it was quickly baked. 
The Arabs around mount Car- 
mel bake such cakes on the 
outside of a strong earthen or 
stone pitcher, which is heated 
by coals inside. (See Oven.) 

CALAMUS, (Sol. Song 
iv. 14. Ezek. xxvii. 19,) or 
SWEET CALAMUS, (Ex. xxx. 
23,) or SWEET CANE, (Isa. 
xliii. 24. Jer. vi. 20,) were all 
probably the same plants. It 
was produced in Arabia and 
India, and, of an inferior 

?[uality, in Egypt and Syria, 
t was one of the ingredients 
of the sacred ointment, and 
an article of Syrian com- 
merce. It grows . about .two 
feet in height, is very fragrant, 
and resembles commoncane. 
CALEB (Num. xiii. 6) was 
the son of Jephunneh, of the 
tribe of Judah. When the Is- 
raelites, on their passage from 
Egypt to Canaan, had arrived 
at the wilderness of Paran, 
Moses was instructed by Je- 
hovah to send twelve men, 
one from each of the tribes, as 
explorers,to visit the promised 
land, and ascertain its situa- 
tion and fertility; the number 
and character, as well as the 
manners and^ustoms of the 
population, and bring them 
a report. Caleb and Joshua 
were among the twelve ; and 
after making the tour, which 
occupied forty days, they re- 
turned to the. Israelites, bring- 
ing with' them, as they were 



CAL 

directed to do, some ol the 
richest products of the soil, 
which were both the evidence 
and sample of its fertility. 
They all agreed that the land 
was exceedingly fruitful, but 
ten of the exploring party re- 
presented the inhabitants as 
very numerous and gigantic 
in stature. Caleb saw the dis- 
couraging effect of this repre- 
sentation on the people, and 
proposed to them to go up at 
once and take possession of 
the land, assuring them of 
their ability to do it. He was 
confident that God would be 
faithful to his promise, how- 
ever numerous and formidable 
might be their opposers. 

The ten persisted in their 
discouraging representations ; 
until the people, filled with 
fears and discontents, were 
resolved to abandon the at- 
tempt, and they and their 
adherents were upon the 
point of revolting from Moses 
and Aaron, and putting them- 
selves under a new leader, to 
return to bondage in Egypt. 
At this crisis, Caleb and 
Joshua, grieved at the folly 
and madness of the people, 
repeated the assurance that 
the land was an exceeding 
good land, and in beauty and 
fertility all which had been 
promised ; that if they would 
follow God's directions, and 
go forward fearlessly in his 
strength, they would easily 
subdue the inhabitants, and 
obtain complete possession of 
their territory. So excited 
were the people, however, by 
the representations of the ten 
others of the party, that they 
proposed to stone Joshua and 
Caleb. This conduct was so 
displeasing to God, that he 
caused every Israelite wh<i 
was over twenty years of age, 
except Caleb and Joshua,"to 
die in the wilderness and be- 
fore they pame to the promised 
land. Forty-five years after* 
124 



GAL 

wards, when the conquest 
was completed and the land 
apportioned among the tribes, 
Caleb, being then eighty-five 
years of age. applied to Joshua 
for his share, reminding him 
of the promise of God, by 
which he and Joshua were ex- 
cepted from the general curse 
of the people, fie testified to 
the faithfulness and kindness 
of God in preserving his life 
and health in a remarkable 
degree until that ume, and 
proposed to take, as his share 
of the land, Kirjath-arba, the 
stronghold of the giants, and 
the centra of their fortifica- 
tions. His request was grant- 
ed, and he accordingly at- 
tacked and subdued Kirjath- 
arba. and thenGe proceeded 
to Kirjath-sepher, another 
stronghold, afterwards called 
Debir. Here he proposed to 
give his daughter Achsah in 
marriage to the man who 
should capture the city. His 
nephew, Othniel, undertook 
• the enterprise and succeeded, 
and received the promised 
reward. Caleb's possessions 
were called by his name. 
(Num. xiii. and xiv. Josh. xiv. 
and xv. 1 Sam. xxx. 14.) 

There are two other persons 
of the same name mentioned. 
(1 Chron. ii. 18. 50.) 

CALF. (Gen. xviii. 7.) A 
fatted calf was regarded by 
the Jews as the choicest ani- 
mal food. (1 Sam. xxviii. 24. 
Amosvi.4. Luke xv. 23.) The 
allusion in Jer. xxxiv. 18, is to 
an ancient custom of ratifying 
a contract or covenant, in the 
observance of which an ani- 
mal was slain and divided, 
and' the parties passed be- 
tween the parts, signifying 
their willingness to be so di- 
vided themselves, if they fail- 
ed to perform their covenant. 
(Gen. xv. 9, 10. 17.) 

Calf, molten (Ex. xxxii. 
4,) was an idol god prepared 
by Aaron, in compliance with 
11* 



CAL 

the request of the children of 
Israel, who had become impa- 
tient of the absence of Moses, 
and desired some visible im- 
age or representation of the 
Deity. (See Aaron.) It was 
probably made of wood, and 
thickly overlaid with gold. 

The golden calves of Jero- 
boam (1 Kings xii. 28) were 
objects of worship set up by 
that king in the land of Israel, 
to prevent the ten tribes from 
resorting to Jerusalem to wor- 
ship, and so more effectually to 
separate them from the house 
of David. One of the idols 
was in Dan and the other in 
Bethel, the two extremes of 
his kingdom. It is supposed 
this wicked king had become 
acquainted with the forms and 
objects of idolatrous worship 
while he dwelt in Egypt. (1 
Kings xi. 40.) His sin is al- 
most always mentioned when- 
ever his name is used. (See 
Jeroboam.) 

Calves of our lips (Hos. 
xiv. 2) is a figurative expres- 
sion, signifying the fruits of 
our lips, or our offerings of 
praise to God. Calves were 
used in sacrifices, and the in- 
junction of the prophet re- 
quires us to render praises 
and thanksgivings to God as 
the offering of our lips, in- 
stead of the animal sacrifice. 
(Heb. xiii. 15.) 

CALNEH. (Gen. x. 10. Amos 
vi. 2.) One of the cities of 
Babylonia, built by Nimrod, 
and supposed to be the same 
with Calno, (Isa. x. 9,). Can- 
neh, (Ezek. xxvii. 23,) and the 
Ctesiphon of more modern 
times. It was situated on the 
east bank of the Tigris, oppo- 
site to Babylon, arid was a 
place of commercial import 
ance. 

CALVARY (Luke xxih 33 

called Golgotha, John xix. 

17) was the name given to a 

slight elevation north of the 

125 



CAM 

ancient city of Jerusalem, per- 
haps half a mile distant from 
the temple. The spot is with- 
in the walls of the modern 
city. It was called Golgotha, 
or the place of a skull, either 
from its shape, or from the cir- 
cumstance that it was the 
usual place of executing crimi- 
nals. To the mind of the 
Christian the associations of 
the place are peculiarly inte- 
resting and sacred, for it was 
here that the blood of Jesus 
was shed ; that blood which 
cleanseth from all sin. (See 
Selumiel, chap, xi., and Map 
op Jerusalem, both by the 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

CAMEL. (Matt, xxiii. 24.) 
A well-known and highly use- 
ful animal in eastern coun- 
tries, and, by the law of Moses, 
unclean. (Lev. xi. 4. Deut. 
xiv. 7.) He is usually six or 
seven feet in height, and is 
exceedingly docile and pa- 
tient of labour. His feet are 
constructed with a tough elas- 
tic sole, which prevents them 
from sinking in the sand. He 
has upon tfie back one, and 
sometimes two, humps or pro- 
tuberances, which yield to 
pressure, and form a sort of 
saddle, on which his burden 
is laid. (Isa. xxx. 6.) Within 
his \)ody is a cavity, divided 
into little apartments or cells, 
that fill when the animal 
drinks, which usually occu- 
pies him a quarter of an hour, 
and this supply serves him 
for twenty or thirty days, 
while he traverses the desert. 
His food is coarse, as leaves, 
twigs, thistles, &c. &c. These 
qualities all combine to adapt 
the animal to the countries he 
inhabits,and to the services re- 
quired of him. He is perhaps 
more surefooted than the ass, 
more easily supported, and 
capable of an incomparably 
greater burden. Hence the 
people of the east call the 
camel the laru+ship. He can 



CAM 

carry a burden of six or eight 
hundred pounds, at the rate of 
thirty miles a day; and on 
short journeys, ten to twelve 
hundred pounds; and there is 
one species of the camel that 
will travel one hundred miles 
a day. Chains and other trap- 
pings, useful or ornamental, 
were sometimes fastened to 
the camel's neck. (Judg. viii. 
21. 26.) The flesh and milk 
are used for food, and the hair 
which is short and softer than 
that of the ox kind, is useful 
for garments. (Matt. iii. 4. 
See Camel's Hair.) 

The ordinary life of the ca- 
mel is from thirty to fifty 
years. Camels were formerly 
among the chief possessions 
of the wealthy. (Gen. xii. 16; 
xxx. 43 ; xxxvii. 25. Judi;. vi. 
5, and vii. 12. 1 Sam. xxx. 17. 

1 Kings x. 2. 1 Chron. v. 21. 

2 Chron. xiv. 15. Job i. 3, and 
xlii. 12. Isa. xxx. 6.) 

The expression in Matt, 
xix. 24, is figurative, denoting 
something: beyond human 
power. The same form of ex- 
pression is used among the 
Malays and by the rabbins in 
respect to the elephant. Ano- 
ther figurative expression oc- 
curs (Matt, xxiii. 24) in which 
the inconsistency of the 
scribes and Pharisees (who 
attended to the most unim- 
portant ceremonies of their 
religion, while they were un- 
just, unmerciful, and faith- 
less) is compared to one who 
should very carefully strain 
out (not at) a gnat or other 
small insect from the liquor 
he was about to drink, and 
yet leave in the vessel, to be 
swallowed, an animal as large 
as a camel. (See Drink.) 

Travellers sometimes throw 
over the camel, upon the top 
of his burden, a pair of pan- 
niers, in which they ride, one 
on either side. A covered box, 
like a carriage body, is some- 
times hung upon the animal 
126 



GAM 



CAM 




in the same manner, and in 
these females may ride and 
be sheltered from the heat. 
(Gen. xxiv. 64.) It is easy to 
see how Rachel might have 
concealed her father's idols. 
(Gen. xxxi. 34.) The camel is 
said to choose ruinous and 
desolate places for his habi- 
tations, and hence the force 
of the prophetic language re- 
specting Rabbah, (Ezek. xxv. 
5 ;) though the prophecy would 
be abundantly verified if the 
place should merely become 
a stopping place for caravans. 

The cut represents a large 
bound hamper or pannier, like 
a roofed cradle, with back, 
head, and sides like an easy 
chair. Folds of carpeting or 
other thick stuff are spread 
upon the back of the animal, 
for the hamper to rest upon, 
and the conveniences of tra- 
velling are carried in the bas- 
ket, or apartment underneath 
the traveller. (See Drome- 
dary. See also Youth's 
Friend, vol. ii., and Natural 
History of the Bible, article 
Camel, both by the Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

Camel's Hair (Matt. iii. 4) 
was made into cloth. (2 Kings 
i. 8. Zech. xiii. 4.) Sometimes 
the fabric was wrought of the 
finest and softest part of the 
hair, and was then a very 
rich and luxurious article of 



dress. A coarser kind wai 
used for the covering of tents, 
and for the upper garments 
of shepherds and camel- 
drivers. Travellers tell us 
that modern dervises wear 
cloth of this kind, and also 
leathern girdles. We know 
that John the Baptist's rai- 
ment was of this kind, for it 
is put in opposition to soft 
raiment. (Matt. xi. 8. Luke 
vii. 25.) 

CAMELEON. (See Chame- 
leon.) 

CAMP. (Ex. xvi. 13.) This 
term is frequently used in re- 
ference to the movements of 
the children of Israel, and 
many passages of the Leviti- 
cal law relate to things that 
are to be done within or with- 
out the camp. 

The form of encamping is 
particularly prescribed in 
Num. ii. The tabernacle, 
which was the abode of the 
glorious Leader of the peo- 
ple, occupied the centre, and 
nearest to this were the 
tents of the Levites, who were 
intrusted with the principal 
care of it. (Num. iii.) The 
whole body of the people, em- 
bracing upwards of 600,000 
fighting men, besides women 
and children, were formed in 
four divisions, three tribes 
constituting a division, so that 
the tabernacle was enclosed 
127 



CAM 



CAN 




in a hollow square. Each of 
these divisions had a standard, 
a3 well as each tribe, and each 
of the large family associa- 
tions of which the tribes were 
composed. Each tribe had its 
captain or commander as- 
signed by God's direction. 

^The view of such a mass of 
people maintaining the most 
perfect order and subordina- 
tion, might well excite the 
admiration of the beholder. 
(Num. xxiv. 2—5.) 

CAMPHIRE. (Sol. Song i. 
14, and iv. 13.) A plant of 
great beauty and fragrance. 
It grows in Egypt and other 



countries of the east, and is 
called alhenna. This cut is 
from a drawing taken by a 
French traveller in Egypt. 
The flowers are clustered like 
the lilac, and the leaves, when 
dried and pulverized, make 
an orange dye, with which the 
females stain their hands and 
feet. What we call camphor 
is an entirely different sub- 
stance. (See Youth's Friend, 
vol. v., by the Am.S. S. Union.) 
CANA of Galilee. (John 
ii. 1.) A small village about 
fifteen miles north-west of Ti- 
berias, and six miles north- 
east of Nazareth. It is now 
128 



CAN 

called Kefer Kenna; is under 
the government of a Turkish 
officer, and contains perhaps 
three hundred inhabitants, 
chiefly Catholics. It was in 
this place that our Saviour per- 
formed the miracle of chang- 
ing water into wine, and the 
natives pretend to show the 
house where it was done, and 
even one of the stone water- 
pots. Large stone pots are 
found there, holding from 
twenty to thirty gallons. 
They are not regarded as re- 
lics, for the ancient use of 
them seems to be unknown to 
the present inhabitants. 

It was here also that the 
nobleman applied to Christ to 
heal his son, who was sick in 
Capernaum, and at the point 
of death; and by his divine 
will, without a word or action, 
and even at a distance of 
thirty miles from the sick- 
bed, the disease was checked 
and the child recovered. 

Nathaniel was a native of 
this place. (For a descrip- 
tion of the village in modern 
times, illustrated from a draw- 
ing taken on the spot, see 
Youth's Friend, for 1833, 
p. 185, by the Am. S.S.Union.) 

Another town of the same 
name (Kanah) belonged to 
the tribe of Asher, and seems 
to have been near Sidon. 
(Josh. xix. ^.) 

CANAAN. (Gen.ix.25.) Son 
of Ham and grandson of Noah. 
Ham having been guilty of 
criminal conduct towards his 
father, a prophetic curue was 
pronounced by Noah on so 
much of Ham's posterity as 
should descend from and 
through Canaan. The curse 
was Inflicted upon the Ca- 
naanites, when their land was 
subdued, and its inhabitants 
(the Hivites, Jebusites, &o.) 
were cut off or subjected to 
heavy tribute by the Israel- 
ites, the descendants of Shem; 
and 



CAN 

scattered remnants of their 
tribes were conquered and 
exterminated at Tyre, Thebes, 
Carthage, &c, by the Greeks 
and Romans, who were de- 
scended from Japheth. 

Canaan, land of. (Gen.xii. 
5.) The countrv inhabited by 
the posterity of Canaan, (see 
preceding article,) who were 
hence called Canaanites, and 
which was given, by God, to 
the children of Israel, the 
posterity of Abraham, as theii 
possession. (Ex. vi. 4. Lev 
xxv. 38.) The original boun- 
daries are supposed to have 
been mount Lebanon on the 
north, the wilderness of Ara- 
bia (Shur, Paran, and Zin) on 
the south, and the river Jor- 
dan on the east. On the west, 
their possessions extended at 
some points to the margin 
of the Mediterranean. Their 
boundaries on this side were 
partially restricted by the 
Philistines, who held the low 
lands and strong cities along 
the shore. (Gen. x. 19.) Be- 
sides the possessions of the 
Israelites, the land of Canaan 
embraced Phenicia on the 
north, and Philistia on the 
south-west. (Zeph. ii. 5.) 

The country was entered by 
the Israelites on the east side, 
at a point of the Jordan op- 
posite Jericho. The tribes of 
Gad and Reuben and half the 
tribe of Manasseh had select- 
ed possessions for themselves 
on the east of Jordan, from the 
conquests which had been 
made on their march. The 
natives of the country were, 
for the most part, subdued 
after a succession of severe 
struggles, (Num. xxxiii. 51— 
56,) and their territory was 
divided among the tribes and 
families of the Israelites ac- 
cording to their numbers. 
This apportionment was made 
by what would be called, in 
modern phrase, a board of 
commissioners, consisting of 
129 



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131 



CAN 

Eleazar the high-priest, Jo- 
shua, and the twelve chiefs 
of the tribes ; and this was 
done in such a way that each 
tribe occupied a distinct sec- 
tion, and each family a dis- 
tinct lot, so that every neigh- 
bourhood was made up of 
family relations. 

The accompanying map 
shows the supposed position 
extent, and divisions of the 
land of promise, so far as 
they can be ascertained from 
the sacred history. Th'e length 
from north to south was less 
than one hundred and eighty 
miles, and the width did not 
exceed seventy-five miles. 

The expulsion of the Ca- 
naanites is an act, perfectly 
defensible,and consistent with 
the strictest principles of jus- 
tice. The measure of their 
iniquities was full. (Lev. xviii. 
24, &c.) The kind of judg- 
ment visited upon them was 
much more strikingly illus- 
trative of the power and pre- 
sence of God, th^n a pesti- 
lence or earthquake ; and the 
extermination of all their au- 
thority and influence was ne- 
cessary to prevent the Israel- 



CAN 

ites from being seduced into 
their abominable practices. 

The possessions of the Isra- 
elites were extended by con 
quest far beyond the limits 
above named, and in the time 
of David and Solomon they 
stretched to the Euphrates 
and Orontes on the one hand, 
and to the remotest confines 
of Edom and Moab on >the 
other, and embraced upwards 
of 26,000 square miles. (1 
Kings iv. 21. 2 Chron. viii.) 
The population varied in a 
like proportion. The number 
of the Israelites who crossed 
the Jordan is estimated a* 
2,000,000, while from an enrol- 
ment made for David's army, 
it is presumed by some that 
the population must have ex- 
ceeded 5,000,000. (See Selt* 
miel, pp. 120, 121, by the Am. 
S. S. Union. See also article 
City.) 

The following table pre- 
sents at one view the prop'rie- 
tors of the country before and 
after the Jewish conquest, and 
the general divisions or pro- 
vinces into which it was di- 
vided in the time of our Sa- 
viour. 



Jtncient Canaanitish 
Division. 
Sidonians, 
Unknown, • 
Perizzites, 
Same, - - • 



Hivites, 



Jebusites, - • - 
Amorites, Hittites, 

Philistines, 

Moabites, - - - 
Ammonites, Gilead, 

Kingdom of Bashan, 



Israelitish Division. 



Roman Division. 



Tribe of Asher. (In Lebanon,) f 

C Naphtali. (North-west of the lake of V Upper Gali)ee. 
I Genessaret.) ) 

Zebulon. (West of Genessaret) 1 

C Issachar. (Valley of Esdraelon and > Lower Galilea 
I mount Tabor.) 3 

( Half tribe of Manasseh. (Dor and } 
\ Cesarea.) > Samaria, 

Ephraim. (Shechem and Samaria.) ) 

Benjamin. (Jericho and Jerusalem.) "j 

Judah. (Hebron and Judea proper.) I , 
C Simeon. (South-west of Judah, Dan, (* 
I andJoppa.) J 

Reuben. (Gilead and Heshbon.) ^ 

Ammonites. (Gilead.) lrm<»*rf 

C Half tribe of Manasseh. (Golan Ba- f uueaxi * 
I shan.) J 



►Judea. 



Although the extent and 
boundaries of these divisions 
cannot be accurately defined, 
the bearings of the chief 
towns and cities from each 



other, and from Jerusalem. 
tl?e capital of the country, are 
satlsfcctorily ascertained. 

As to Jerusalem itself, there 
is no more doubt of its ancient 
132 



CAN 
location than there is of Rome 
or Carthage ; and there is not 
an important place in the 
whole land which is not so 
connected both with profane 
and sacred history, as to fur- 
nish an unbroken chain of 
reference to it. The writings 
and traditions of the Jews, 
before the birth of Christ, and 
the writings and traditions 
both of his friends and ene- 
mies after that event, would 
have a general reference to 
places of particular interest 
in the history of the nation 
and in that of individuals. 
And even the efforts of pa- 
gans to desecrate the most 
Hallowed spots, have served 
only to perpetuate the remem- 
brance of them. 

And besides all this, the 
land of promise is still a part 
of our earth. The hills still 
stand round about Jerusalem, 
as they stood in the days of 
David and of Solomon. The 
dew falls in Hermon ; the 6e- 
dars grow in Lebanon, and 
Kishon, " that ancient river," 
(Judg. v. 21,). still draws its 
stream from Tabor, as in the 
times of old. " The sea of Gali- 
lee still presents the same 
natural accompaniments ; the 
fig tree springs up by the way- 
side; the sycamore spreads 
its branches, and the vines 
and olives still climb the sides 
of the mountains. The deso- 
lation which covered the cities 
of the plain is not less strik- 
ing at the present hour, than 
when Moses, with an inspired 
pen, recorded the judgment 
of God. The swellings of 
Jordan are not less regular in 
their rise than when the He- 
brews first approached its 
banks ; and he who goes down 
from Jerusalem to Jericho, 
still incurs the greatest hazard 
of falling among thieves. 
There is, in fact, in the scene- 
ry and manners of this an- 
cient land a perpetuity that 
12 



CAN 
accords well with the ever- 
lasting import of its historical 
records, and which enables us 
to identify, with the utmost 
readiness, the local imagery 
of every great transaction." 

As to the fertility of the 
country, the evidence is con- 
clusive. Its character in this 
respect, as given by Moses, 
(Deut. viii. 7—9,) is fully sup. 
ported by profane writers, as 
well as by the present charac- 
ter of the soil, although the* 
miserable condition of the in- 
habitants and the desolatioa 
of war have prevented any 
proper cultivation in later 
ages. 

At the time the children of 
Israel took possession of Ca 
naan, it was governed by petty 
kings, of various cities or pro- 
vinces. Then Joshua became 
ruler under the express au- 
thority and direction of Jeho- 
vah. After Joshua, for a few 
years, the government was ad- 
ministered by elders. Then 
came the judges for about 
three hundred and twenty 
years ; and then the kings for 
upwards of five hundred years, 
or until the conquest of the 
country by the Babylonians. 

The vast resources of the 
land of Canaan, and the power 
of its kings, maybe estimated, 
in some measure, not only from 
the consideration with which 
it was regarded by Egypt, 
Tyre, and Assyria, but by tne 
strength and population of the 
kingdoms into which the ori- 
ginal country, as it was under 
David, was subsequently di- 
vided. In the reign of Solo- 
mon, Damascus revolted and 
shook off the Jewish yoke. At 
his death, b. c. 971, ten of the 
tribes renounced their alle- 
giance to the throne of Judah, 
and formed the kingdom of Is- 
rael, having Samaria for its 
capital ; while Judah and Ben 
jamin remained together, with 
Jerusalem for a capital. 
133 



CAN 

In she year b. c. 721, the 
kroner kingdom, having exist- 
ed two hundred and fifty years, 
under nineteen wicked kings, 
was conquered by the Assy- 
rians under Shalmaneser, and 
carried into captivity. The 
"atter existed about one hun- 
dred and thirty years longer, 
and was then subdued and laid 
waste by Nebuchadnezzar, 
and the temple at Jerusalem 
destroyed, b. c. 588. (2 Kings 
xxv. 2Chr. xxxvi. Jer. xxxix. 
and lii.) 

The land of Canaan remain- 
ed under subjection to the 
Chaldeans, Medes, and Per- 
sians, until b. c. 323, when it 
fell into the hands of the kings 
of Syria, where it remained 
until b. c. 65, wiien it became a 
province of the Roman empire. 

At the time of the coming 
of Christ, Canaan was divided 
into five provinces ; Judea, Sa- 
maria, Galilee, Perea, and Idu- 
mea. The province of Judea 
consisted of the tribes of Ju- 
dah, Benjamin, Dan, and Si- 
meon. The rest of the Holy 
Land, according to the Roman 
division, consisted of Samaria, 
Galilee, Perea, Decapolis, 
Gaulonitis, Galaaditis, Bata- 
nea, and Auranitis. Samaria 
contained in it the tribes of 
Ephraim, Issachar, and the 
half tribe of Manasseh. Gali- 
lee, the tribes of Zebulon, 
Asher, and Naphtali. Perea 
on the other side of Jordan, 
consisted of the tribes of Gad 
and Reuben. Decapolis was 
part of the half tribe of Ma- 
nasseh. Gaulonitis was north 
of it. Galaaditis was a hilly 
country, extending from mount 
Lebanon through the half tribe 
of Manasseh, and the tribes 
of Gad and Reuben. Further 
north, in the half tribe of Ma- 
nasseh, was Batanea, and 
more northward still, was Au- 
ranitis, or Iturea. Beyond this, 
^ordering on the territory of 
I»araascus, was Trachonitis. 



CAN 

On the death of Herod, Ar- 
chelaus, his eldest son, suc- 
ceeded to the government of 
Judea, (Matt. ii. 22,) Samaria, 
and Idumea, with the title of 
tetrarch ; Galilee being as- 
signed to Herod Antipas, and 
Iturea, (Luke iii. 1,) and the 
adjacent countries beyond Jor- 
dan, to the third brother, Phi- 
lip. But in less than ten years, 
the, dominions of Archelaus 
became annexed, on his dis- 
grace, to the Roman province 
of Syria, and Judea was 
thenceforth governed by Ro 
man procurators. Jerusalem, 
after its final destruction by 
Titus, a. d. 71, remained deso- 
late and almost uninhabited, 
till the emperor Hadrian colo 
nised it, and erected temples 
to Jupiter and Venus on it» 
site. The empress Helena, in 
the fourth century, set the ex- 
ample of repairing as a pil- 
grim to the Holy Land, to visit 
the scenes consecrated by the 
gospel narrative ; and the 
country became enriched by 
the crowds of devotees who 
flocked there. In the be- 
ginning of the seventh cen- 
tury, it was overrun by the 
Saracens, who held it till Je- 
rusalem was taken by the Cru- 
saders in the twelfth. Then 
for about eighty years, the 
Holy Land drank continually 
of Christian and Saracen 
blood. In 1187, Judea was con- 
quered by Saladin ; on the de- 
cline of Whose kingdom it 
passed through various revolu- 
tions, and, at length, in 1317, 
was finally swallowed up in 
the Turkish empire. 

" Trodden down ^ 

By all in turn, Pagan, and Frank, and 
Tartar,— 

So runs the dread anathema,— trodden 
down 

Beneath the oppressor; darkness shroud- 
ing thee 

From every blessed influence of Heaven. 

Thus hast thou lain for ages, iron-bouna 

As with a curse. Thus art thou doomed 
to lie, 

Yet not for ever." 

134 



CAN 

in the modern distribution 
at the territory, we find the 
pashalic of Acre, or Akka, in- 
cludes the ancient territory of 
Asher, Zebulon, Tssachar, half 
Manasseh, and Naphtali. The 
pashalic of Gaza, now united 
with that of Acre, embraces 
Dan, Simeon, Judah, Benja- 
min, and Ephraim; and the 
pashalic of Damascus has Reu- 
ben, Gad, and the other half 
of Manasseh. The population 
of this interesting country now 
consists chiefly of Turks, Sy- 
rians, Arabs, Jews, and Greeks. 
(See Hebrews. See also Eve- 
ning Recreations, vol. ii.pp. 
74—106; vol.iii. pp. 116—144; 
and Biblical Antiquities, 
vol. i. ch. ix. § 1 — 4, both by 
Am. S. S. Union, for a full and 
perspicuous history of the Isra- 
elitish land and government.) 

The general outlines of the 
surface of the country may be 
thus laid down. The Jordan, 
or river of Dan, which rises 
under the lofty peaks of mount 
Lebanon, and flows in a direc- 
tion almost constantly south- 
ward, witb the lake of Tibe- 
rias, through which it passes, 
and the Dead Sea, which it 
forms by its discharge, divides 
Palestine from north to south. 

In the western division, be- 
tween the Mediterranean and 
the lake of Tiberias, lie the 
two Galilees. The plain of 
Esdraelon, which occupies the 
greater part of this tract, being 
two dayV journey, or nearly 
fifty miles, in length, and 
twenty in breadth, is describ- 
ed by travellers as one vast 
meadow, covered with the 
| richest pasture. This plain is 
enclosed on all sides by the 
mountains, and not a house or 
a tree is to be discovered in it. 
It is completely commanded 
ty Accho, so that the possessor 
jf that port is the lord of one 
)f the richest territories in the 
Holy Land. To the south of 
aalilee lies the district of an- 



CAN 
cient Samaria: it is mountain- 
ous, but well cultivated, and 
forms at present the most 
flourishing part of the Holy 
Land. Judea Proper comprises 
the territory extending from 
the Dead Sea to the Mediter- 
ranean, and is composed of a 
range of limestone hills, rising 
by stages from the level of the 
coast, and becoming more 
rugged and rocky as you ap- 
proach Jerusalem from Joppa. 
Between Joppa and Gaza 
westward of the mountains o. 
Judea, lies the tract distiij 
guished as the plain of th 
Mediterranean Sea, the an- 
cient territory of the Philis- 
tines, including the five cities 
of Gaza, Askelon, Ashdod, 
Gath, and Ekron. (Josh. xiii. 
3, and 1 Sam. vi. 17.) This 
district still bears the name of 
Phalastin, and forms a sepa- 
rate pashalic; it may be dis- 
tinguished as Palestine Pro- 
per. 

The land of Canaan was 
called the land of Israel, (1 
Sam. xiii. 19,) because it was 
occupied by the descendants 
of Jacob or Israel. The holy 
land, (Zech. ii. 12,) because 
God's presence was continu- 
ally manifested there, as the 
leader and governor of his 
chosen people ; and especially 
may it be regarded as such, 
since the sufferings and death 
of Christ have consecrated it. 
The land of promise, (Heb. xi. 
9,) because it was promised to 
Abraham and his jposterity as 
their possession. The land cf 
Judah, (Jer. xxxix. 10,) be- 
cause Judah was the leading 
tribe; the land of the He- 
brews, (Gen. xl. 15,; or the de- 
scendants of Eber, an ances- 
tor of Abraham. The modern 
name of Palestine, or the land 
of the Philistines, was origi- 
nally applied to the region 
lying along the coast ofthe 
Mediterranean, south-west of 
the land of promise ; but in its 
133 



CAN 

present usage denotes the 
whole country bounded by the 
Jordan on the east, the Medi- 
terranean on the west, Arabia 
on the south, and Lebanon on 
the north. (See Syria.) 

CANAANITES. (See pre- 
ceding article.) 

CANDACE. (See Philip.) 

CANDLE (Job xviii. 6) is 
often used figuratively by the 
sacred writers, to denote light 
generally. (See Lamp.) 

CANDLESTICK, golden, 
(Ex, xxv. 31,) was a splendid 
article of the tabernacle furni- 



CAN 

ture, made of fin? gold, and 
computed to have been worth, 
at the modern value of gold, 
three millions of dollars. It 
consisted of a shaft or stem 
supposed to have been five 
feet high, with six branches. 
The branches came out from 
the shaft at three points, two 
at each point, as in the fol- 
lowing cut, and the width of 
the whole candlestick, across 
the top, was about three feet 
and a half. It was richly 
adorned, with raised work, re» 
presenting flowers, and also 




CAP 

knops or knobs, and little 
bowls resembling half an al- 
mond shell. At the extremity 
of each branch there was a 
socket for the candle, and also 
at the top of the main shaft, 
making seven in all. (Rev. i. 
12, 13. 20.) Tongs to remove 
the snuff, and dishes to receive 
it, as well as oil vessels, were 
articles of furniture belonging 
to the candlestick, and were 
all made of gold. The lights 
were* trimmed and supplied 
daily with the purest olive oil. 
They were lighted at night 
and extinguished in the morn- 
ing ; though some suppose that 
a part of them, at least, were 
kept burning through the day. 
The candlestick was so situ- 
ated as to throw the light on 
the altar of incense and on the 
table of shew-bread, occupy- 
ing the same apartment, and 
from which the natural light 
was excluded. (See Biblical 
Antiquities, vol. ii. ch.ii., and 
Destruction of Jerusalem, 
ch. xiii., both by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 
CANE. (See Calamus.) 
CANKER-WORM, (Joel i. 
4,) elsewhere called the cater- 
pillar, (Jer. Ii. 27,) was one 
of the army of destroying in- 
sects by which the land of 
Judea was laid waste. The 
particular species of insect 
intended by the prophet is un- 
certain, though the prevailing 
opinion is, that it was of the 
locust tribe. Its voraciousness 
and multitude are sufficiently 
indicated by the connexion in 
which it is mentioned. ' (Nah. 
iii. 15, 16.) 
CANNEH. (SeeCALNEH.) 
CAPERNAUM. (Matt. iv. 
13.) A city on the western 
shore of the sea of Tiberias, 
where our Saviour often re- 
sided, and where some of his 
most wonderful works were 
done, and where also he de- 
livered some of his most point- 
12* 



CAP 

ed discourses. (See Mark i. 21. 
37, and ii. 1— 28. John vi. 25— 
70, and comp. with Isa. ix. 1, 
2.) Notwithstanding it was thus 
highly favoured with the pre 
sence and instructions of the 
Lord of glory, it was the sub 
ject of the most fearful denun 
ciations. (Matt. xi. 20—24. 
The prediction of its downfall 
was long ago fulfilled ; anc" 
though it was once a city oi 
renown, and the metropolis oi 
all Galilee, the site it occu 
pied is now uncertain. Wher 
Mr. Fisk, all American mis 
sionary, travelled in Syria ir 
1823, he found twenty or thirty 
uninhabited Arab huts, occu 
pying what are supposed to be 
the ruins of the once exalted 
city of Capernaum. 

CAPHTOR, CAPHTORIM. 
(See Crete.) 

CAPPADOCIA. (lPet. i. 1.) 
One of the three interior pro- 
vinces of Asia Minor. (See 
Map to article Paul.) It was 
bounded t east by Armenia, 
north by'Pontus, west by Ly- 
caonia, and south by Cilicia. 
Christianity was probably in- 
troduced into this proyince at 
an early period, (Acts ii. 9,) 
and the existence of Christian 
churches there is easily traced 
up to a period as late as the 
tenth century. 

CAPTAIN. (Deut.i.15.) An 
officer in the Jewish army 
whose rank or power was de- 
signated by the number of 
men under his command, as 
captain of fifty, or captain of a 
thousand ; and the commander 
or chief of the whole army 
was called the captain of the 
host. The divisions of the 
army were regulated in some 
measure by the division of 
families, as the heads of fami- 
lies were usually officers. 
(2 Chron. xxv. 5.) Captains of 
hundreds, or larger companies, 
were probably what would be 
called in modern phrase, staff 
137 



CAP 

officers, and formed the coun- 
cils of war. (1 Chron. xiii. i.) 

Captain op the temple. 
(Acts iv. i.) Either the com- 
mander of the Roman garrison 
stationed near the temple, or 
the chief of the priests and 
Levites who kept guard around 
and within the templ6. 

CAPTIVE (Gen. xiv. 14) 
usually denotes one taken in 
war. Among eastern nations 
such persons were treated with 
great cruelty, and were sub- 
jects of merchandise. (Joel 
iii. 3.) The Romans sometimes 
compelled a captive to be 
joined face to face with a dead 
body, and to bear it about until 
the horrible effluvia destroyed 
the life of the living. (Rom. 
vii. 24.) 

CAPTIVITY. (Num. xxi. 
29.) A term usually employed 
to denote an important era in 
the history of the Jewish peo- 
ple. 

To punish their rebellions 
and idolatries, God suffered 
them to come into frequent 
bondage to surrounding na- 
tions. Several of their captivi- 
ties took place at an early pe- 
riod of their history, of which 
a particular account is given 
in the first ten chapters of 
Judges. 

Soon after the close of Solo- 
mon's glorious reign, the king- 
dom was divided. ~ Ten of the 
tribes separated themselves, 
and took the name of the 
kingdom of Israel, leaving the 
tribes of Judah and Benjamin 
to constitute the kingdom of 
Judah. Each of these two 
kingdoms suffered a distinct 
captivity. That of Israel is 
called the Assyrian, and that 
of Judah the Babylonish cap- 
tivity. 

In the year of the world 
3264, Tiglath-pileser, the king 
of Assyria, made war upon Is- 
rael, and carried a large num- 
ber of their people (chiefly 



CAP 

those of the tribes of Reuben, 
Gad, and Manasseh) into cap- 
tivity, (2 Kings xv. 29. 1 
Chron. v. 26,) and the residue 
remained under their own 
king, but paid tribute to the 
Assyrian government. After 
the lapse of twenty years this 
tribute was refused, and there- 
fore Shalmaneser, son of Tig- 
lath-pileser, besieged and (af- 
ter three years) captured and 
destroyed Samaria, the capital 
of the kingdom, and the great 
mass of the people were trans- 
ported to provinces beyond the 
Euphrates, and some doubt is 
entertained whether they ever 
returned. (2 Kings xvii. 5, 6, 
and xviii. 10, 11. Hos. i. 6.) 
Jewish historians say they ne- 
ver did return. The following 
among other passages are em- 
ployed to support an opposite 
opinion: Ezra ii. 59; vi. 16. 
and viii. 35. Isa. xi. 12, 13, and 
xxvii. 12. 13. Jer. iii. 18; xvi, 
15; xxxi. 7—20, and xlix. 2. 
Ezek. xxxvii. 16. Hos. i. 10, 11. 
Amos ix. 14. Obad. 19—21. Mic 
ii. 12. Zech. ix. 13, and x. 6. 10. 
(See Heerews.) 

The first captivity of Judah 
took place under king Jehoia- 
kim, in the year of the world 
33ii8, when Daniel and his 
companions were among the 
captives. The second was in 
the seventh vear of Jehoia 
kim, about 3404 ; the third, in 
the reign of Jehoiachin, a. m. 
3406. The fourth, or seventy 
years' captivity, was undei 
Zedekiah's reign, in the yeai 
of the world 3416. (For a par- 
ticular account of these events, 
see 2 Kings xxiv. 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. Jer. xxv. xxvi. xxix. 
xxxii. xxxiv. Iii. Ezek. xii. 
Dan. i. 1, 2.) The sufferings 
in which these captivities in- 
volved them are affectingly 
described in Ps. cxxxvii. J— 5, 
and Jer. iv. 19-51. 

In 3457 the Jews were al- 
lowed to return, (Ezra i. 1 :) 
133 



V 



CAR 

bnt it was not until 3486, or 
seventy years from the period 
of their fourth captivity, that 
they were permitted to rebuild 
the temple (See Elisama, by 
Am. S. S. Union, pp. 25—28.) 

Children of the captivi- 
ty (Ezra iv. 1.) A common 
figure of speech denoting those 
who were in captivity, or per- 
haps sometimes literally their 
posterity. Turn again, (Ps. 
cxxvi. 1,) turn away, (Jer. 
xxix. 14,) turn back, (Zeph. iii. 
20,) or bring again (Ezek. xvi. 
53) the captivity, are figurative 
phrases, all referring to the 
Jewish nation in bondage, and 
their return to Canaan. A si- 
milar expression is used in re- 
lation to individuals, as in Job 
xlii. 10 : The Lord turned the 
captivity of Job, that is, he re- 
leased him from the unusual 
sufferings and perplexities to 
which he had been in bond- 
age, and caused him to rejoice 
again in the favour of God. 
LTe led captivity captive,{Eyh.. 
iv. 8,) or he led those as his 
captives who had made cap- 
tives of others, is a figurative 
allusion to the victory which 
our blessed Redeemer achiev- 
ed over sin and death, by 
whom our ruined race are 
brought into bondage. (Rom. 
viii. 21. Gal. iv. 24 HeD. ii. 
15. 2 Pet. ii. 19.) 

CARBUNCLE. (Ezek. 
xxviii. 13.) A precious stone. 
Its colour is aaeep rea mingled 
with scarlet, and when held 
up in the rays of the sun, it 
loses its deep tinge, and re- 
sembles burning charcoal. It 
is not certain, however, that 
the carbuncle of the Scriptures 
is the same species of fossil to 
which we give that name. 

CARCHEMISH. (2 Chron. 
xxxv. 20.) A town on the east- 
ern banks of the Euphrates, 
where the Chebar or Khaboor 
falls into it. It is now known 
as Kirkisia It was taken from 



CAR 

the Assyrians by the king of 
Egypt, (2 Kings xxiii. 29,) who 
left it in charge of a garrison. 
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- 
bylon, afterwards took it from 
the Egyptians with great 
slaughter, in fulfilment of the 
remarkable prophecy of Jere- 
miah. (Jer. xlvi. 1— -12.) 

CAR MEL, mount. (Isa. 
xxxiii. 9.) One of the most 
remarkable points on the 
shores of the Mediterranean. 
It is the highest peak of a 
range of mountains (of the 
same name) rising in the plain 
of Esdraelon, and running five 
or six miles in a north-west 
course till it terminates in a 
promontory on the coast, south 
of the bay of Acre. It is from 
fifteen hundred to two thou- 
sand feet above the level of 
the sea. (Amos ix. 3.) Its*^ 
shape resembles a flattened 
cone, and is the finest and 
most beautiful mountain in 
Palestine. Its soil was once 
fertile and highly cultivated. 
(Isa. xxxiii. 9 ; xxxv. 2. Jer. 
1. 19.) Its name signifies a 
fruitful field, or a country of 
vineyards and gardens. Ma 
dern travellers tell us that the 
oaks, wild vines, olive trees, 
and fragrant flowers still indi- 
cate its former productiveness, 
though it has sufficiently dete- 
riorated to fulfil the prediction 
of the prophet. (Amos i. 2.) 
The graceful form and verdant 
beauty of its summit are al- 



ludeXfto, Sol. Song vii. 5. The 
base of the mountain was 
washed by " that ancient river 
the river Kishon," (Judg. v. 
21,) and the plain of Sharon 
spread out towards the south. 
We are told that while Leba- 
non raised to heaven a sum- 
mit of naked and barren rocks, 
covered the greater part of 
the year with snow, the top 
of Carmel, how naked ana 
sterile soever its present ap- 
pearance, was clothed with 
139 



CAS 

perennial verdure ; so that the 
lofty genius of Isaiah, guided 
Dy the spirit of inspiration, 
eould not find a more appro- 
priate figure to represent the 
flourishing state of the Re- 
deemer's kingdom, than " the 
excellency of Carmel and 
Sharon." The summit of Car- 
mel is remarkable for its pure 
and enlivening atmosphere. 

This oromontory is a place 
of deep interest in the annals 
of the Jews, (1 Kings xviii. 
19.42. 2 Kings ii. 25, and iv. 
25,) and was once the resort 
of crowds of Christian devo- 
tees, and the residence of an 
order of monks called Carmel- 
ites, who had a convent there, 
which was pillaged and de- 
stroyed by the Arabs after the 
retreat of the French army, in 
1799, who used it as an hospital 
for their sick and wounded 
during the siege of Acre. 

There are many traditions 
and superstitions which tra- 
vellers have preserved, about 
the caves and grottos which 
abound in this mountain ; but 
they will not be in place here. 

Carmel, town of. (Josh. xv. 
55.) A city and hill, five miles 
west of the Dead Sea, and be- 
tween the wilderness of Ziph 
and the wilderness of Maon. 
It was the residence of Nabal. 
(1 Sam. xxv. 2. and xxvii. 3.) 

A limestone mountain, call- 
ed El Carmel, is described by 
travellers as the same with 
the ancient city and hill. 

CARRIAGES. (Acts xxi. 15.) 
The load or burden of man or 
beast ; baggage (Isa. x. 28) or 
mat, on which any thing is 
carried. (ISam.xvii. 20, trench, 
or place of the carriages. Isa. 
xlvi. 1.) " They took up their 
carriages," i. e. they packed 
up their things, and commenc- 
ed their journey. (Acts xxi. 15.) 

CART. (See Wagon.) 

CART-ROPE. (Isa. v. 18.) 
This is a strong figurative 



CAT 

expression, the most natural 
meaning of which is shown by 
two Jewish sayings — " Wo to 
them that begin to sin a little, 
and they go on and increase 
until their" sins are as a cart- 
rope ;" and, " The evil imagi- 
nation is at first like a Hpider's 
thread, but at last it is like to 
cart-ropes." There may be a 
remote allusion also to the 
cords with which the sacrifices 
were bound. 

CASEMENT. (See Win- 
dow.) 

CASSIA. (Ex. xxx. 24.) The 
bark of a tree of the same spe- 
cies with cinnamon and sassa- 
fras, and one of the ingredi- 
ents of the holy anointing oil. 
It was an article of Tyrian 
trade, (Ezek. xxvii. 19,) and 
remarkable for its fragrance. 
(Ps. xlv. 8.) 

CAST OUT, (John ix. 22, 
and 34, comp.,) or excommuni- 
cate, was to cut off from the 
privileges of the Jewish church. 

CASTOR and POLLUX, 
(Acts xxviii. 11,) in heathen 
mythology, were the names 
of twin sons of Jupiter, who 
were supposed to preside over 
the destinies of sailors. Hence 
an image representing them 
was often seen on the prow of 
ancient ships, like the figure- 
heads of modern days. The 
word sign is supposed by some 
not to signify the name of the 
ship, but only the protecting 
image of the deity under whose 
auspices she sailed. We are 
inclined to believe that the 
sign was the only designa- 
tion the ship had, and that this 
mode of expression by the 
apstle, signified to the mer- 
chants of Alexandria and Mal- 
ta what particular vessel was 
intended. This particularity 
of detail in the sacred narra- 
tive is highly corroborative of 
its truth. 

CATERPILLAR. (1 Kings 
viii. 87.) A tribe of insects of 
140 



CAtt 

vast number and destructive 
voracity. Hence they were 
often employed as the asents 
in the execution of God's 
judgments, (Ps. lxxviii.46, and 
cv. 34,) and figuratively repre- 
sent a great multitude. (Isa. 
xxxiii.4. Jer. li. 14. 27.) They 
were regarded as among the 
most desolating visitations of 
God's hand. 

CATTLE. (Gen. i. 25.) In 
the common scriptural use of 
this term it embraces the tame 
quadrupeds employed by man- 
kind, as oxen, horses, sheep, 
camels, goats, &c. (Gen. xiii. 
2. Ex. xii. 29,' and xxxiv. 
19. Num. xx. 19; xxxii. 16. 
and Ps. 1. 10, and Job i. 3, 
where the word translated 
substance would be more pro- 
perly rendered cattFe.) 

The allusion in Job xxxvi. 
33, is explained by the well- 
known fact that certain ani- 
mals of this class are peculi- 
arly sensitive to the change of 
air which precedes rain. 

CAUL. (Isa. iii. 18.) The at- 
tire of the head, made of net- 
work and ornamented. In Hos. 
xiii. 8, I will rend the caul 
qf their heart, the word caul 
denotes the membranous ves- 
sel which contains the heart. 
The figure represents a raging 
beast of prey seizing his vic- 
tim, and tearing out its vitals. 

CAUSEWAY. (IChron. 
xxvi. 16.) A raised way or 
path. (2 Chron. ix. 4.) In most 
of the passages where it oc- 
curs, it signifies any public 
way or high road, and indeed 
is so translated in Judg. xx. 31, 
32. 1 Sam. vi. 12. Prov. xvi. 2. 

The same word is rendered 
ways in Ps. lxxxiv. 5, and here 
signifies the ways to Zion, by 
which the devout Jews as- 
cended to worship in the tem- 
ple^ and the remembrance of 
which was continually present 
in the hearts of those who 
loved them, and who loved also 



CED 

the holy place and service to 
which they led. 

CAVE. (Gen.xix.30.) Caves 
were very common in Judea, 
and were made use of as tem- 
porary dwelling places, (Gen. 
xix. 30 ;) as places of conceal' 
ment, (Josh. x. 16. Judg. vi. 

2. 1 Sam. xiii. 6; xxii. 1, 2, 
and xxiv. 3. 2 Sam. xxiii. 13. 
1 Kings xviii. 4 ; xix. 9. Heb. 
xi. 38~;) and as burial places, 
(Gen. xxiii. 17. 19, and xlix. 29. 
John xi. 38.) 

CEDAR. (2 Sam. vii. 2.) One 
of the most valuable and ma- 
jestic trees of eastern forests. 
It grows to the height of se- 
venty or eighty feet. The 
branches are thick and long, 
spreading out almost horizon- 
tally from the trunk, which is 
sometimes thirty or forty feet 
in circumference. (Ezek. xxxi. 

3. 6. 8.) Maundrell measured 
one which was thirty-six feet 
atod six inches in the girth, 
and one hundred and eleven 
feet in the spread of its boughs. 
The wood is of a red colour 
and bitter taste, which is offen- 
sive to insects, and hence it 
is very durable, having been 
known to last (as historians 
assert) upwards of two thou- 
sand years. It was used for 
the most noble and costly edi 
fices. This timber served not 
only for beams for the frame, 
and fcoards for covering build- 
ings, baj was also wrought into 
the ^alls. (1 Kings vi. 36, and 
vii. 12.) The mountains of 
Lebanon were famous for the 
growth of the cedar, but travel- 
lers tell us that the words of 
prophecy are verified, for now 
a child may write them. 
(Isa. x. 19. See Lebanon.) 

(For a very full description 
and cut of this tree, with the 
explanation of its figurative 
use in the sacred writings, 
see article Cedar, in Biblh 
Natural History, by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 

141 



CEN 
CEDRON. (See Kidron.> 
CEIL. (See Cieling.) 
CELLARS. (I Chron. xxvii. 
27.) Of cellars, such as are 
common among us, nothing 
was known in the east, if we 
except the chambers which 
are used in Persia for the stor- 
ing of earthen jars or other 
vessels of wine. Among the 
Hebrews and Greeks these 
jars were buried up to the 
neck in the ground. The word 
wine-cellars^ in the passage 
cited, probably denotes the 
patches of ground used to bury 
wine. (See "Wine.) 

CENCHREA. (Acts xviii. 
18.) A seaport on the eastern 
side of the isthmus of Corinth, 
and nine miles distant from 
that city. It was the seat of a 
Christian church. (Rom. xvi. 
1.4.) 

CENSER. (Lev. x. 1.) A ves- 
sel used in the temple service, 
for the purpose of carrying the 
fire in which the incense was 
burned. It was made of pure 

fold. (1 Kings vii. 50. Heb. ix. 
.) The censer was held in 
one hand, and contained the 
fire taken from the perpetual 
supply on the altar of burnt- 
offering. The incense was 
carried in the other hand ; and 
as the high-priest, once a year, 
entered the holy of holies, he 
strewed the pulverized incense 




JES 
upon the nre, and the cloud 
or smoke ascended up in a 
dark volume, and filled the 
apartment with its fragrance. 
It is called a spoon, (Num. vii. 
14.) and vial, (Rev. v. 8.) 

The foregoing cut represents 
the probable form of the ves- 
sel, or the charger and censer 
combined. 

CENTURION. (Matt. viii. 
5.) The title of an officer of 
the Roman army, who had 
command of one hundred sol- 
diers. 

CEPHAS. (John i. 42.) A 
Syriac surname given to Peter, 
which in the Greek is render- 
ed Petros, and in LatinPefrws, 
both signifying a rock. (See 
Peter ^ 

CEREMONIES, (Num. ix. 
3,)orORDlNANCES,(Heb. ix. 
1 ,) denote the external rites of 
religion, or the forms and cir- 
cumstances by which it is ren- 
dered solemn and magnificent, 
particularly under the Mosaic 
dispensation. 

CESAR (AUGUSTUS.) 
(Luke ii. 1.) Nephew and suc- 
cessor of Julius Cesar, emperor 
of Rome. The name Augustus, 
signifying august or noble, 
was a complimentary title, de- 
creed to him by the Roman 
senate, whence is derived the 
name of the month August. 
Cesar was the regal title of 
the emperors, and hence Tibe- 
rius is called Cesar, (Matt, 
xxii. 21,) and Nero is called 
Cesar. (Acts xxv. 11.) The 
title Augustus was a personal 
distinction ; but after the death 
of the individual to whom it 
was given, it was regarded 
and used as a part of the royal 
title. 

CESAR (CLAUDIUS.) 
(Acts xi. 28.) An emperor of 
Rome, who succeeded CaiusCa- 
ligula, a. d. 41. Four different 
famines are mentioned by pro- 
fane historians as having taken 
*,J9lace during his reign ; one of 
142 



CES 

which was very; severe ift Ju- 
dea, extended into adjoining 
countries, and continued near- 
ly three years. Such a famine 
was predicted bv a prophet 
named Agabus, who came from 
Jerusalem to Antioch, about 
the year a. d. 35 or 45 ; and 
the expression, throughout all 
the world, evidently intends 
its general prevalence in other 
parts of the world besides Ju- 
dea. (See Agabus.) 

In the ninth year of his 
reign, Claudius, by a decree, 
banished the Jews (probably 
including the Christian con- 
verts) from Rome. (Acts xviii. 
2. See Tiberius Cesar.) 

CESAREA. (Acts x^iii. 33.) 
A considerable town on the 
coast of the Mediterranean, 
between Joppa and Tyre, about 
sixty-two miles from Jerusa- 
lem. It is sometimes called 
Cesarea of Palestine, to dis- 
tinguish it from Cesarea-Phi- 
lippi, (see next article,) and is 
supposed by some to be the 
Hazor of the Old Testament. 
(Josh. xi. 1.) Herod the Great 
contributed chiefly to the mag- 
nificence of the city by build- 
ing some of the most splendid 
of its edifices, and constructing 
a fine harbour for it. He call- 
ed it Cesarea, in honour of the 
emperor Cesar Augustus. After 
the destruction of Jerusalem, 
when Judea became a Roman 
province, Cesarea was the 
chief city of Palestine, (Acts 
xxiv. 27, and xxv. 1. 13,) and 
was often visited by Paul, (Acts 
ix. 30 ; xviii. 22 ; xxi. 8 ;) and 
it was here that he made his 
eloquent defence before Felix, 
Festus, and Agrippa, (Acts 
xxiii. xxv. and xxvi, ;) and 
nere he suffered two years' 
imprisonment. 

Philip the evangelist re- 
sided here, (Acts xxi. 8;) 
and also Cornelius, who, with 
his family, were the first-fruits 
from among the Gentiles, un- 



CHA 

der the preaching of Peter. 
(Acts x.) 

A traveller, who passed the 
ruins of Cesarea in 1801, says, 
" Perhaps there has not been 
in the history of the world an 
example of any city, that in so 
short a space rose to so extraor- 
dinary a height of splendour, 
or that exhibits a more awful 
contrast to its former magnifi- 
cence, by the present desolate 
appearance of its ruins. Not a 
single inhabitant remains. Its 
theatres, once resounding with 
the shouts of multitudes, echo 
no other sound than the nightly 
cries of animals roaming for 
their prey." 

Napoleon encamped here 
after raising the siege of Acre, 
and speaks of the broken frag 
ments of marble and granite 
columns which surrounded 
him. 

CESARE A-PHILIPPI (Matt, 
xvi. 13, and Mark viii. 27) was 
a town in the northern part 
of Judea, in the vicinity of 
mount Hermon. Some have 
supposed it is the same with 
Laish or Leshem, and also the 
Dan of the Old Testament. 
(Josh. xix. 47. Judg. xviii. 29. 
See Dan.) Philip the tetrarch, 
son of Herod, contributed 
largely to its prosperity, and 
gave it the name of Cesarea, 
in honour of Tiberius Cesar. 
It is called Cesarea-Philippi, 
or Cesarea of Philip, to distin- 
guish it from a town of the 
same name on the coast. (See 
preceding article.) It now 
contains about two hundred 
houses,and is inhabited chiefly 
by Turks. 

CHAIN. (See Feet.) 

CHALCEDONY. (Rev. xxu 
19.) A precious stone found in 
Europe and in several dis- 
tricts of the United States. 
The common cornelian is one 
of its varieties. 

CHALDEA. (Jer. 1. 10.) 
CHALDEANS. (Job i. 17.) 
143 



CHA 

The country of which Baby- 
lon was the capital, and which 
was hence Galled Babylonia, 
is a level region of Asia, wa- 
tered by the Euphrates and 
Tigris, between which rivers 
it was situated. These rivers, 
when swollen bv the waters 
from the mountains of Arme- 
nia, overflowed their banks, 
and fertilized the whole coun- 
try. Hence the strong, figura- 
tive language in Isa.xxi. 1. Jer. 
li. 13. In the year b. c. 630, 
the Chaldeans, a wandering 
race, not unlike the modern 
Arabs, (Job i. 17,) descended 
from Taurus and Caucasus, 
subdued western Asia, destroy- 
ed Jerusalem, (b. c. 588— a. m. 
3416,) conquered Tyre and 
Phenicia, and founded an em- 
pire, which extended to the 
shores of the Mediterranean, 
and which from them was 
called Chaldea. 

Babel or Babylon (whence 
the name Babylonia) was the 
capital of this mighty empire. 
It had long been distinguished 
for its commerce and science. 
Learning was confined to the 
priests, who were employed in 
the services of their religion, 
in medicine, magic, astrology, 
&c. Their pretended know- 
ledge was kept secret from 
the people, and hence, under 
tkis name, they became a dis- 
tinct class of magicians and 
conjurers, called Chaldeans. 
(Dan. iv. 7.) 

In a. d. 536, this vast coun- 
ter was united with Persia; 
snd in a. d. 640, they both fell 
under the dominion of Mo- 
Hammed, and finally, A. d. 
1639, into the hands of the 
Turks, who still hold them. 
The two names, Chaldea and 
Babylonia, appear to have 
keen often applied to the same 
country. (Jer. xxiv. 5; xxv. 
12; l.a Ezek xii. 13.) The 
original name of at least a 
section of Chaldea, was Shi- 



CHA 

nar. <Gen. x. 10. Dan. !. 1, 2. 

See Babylon, Syria, Shinar, 
See also Evening Recrea- 
tions, vol. ii. pp. 69, 70, by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

CHALK-STONES. (Isa, 
xxvii. 9.) A soft mineral sub- 
stance, resembling what we 
call limestone. To make the 
stones of the Jewish altars like 
chalk-stones is to crumble and 
destroy them. 

CHAMBER. (Gen. xliii. 30.> 
Usually the private apart-, 
ments of a house are called 
chambers. (2 Sam. xviii. 33, 
Ps. xix. 5. Dan. vi. 10.) Par- 
ticular rooms of this class in 
eastern houses were desig 
nated by significant terms. 

Guest-chamber. (Markxiv. 
14.) This we may suppose tc 
have been a spacious unoc- 
cupied room, usually in the 
upper part of the house, and 
furnished suitably for the re- 
ception and entertainment of 
guests and social meetings. 
The proverbial hospitality of 
the Jews would make such 
provision necessary, and espe- 
cially at Jerusalem, in festival 
seasons, when every house in 
the city was the stranger's 
home. (Mark xiv. 15. Luke 
xxii. 12. Acts i. 13.) 

Inner chamber. (2 Kings 
ix. 2.) A chamber within an- 
other chamber. 

Little chamber. (2 Kings 
iv. 10.) An apartment built 
upon and projecting from the 
walls of the main house, and 
communicating by a private 
door with the house, and by a 
private stairway to the street. 

Upper chamber, or loft, 
(Acts ix. 37.) is supposed to 
have occupied the front part 
of the building, over the gate 
or outer entrance, and to have 
been used to lodge strangers. 
(Comp. 1 Kings xvii. 19 and 
23, with 2 Kings iv. 10. See 
Dwellings, paragraph Uppeb 
room.) 

144 



CHA 

CHAMBERING. (Rom. xiii. 
13.) Low intrigue for licentious 
purposes. 

CHAMBERLATN. (2 Kings 
xxiii. 11.) An officer who has 
charge of the royal chambers, 
or the king's lodgings, ward- 
robes, &c. In eastern courts, 



CHA 

eunuchs were commonly em- 
ployed for this service. (Esth.. 
i. 10. 12. 15.) .The sixth officer 
of the British crown is the 
lord high chamberlain. The 
title in Rom. xvi. 23, pro- 
bably denotes the steward or 
treasurer of the city. 




CHAMELEON. (Lev. xi. 
30 ) A species of the lizard, 
of very singular construction 
and appearance. Its tail is as 
long as its whole body, and be- 
ing wound around the branches 
of tree3, assists the animal in 
climbing or suspending itself. 
It feeds on insects, and to 
catch them it is provided with 
a tongue nearly as long as its 
body, which it darts out and 
then draws back again, con- 
tracting it into a small com- 
pass. This organ is covered 
with a glutinous substance, by 
which flies and other insects 
are arr?sted and drawn in for 
the animal's food. Its colour is 
changeable, but not to the ex- 
tent nor from the causes which 
are vulgarly supposed. It is by 
no means certain that the cha- 
meleon known to us was the 
animal which was reckoned 
unclean by the Levitical law. 

CHAMOIS. (Deut. xiv. 5 ) 
13 



The animal intended in this 
passage was probably of the 
family of antciopes ; and as 
the chamois of modern natu- 
ral history is found in the high* 
lands of Switzerland, Germa- 
ny, and Greece, at the height 
and in the same climate with 
the mountain's of Judea, it is 
not unlikely that the same 
animal which we know as the 
chamois was regarded as un- 
clean by the Jewish law. (See 
Natural History Op Yhs 
Bible, pp. 77, 78, by Am. S. 
S. Union, for a particular de 
scription and cut.) 

CHANCE (ISam. vi. 9> 
might be better rendered oc 
currence, and is so rendered 
in several ancient versions. 
In Eccl. ix. 1—11, the sacred 
writer is illustrating the weak- 
ness and blindness of man, 
and showing that all the events 
and occurrences of his life are 
appointed by infinite wisdom 
145 



CHA 

and power. In the passage 
first above cited the word im- 
plies simply this,-r-that if the 
cattle, without any guidance 
of man, should leave their 
calves and their pastures, and 
the roads which they were ac- 
customed to go in, and should 
draw the ark towards Bethshe- 
mesh, (the nearest point of the 
land of Israel,) then the Philis- 
tines might infer from this 
supernatural occurrence, that 
God's hand had afflicted them 
as a punishment for detaining 
the ark ; but if nothing like 
this should appear, they might 
suppose that their singular af- 
fliction was the result of natu- 
ral though unknown causes. 
What men speak of as hap- 
pening by chance, are those 
occurrences which take place 
without any apparent cause, 
as in Luke x. 31 ; " It so hap- 
pened that a priest," &c. i. e. 
he had no design to pass by 
the wounded man, &c; though 
they are not the less actually 
the result of divine appoint- 
ment. The word, in its athe- 
istical use, is as unphilosophi- 
cal as it is impious. 

CHANCELLOR. (Ezra iv. 
8. 17.) A distinguished officer 
of the Jewish court, of whose 
particular functions we have 
now no knowledge. 

CHANGEABLE SUITS OF 
APPAREL. (See Clothes.) 

CHANGES OF RAIMENT. 
(See Clothes.) 

CHANGERS OF MONEY,or 
MONEY-CHANGERS. (Matt. 
xxi.12.John ii.14.) When Judea 
became a province of Rome, 
the Jews were required to pay 
taxes in Roman currency, and 
at the same time the annual 
tribute for the service of the 
sanctuary was the half she- 
kel of Jewish currency. To ex- 
change these, one for the other, 
was the business of the mo- 
ney-changers, like the busi- 
ness of modern brokers. To 



CHA 

I obtain custom, they stationed 
l themselves in the courts of 
the temple, the place of gene- 
ral resort for strangers from 
every part of Judea,~and theii 
oppressive and fraudulent 
practices probably justified 
the allusion of our Saviour to 
a den of thieves. Perhaps, 
they were also accustomed to 
pay and receive interest on 
loans, and this practice is re- 
cognised in Matt. xxv. 16. 27. 

CHANT. (See Viol.) 

CHAPEL, (Amos vii. 13,) or 
SANCTUARY. A place of 
worship. Bethel is called the 
king's chapel by one of the 
idol priests, because there the 
kings of Israel paid idolatrous 
worship to the golden calves. 
(See Bethel.) 

CHAPITERS, (Ex. xxxvi. 
38,) or CAPITALS,(as they are 
called in modern architecture,) 
are the upper or ornamental 
part of a column. 

CHAPMEN (2Chron. ix. 14) 
are called, in the correspond- 
ing passage, (I Kings x. 15,) 
spice-merchants. The classes 
might be distinguished as the 
merchants and grocers of mo- 
dern days. The revenue to the 
king was probably in the form 
of duties on their imports. 

CHARAN. (SeoHABAN.) 

CHARGER. (Num. vii. 13. 
Ezra i. 9. Matt. xiv. 8. 11.) 
A shallow bowl or basin, used 
for receiving the blood at the 
preparation of the sacrifices. 
(See Censer.) 

CHARIOT. (Gen. xli. 43. 
and xlvi. 29. 2 Kincs x. 15. 
Acts viii. 28.) Until within 
three or four hundred years 
nothing was known of the con- 
venience and even luxury of 
modern vehicles of pleasure. 
The chariots of the early ages 
were probably little superior 
in style or convenience to mo- 
dern carts or wagons. The 
following is given as arepre- 
sentation of the vehicle ia 
I4g 



CHA 



CHA 




vhich the Ethiopian was rid- I 

ing when accosted by Philip. ! 

Travellers describe a clura- | 

sy carriage used in Asia at the | 



present day, which is formed 
like a large wicker basket, 
eight feet long, supported by 
four solid wheels, convex on 




each side, and shaped not un- 
like the above. These car- 
riages were made of wood, and 
were often burnt in war. (Ps. 
Klvi. 9. Sol. Song iii. 9. Nan. 
ii. 13.) 

Another form is given us, as 
on the following page. 

Where chariots are men- 
\ioned as of iron, (Josh. xvii. 
IS,) it is probable that the iron 
instruments with which they 
were often heavily armed gave 
th=m such a designation. The 



word chariot is used for tho 
horses by which it is drawn, 
(2 Sam. viii. 4; x. 18,) and 
again for the riders of horses 
and other animals. (Isa. xxi. 
7.9.) 

Captains of chariots, (Ex. 
xv. 4,) or, literally, mounted 
three standers. This expres- 
sion, in an English transla- 
tion, might be supposed to de- 
note the officer or officers who 
had charge of the chariot 
forces ; but the literal mean 
147 



CHA 



CHA 




ing, above given, makes the 
passage obscure. The cut, from 
an Egyptian tomb, nearly or 
quite as ancient as the period 
to which the above-cited pas- 
sages relate, furnishes a key 
to this otherwise difficult ex- 
pression. It represents three 




men standing upon a chariot, 
two of whom are prepared for 
action, and the third manages 
the horses. They were pro- 



bably selected for their valour, 
and perhaps formed by them- 
selves a distinct' division of the 
army, and each had its distinct 
officer. (Ex. xiv. 7.) 

Chariot of the cheru- 
bims (1 Chron. xxviii. 18) 
means the frame work on 
which the cherubims rested, 
and one pattern of which 
might resemble the body of a 
chariot. 

(See Amminadab, War, 
Harness.) 

Chariot cities, (2 Chron. 
i. 14,) or cities specially desig- 
nated for storing the chariots 
of war during the time of 
peace, as magazines and ar- 
senals of modern times are 
used. 

Chariot horses. (2 Kings 
vii. 14.) Horses that were pe- 
culiarly fitted, by size, spirit, 
docility, or special training, for 
service in chariots ; as 'car- 
riage, draft, and saddle-horses 
of later days. 

Chariot man. (2 Chron. 
xviii. 33.) Driver, or chariot- 
eer. 

Chariots of the sun. (2 
Kingsxxiii.il.) Chariots which 
148 



CHE 

had been consecrated to the 
eun by the idolatrous customs 
of the kings of Judah. Such 
consecration of horses and ve- 
hicles was common, especially 
in Persia. 

The word chariots is some- 
times used figuratively for 
hosts or armies, (Ps. lxviii. 
17 ;) and Elijah, by his prayers 
and counsels, and power with 
God, was the "chariot and 
horsemen of Israel," (2 Kings 
ii. 11, 12,) inasmuch as he did 
more for them than all the 
chariots and horsemen which 
they could muster. (Ps. xx. 7. 
Isa. xxxi. 1.) 

Chariots (for war.) (Judg. 
iv. 3.) One class of carriages 
thus denominated were used 
as the common vehicles of 
princes and generals ; but an- 



CHE 

other formed the most terrible 
of military engines, and were 
employed in great numbers. 
(1 Sam. xiii. 5." 1 Chron. xviii. 
4.) Like other ancient car- 
riages, they had usually only 
two' wheels, and iron scythes, 
strong and sharp, were affixed 
to the extremities of the axles 
on each side. 

Warriors sometimes fought 
standing on them, or leaping 
from them upon the enemy. 
The chariots in the army of 
Cyrus were capacious enough 
to permit twenty men to fight 
from them. 

The following sketch of the 
wooden war-chariot used by 
the Parthians, may illustrate 
the general appearance and 
uses of the chariot of earlier 
days. 




CHARITY. (1 Cor. xiii. 1.) 
In this and parallel passages, 
the word love would more pro- 
perly express the sentiment 
intended. (See Love.) Chari- 
ty, in the popular acceptation 
of the word, is almsgiving. 
(See Alms.) « 

CHARM, CHARMER. (See 
Adder, Asp, Divination.) 

CHARRAN. (SeeHARAN.) 

CHATTER. (See Crane, 
Swallow.) 

CHEBAR. (Ezek. i. 1. 3.) A 
river in the land of the Chal- 
deans. A colony of the cap- 
13* 



tive Jews resided here, and 
the prophet Ezekiel also, with 
whose predictions the place 
has very interesting associa- 
tions. 

CHEDORLAOMER. (Gen. 
xiv. 1. 5.) One of the kings 
who formed an allianceagainst 
the five cities of the plain, and 
whose spoils were taken from 
them by Abram. (See Abram.> 

CHEEKBONE. (Ps. iii. 7.) 

The figurative language of 

this passage presents the 

psalmist surrounded by his 

! enemies as by a herd of wild 

149 



CHE 

beasts, and denotes their com- 
plete deprivation of the power 
of seizing upon or devouring 
their prey. 

CHEESE, (1 Sam. xvii. 18,) 
or the pressed curd of milk, 
was a common article of food 
among the Jews, and is now 
among many nations of the 
east. The word occurs but 
three times in our Scriptures, 
and in each of them the ori- 
ginal word is different. (2Sam. 
xvii. 29. Job x. 10.) Travel- 
lers tell us that new cheese, 
or the curd of cream salted, 
was a luxury of the richest 
tables. The milk was sepa- 
rated by a rude sort of churn- 
ing, (see Butter.) and the 
curd was placed in a close- 
woven rush or wicker basket, 
and so pressed as to retain its 
form, as in the annexed cut. 




Ten baskets of curds of this 
kind were not an unsuitable 
present for Jesse to make, 
even to an officer of Saul's 
armv. (See Milk.) 

CHEMARI3VLS. (Zeph. i. 4.) 
The priests of idol gods, as in 
2 Kings xxiii. 5, and Hos. x. 5, 



CHE 

where the same word is trans- 
lated idolatrous priests. 

CHEMOSH. (Num. xxi. 29.) 
The name of an. idol of the 
Moabites, (Jer. xl viii. 7,) which 
bishop Newton and others sup- 
pose to have been the same 
with Baal-pecr. It is called 
" the abomination cf the Mo- 
abites," as Moloch was the 
abomination of the Ammon- 
ites. Solomon built a place 
for its worship in the suburbs 
of Jerusalem, (1 Kings xi. 7,) 
which Josiah afterwards de- 
stroyed. (2 Kings xxiii. 13.) 
The people of Chemosh are his 
worshippers. (Jer. xlviii. 46.) 

CHEPHIRAH (Josh. ix. 17) 
formerly belonged to the Gibe- 
onites. It afterwards fell into 
the hands of the tribe of Ben- 
jamin, and was occupied by 
this tribe after their return 
from captivity. (Josh, xviii. 
26. Ezra ii. 25. Neb. vii. 29.) 

CHERETHIMS. (Ezek.xxv 
16.) CHERETHITES. (1 Sam 
xxx. 14.) These names are ap- 
plied to a part of David's army, 
(2 Sam. xv. 18, and xx. 7,) 
which seems to have been a 
distinct corps. (2 Sam. viii. 
16—18.) It is probable they 
were either originally Philis- 
tines, skilful in archery, (comp. 
1 Sam. xxx. 14. 16, with Zeph. 
ii 5,) and thus qualified to be- 
come a sort of body-guard to 
the king ; or that theywere Is- 
raelites who were with David 
among the Philistineo or Che. 
rethites, and hence t'aeir corps 
was known by thi'i name in 
the army. They r.re usually 
joined with the Peksthites, (2 
Sam. viii. 18,) vho are sup- 
posed to have been native Is- 
raelites of the tribe c i Reuben, 
(Num. xvi. 1,) or Judah. (1 
Chron. ii. 33. *See Crete.) 

CHERITH. (1 Kings xvii. 3 
5.) A small rrook which emp 
tied into the Jordan, and in 
the vicinity of which Elijah 
concealed himself and wa# 
supported by ravens. 
150 



CHI 

CHERUB, CHERUBIM. 
(Ezek. x. 5. 7.) The word 
cherubim occurs first, Gen. 
iii. 24, and is applied to the 
guard which was placed over 
Eden after the expulsion of 
fallen man. 

Among the directions given 
to Moses respecting the form 
and construction of the mercy- 
seat, one was, to make a che- 
rub at each end, whose face 
should be turned inward, and 
whose wings should cover the 
mercy-seat. From between 
these figures or cherubim God 
communed with Moses con- 
cerning the children of Israel. 
(Ex. xxv. 22. Num. vii. 89. 
1 Sam. iv. 4. Ps. lxxx. 1,'and 
xcix. 1.) 

The size and shape of the 
figures representing the cheru- 
bim in Solomon's temple, are 
described particularly 2Chron. 
iii. 10—13. (See Biblical An- 
tiquities, vol. ii. ch. ii. pp. 
51—63, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

CHESTNUT TREE. (Gen. 
xxx. 37.) A well-known tree, 
which is figuratively used 
(Ezek. xxxi. 8) in connexion 
with the cedar and fir, to illus- 
trate the greatness of the As- 
syrian kingdom. The tree 
known to us as the plane, or 
buttonwood, is supposed to be 
intended by the sacred wri- 
ters, and the original has 
sometimes been so translated. 

CHIEF OF ASIA. (Acts xix. 
31.) Certain wealthy persons 
were appointed annually in 
the Asiatic provinces of Rome, 
to preside over the religious 
rites, public games, &c. which 
they maintained in honour of 
the gods, and at their own ex* 
pense. They received their 
title from the name of the pro- 
vince; as. the chief or priest 
of Cariawas called Cariarch; 
of Lycia, Lyciarch, &c. Seve- 
ral of these chiefs or priests 
were holding games at Ephe- 
«us, when the tumult was ex- 
cited in that city because 



CHI 

Paul's preaching interfered 
with the personal interest 
of Demetrius. These people 
were friendly to the apostle, 
and advised him not to expose 
his person unnecessarily to 
the fury of the populace. 
CHIEF PRIEST. (See 

CHIMHAM. (2 Sam. xix. 
37.) It is possible he was a 
.son of Barzillai, but cannot 
certainly be inferred from 1 
Kings ii. 7, which is sometimes 
cited to prove it. Some have 
supposed that David gave 
Chimham a parcel of land, 
which was afterwards known 
by his name. (Jer. xli. 17.) 

CHIMNEY. (See Dwell- 

CHINNERETH, (Num. 
xxxiv. 11. Deut. iii. 17,) oi 
CHINNEROTH, (Josh. xi. 2, 
and xii. 3,) or CINNEROTH, 
(1 Kings xv. 20,) were names 
of a place and lake in Lower 
Galilee. The town of Cinne- 
roth was on the western shore 
of the lake, near the border 
of Zebulon and Naphtali. The 
town is supposed to have been 
the same with Tiberias, and 
the lake is called the lake of 
Genesaret, the sea of Galilee, 
and the sea of Tiberias, which 
is its present name. 

There is no part of Pales- 
tine to be compared with the 
environs of this lake for cli- 
mate, fertility, and richness 
of scenery. Many cities of 
note (as Capernaum, Bethsai- 
da, and Chorazin) stood upon 
its shores. The river Jordan 
flows through it, and it for- 
merly abounded with fish, and 
gave occupation to four of the 
first disciples of our Saviour, 
who were born in its vicinity, 
and were called from their 
worldly business to follow him. 
Much of the time of his minis- 
try was spent, and many of his 
most wonderful works were 
done, on these shores. Though 
this lake was less than twenty 
151 



cm 

miles long, oy six or eight 
wide, it was subject to violent 
squalls. The wind from the 
south, sweeping down the sides 
of the mountains, and setting 
up against the strong current 
of the Jordan, rendered the 
lake boisterous and full of 
peril. No craft is seen upon 
its waters in modern days. 
The Arab fishermen wade in 
with hand-nets, and take what 
fish they can. 

Mr. Fiske, an American mis- 
sionary, was at Tiberias (Ta- 
baria) in 1823. The old town 
is surrounded by a wall, but 
within it is very ruinous, and 
the plain for a mile or two 
south is strewed with ruins. 
The Jordan, where it issues 
from the lake, was so shallow 
that cattle and asses forded it 
easily. Mr. F. was shown a 
house called the house of Pe- 
ter, which is used as the Greek 
Catholic church, and is the 
only church in the place. The 
number of Christian families 
is thirty or forty, all Greek 
Catholics. There were two 
sects of Jews, each of whom 
had a synagogue. The Jewish 
population was estimated at 
about 1000. On the 1st of Ja- 
nuary, 1837, Tiberias was de- 
stroyed by an earthquake. (See 
Yiews of Palestine, p. 27, 
and Omar, pp. 120, 121, and 
Life of Peter, all by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 

CHIOS. (Acts xx. 15.) A 
mountainous island on the 
coast of Asia Minor, between 
Lesbos and Samos, thirty-two 
miles long and fifteen broad, 
inhabited by Greeks. It is 
now called Scio, and was the 
scene of a memorable massa- 
cre by the Turks in 1823. 

CHISLEU. (See Months.) 

CH1TTIM. (Dan. xi. 30.) 
Probably this name "was ori-' 
ginally applied to the island 
of Cyprus, but afterwards be- 
came a general name for the 
maritime countries and islands 



CHR 

1 of the Mediterranean. In Isa. 
xxiii. 1, we are told that the 
news of the destruction of 
Tyre should be revealed to the 
ships of Tarshish, as they 
passed the land of Chittim 6 1 
island of Cyprus. 

The prophecy of Balaam* 
(Num. xxiv. 24,) of the visita- 
tion which should come on 
Asshur,(Assyria,)and Eber,(the 
Hebrews,) probably referred to 
the Greek and Roman inva- 
sion of those countries re- 
spectively. (See Cyprus.) 

CHIUN. (Amos v. 26.) An 
idol which the Israelites made 
and worshipped in the wilder- 
ness. (See Kemphan.) 

CHORAZIN. (Matt. xi. 21.) 
A town on the shore of the sea 
of Tiberias, (where Christ 
wrought miracles,) but its pre- 
cise location is not known. 

CHORASHAN. (See Ash- 

AN.) 

CHRIST JESUS. (Eph. ii, 
10.) This is a compound name 
significant of two characters. 
Christ is from the Greek word 
Christos, which signifies an- 
ointed. The word Messiah, in 
the Hebrew, corresponds to 
the word Christos, in the 
Greek. Hence the Jews or 
Hebrews speak of him as the 
Messiah, and Christians speak 
of him as the Christ. He is 
called Christ, or the anointed, 
in allusion to the custom of 
anointing with oil such as 
were set apart to a sacred or 
regal office. (Ex. xxviii. 41, 
and xxix. 7. 1 Sam. ix. 16 ; 
xv. 1. 2 Sam. xxiii. 1. 1 Kings 
xix. 16.) This was a conse- 
crating ceremony, making the 
person of the subject of it sa- 
cred. (1 Sam. xxiv. 6. 2 Sam. 
xix. 21. 1 Chron. xvi. 22.) It 
was also emblematical of the 
effusion of the Holy Spirit. (1 
John ii. 20. 27; comp. Matt, 
iii. 16, 17. Johniii. 34.) The 
Son of God was pre-eminently 
the Anointed. (1 Sam. ii. 10, 
Isa. lxi. 1. Dan. ix. 24. 26.) 
152 



CHR 

The word Jesus is derived 
/rom a Hebrew word signifying 
Jo save, or sent to save. (Matt, 
i. 21. Luke ii. 11. 21.) The word 
foshua has the same meaning, 
and is a very common name 
among the Hebrews, and would 
have been more properly used 
in Acts vii. 45, and Heb. iv. 8, 
than Jesus. 

The word Christ was origin- 
ally used, not as a part of the 
name, but as indicative of 
Character or office : thus Jesus, 
the Christ, was a descriptive 
phrase, like John the Baptist. 
(Matt. xxvi. 63. Mark viii. 
29; xiv. 61. John i. 20. 25. 41 ; 
vi. 69; vii. 41; x. 24; xi.27; 
xx. 31.) Such an official ap- 
pellation was necessary to dis- 
tinguish the Redeemer from 
others who were called Joshua 
or Jesus. Grotius says that the 
name Jesus was dropped at a 
very early period after the 
ascension, and Christ alone 
generally used; though we 
find upon examination, that 
the word Christ is almost al- 
ways used alone in the Gos- 
pels, while in the Acts and 
Epistles, Jesus Christ, or the 
Lord Jesus Christ, is the pre- 
vailing expression. 

When God was pronouncing 
the dreadful sentence of con- 
demnation upon our first pa- 
rents, it was his sovereign 
pleasure, without any solicita- 
tion or act of man, to intimate 
a purpose of mercy in the fol- 
lowing language: And the 
Lord God said unto the ser- 
pent, I will put enmity be- 
tween thee and the woman, 
and between thy seed {posteri- 
ty) and her seed ; it (or he, i. e. 
her seed) shall bruise thy 
head, and thou shalt bruise 
his (or its) heel. 

In this single verse lies the 
errand principle of all true re- 
ligion. It is the root and sub- 
stance of al«l the prophecies 
and promises of after-times. 
The war between sin and ho- 



CHR 

liness was then waged, and has 
since been prosecuted without 
intermission. (Rom. vii. 23.) 
The Son of God and all true 
believers are " the seed of the 
woman." (Comp. Acts xiii.23. 
Gal. iv. 4, and Heb. ii. 16, 
with John xvii. 21—23.) The 
devil and ail his servants re- 
present the serpent and his 
seed. (John viii. 44. 1 John iii. 
8.) The temptations, suffer- 
ings, and ignominious death 
of "Christ, and the fierce oppo- 
sition and cruel persecution 
which his true followers have 
endured in various ages of the 
world, are significantly de- 
scribed by the bruising of the 
heel ; while the complete vic- 
tory which our glorious Re- 
deemer has himself achieved 
over sin and death, and which 
his grace enables the believer 
also to obtain, and the still 
more perfect and universal 
triumph which he will finally 
accomplish, are all strikingly 
illustrated by the bruising^ 
the serpent's head. 

The books of heathen my- 
thology furnish curious allu- 
sions to this wonderful passage 
of the Bible. In one of them, 
Thor is represented as the 
eldest of sons, a middle divini 
ty, a mediator between God 
and man, who bruised the 
head of the serpent and slew 
him ; and in one of the oldest 
pagodas of India are found 
two sculptured figures, repre- 
senting two incarnations of 
one of their supreme divini- 
ties ; the first to be bitten by 
a serpent, and the second to 
crush him. (See cuts on the 
next page.) 

The text which we have 
been illustrating is the first in- 
timation of a Saviour which 
was given to our world after it 
was ruined by sin ; and through- 
out all succeeding ages of the 
church and of the world, in 
the wonderful system of sacri 
ficial and ceremonial ob&er 
153 



CHR 



CHR 




-«*5#SS 



vances, in all the types and 
shadows of the Jewish law, 
in the whole current of pro- 
phecy, and in all the changes 
and revolutions of ancient 
kingdoms and nations, the 
Hebrews were so clearly in- 
structed in the character and 
offices of the promised Messi- 
ah, that their unbelief and re- 
jection of him, when he ac- 
tually appeared, seem unac- 
countable on any other hypo- 
thesis, than that they were 
judicially blinded ; and espe- 
cially must we thus regard 
their conduct, when it is con- 
sidered how accurately the 
minute circumstances of his 
birth, life, and death are pre- 
dicted. (See Infidel Class, 
by Am. S. S. Union, pp. 38— 
43.) So that it has been truly 
said, that a very full and well 
connected life of Christ could 
be prepared from the materials 
which the prophecies alone 
would supply. 

The Jews, as a nation, gross- 
ly misapprehended the" cha- 
racter of the Messiah and the 
purpose of his mission. So 
clearly were his advent and 
offices predicted in the words 
of prophecy, that a general 
expectation of the appearance 




of some great deliverer pre- 
vailed. They were even ac- 
customed to regard his coming 
as the grand em in the annals 
of the world ; for they spoke 
of the two great ages of histo- 
ry, the one as preceding and 
the other as following this 
wonderful event. Their views, 
however, were on the? whole 
very narrow, and in the mass 
of the people were elevated 
very little, if at all, above the 
temporal advantages of their 
nation. Their foolish hearts 
were too much darkened tc 
see that his kingdom was t* 
be spiritual; that their deli- 
verance was to be from the 
power and dominion of sin: 
that the blessings he would 
confer would be "holiness and 
life everlasting, and that the 
benefits of his atonement, me. 
diation, and glorious reign, 
would be shared by all, both 
Jews and Gentiles, who should 
repent, and believe his gospel. 

How long these groundless 
apprehensions prevailed, even 
in the minds of those who had 
the best opportunity to know 
the truth, may be seen, Luke 
xxiv. 21, and Acts i. 6. 

We find that about the time 
of the Messiah's appearance, 
154 



CHR 

Simeon, Anna, and others of 
like faiih, were eagerly ex- 
pecting the promised salva- 
tion. (Luke ii. 25— S3.) 

At the appointed time the 
Redeemer of the world ap- 
peared. He was born in the 
year of the creation 4000, at 
Bethlehem, in Judea, of a vir- 
gin, named Mary, who was es- 
poused to Joseph ; and through 
them he derived his descent 
from David, according to pro- 
phecy. Though we may not be 
able "to trace this genealogy, j 
we may be assured of the fact 
from the circumstance that 
the Jews never questioned it. 
This would undoubtedly have 
been the stronghold of their 
unbelief; for if it could have 
been shown that the individu- 
al who claimed to be their 
Messiah was not descended 
from David, tlfcy might have 
justified themselves "in reject- 
ing him, by referring to their 
Scriptures. (Ps. lxxxix. 3, 4, 
and ex. 1. Comp. Acts ii. 25 — 
36. Isa. xi. 1—10. Jer. xxiii.5, 
6. Ezek. xxxiv. 23, 24 ; xxxvii. 
24,25. John vii. 42.) 

At the proper time he was 
subjected to the rite of circum- 
cision, under the Jewish law, 
and was called Jesus, accord- 
ing to the command. (Matt. i. 
21. Luke ii. 21.) 

After a temporary stay 
at Bethlehem, whither they 
went to be taxed, in compli- 
ance with a decree of the go- 
vernment, they were prepar- 
ing to return to Nazareth, the 
place of their residence ; but 
they were admonished by an 
angel of a cruel decree which 
had been issued by Herod the 
king, requiring the indiscrimi- 
nate massacre of all the male 
children in Bethlehem and its 
vicinity, who were not over 
two years old. By this mas- 
sacre he hoped to cutoff the 
infant Jesus, who, as he sup- 
posed, from some confused 
apprehensions of his cbarac- 



CHR 

ter, might make some preten- 
sion to^the government of the 
country. 

In obedience to the divine 
intimation, Joseph took the in- 
fant and its mother and went 
into Egypt, where they remain- 
ed until another message from 
God informed them that Herod 
was dead, and they might 
safely return into the land~of 
Israel. So they took up their 
abode in Nazareth, a small 
town in Galilee, where Jesus 
remainedjSubject to his earthly 
parents, until he was thirty 
years of age. The sacred wri- 
ter says that the residence of 
Christ at Nazareth was a ful- 
filment of that which was 
spoken by the prophet, He 
snail be called a Nazarene. 
Probably to come from Naza- 
reth was regarded as a re- 
proach, (John i. 46 ; vii. 52 ;) 
and hence, to call a man a 
Nazarene, was to apply to 
him, in one word, all that the 
prophets said of the humble 
and despised origin of the 
Messiah. (Ps. xxii. Isa. liii.) 
At twelve he went up to Jeru- 
salem with his parents, at the 
feast of the passover, and as- 
tonished the Jewish rabbies 
by his wisdom and knowledge. 
The design of the evangelists 
being to record only the events 
of his public ministry, we are 
not favoured with many par- 
ticulars of Christ's life upxm 
earth during the intervening 
period. 

When he was about thirty 
years of age, he went from 
Nazareth to the river Jordan, 
where John was preaching 
and baptizing, (Mark i. 3—9.) 
for John foreknew, supernatu- 
rally, that the followers of Je- 
sus were to be initiated by this 
rite, and that they were like- 
wise to receive the higher bap- 
tism of the Spirit. John at 
first declined administering 
the ordinance to him, for he 
recognised in Christ the great 
155 



CHR 

fountain and author of that 
inward and spiritual grace of 
which the ordinance itself was 
but the outward and visible 
eign. He therefore sought 
rather to be himself baptized 
by Christ ; but upon being in- 
formed by his divine master 
that a compliance was neces- 
sary, in order that he might 
sanction by his example the 
ministry of John, and the use 
of this significant rite, John ad- 
ministered the ordinance, and 
thereupon there was a visible 
and audible manifestation of 
God's presence, solemnly at- 
testing the divinity and messi- 
ahship of Christ. (Matt. iii. 16.) 

He then commenced his pub- 
lic ministry. Calling around 
him twelve humble fishermen, 
to be the companions of his 
journeyings, and the witnesses 
of his conduct, conversation, 
preaching, and miracles, and 
the propagators of his religion 
after he should have accom- 
plished the work of redemp- 
tion, he began to make known 
the great purposes of his incar- 
nation. For three years he 
exhibited to a faithless and 
perverse generation, the most 
indubitable evidence of his di- 
vine authority and power. He 
forgave sins, rebuked unclean 
spirits so that they came out 
of such as were possessed by 
them ; commanded the winds 
and the seas, and they obeyed 
him ; healed all manner of 
diseases ; raised the dead, and 
showed conclusively, in every 
variety of form, that he pos- 
sessed all the divine attributes 
that there was any fit opportu- 
nity to employ, for the benefit 
either of the bodies or souls of 
men. 

In all his ministrations,— 
under every species of insult, 
contradiction, and misrepre- 
sentation,— he most perfectly 
illustrated the precepts and 
principles of the religion he 
taught. His love and compas- 



CHR 

sion ; his forbearance and for- 
giveness; his meekness and 
wisdom; his simplicity and ho. 
liness ; his equanimity and self, 
possession, have never had,and 
never will have, a parallel in 
any finite being. It seems im- 
possible that his history can 
be read with an unprejudiced 
mind, and fail to produce the 
conviction that it is of him, 
and of no other, that the pro- 
phet says, His name shall be 
called Wonderful, Counsel- 
lor, the Mighty God, the 
Everlasting Father, the 
Prince of Peace, (lsa. ix. 6.) 
When the grand purpose of 
his extraordinary mission was 
about to be consummated, he 
gave his disciples full instruc- 
tions respecting their duty, in- 
timated to them the difficulties 
and dangers which would at- 
tend the propagation of the 
religion, but assured them of 
strength, grace, and final suc- 
cess in the enterprise. He 
then instituted a simple but 
most affecting memorial of his 
sufferings and death, which 
were to close his earthly minis- 
try. And while in the garden 
of Gethsemane, bowed down, 
even unto death, with exceed- 
ing sorrow, and in prospect of 
what he was about to bear for 
man's offence, the traitor, who 
was one of the little company 
of twelve disciples, drew near, 
and by a kiss signified to a 
band of ruffian solcliers that he 
was the object of their pursuit. 
Then ensued a mock trial, 
every stage of which was 
crowded with injuries and in- 
sults, and in the midst of which 
he was denied with oaths and 
curses by the most bold and for- 
ward of his disciples. Wanton 
and unprovoked abuse, cruel 
mockings and scourgmgs, in 
short, whatever could'increasf? 
the intensity of bodily antf 
mental suffering was heaped 
upon the guiltless Redeems) 
without measure or mercy 
156 



CHR 

They were such as the most 
base and contemptible male- 
factor seldom endured, and 
were terminated by the excru- 
ciating and disgraceful death 
of the cross. After hanging for 
upwards of three hours, till life 
was entirely extinct, (John xix. 
33,) the body was taken down, 
and committed to a tomb hewn 
out of a solid rock ; and, not- 
withstanding all the safeguards 
which the malice and cunning 
of hi3 persecutors and murder- 
ers could invent, to secure 
him, h3 rose from the dead on 
the third day, as he had fore- 
told ; and after giving to his 
disciples and hundreds of 
others, in a variety of w r ays, 
and at different times, during 
the space of nearly six weeks, 
the most indubitable evidence 
of the fact that he had risen, 
he led a chosen company out 
to Bethany ; he there bestowed 
on them his parting benedic- 
tion, and, ascending up to 
heaven in their presence, a 
cloud received him out of their 
sight. 

Being thus raised up, and by 
the right hand of God exalted 
to be a Prince and a Saviour, 
to give repentance and remis- 
sion of sins, he soon furnished 
to his faithful disciples the 
evidence of his power and 
grace. (Acts ii.) And the his- 
tory of God's dealings with the 
church of Christ, from the be- 
ginning hitherto, abundantly 
shows the perfectness of his 
sacrifice and intercession, and 
that he is the end of the law 
for righteousness to every one 
that believeth. (Rom. x. 4.) 
He is the way, the truth, and 
the life ; and no man cometh 
to the Father but by him. 
(John xiv. 6.) As our great 
high priest and intercessor, 
(Rom. viii. 34. Heb. iv. 14; 
vii. 25. 1 John ii. 1, 2,) he hath 
entered by his own blood into 
the holy place, having obtain- 
ed eternal redemption for us. 
14 



CHit 

He hath put away sin by th^ 
sacrifice of himself, (Heb. be. 
26,) and thus hath perfected 
for ever them that are sancti- 
fied, (Heb. x. 14,) so that they 
may have boldness to enter 
into the holiest by his blood, 
by the new and living way, 
which he hath consecrated, 
through the veil, that is to say, 
his flesh. (Heb. x. 19, 20.) 
Thus the seed of the woman 
hath bruised the serpent's head 
— the sting of death is removed. 
(I Cor. xv. 55.) He that had 
the power of death, that is, the 
devil, is subdued ; and they are 
delivered who, through fear of 
death, were all their lifetime 
subject to bondage. (Heb. ii. 
14, 15.) Life and immortality 
are brought to light. (2 Tim. u 
10.) Because he lives, we shall 
live also. (John xiv. 19. Rom. 
vi. S. 2 Cor. xiii. 4. 1 Thess. v. 
10. 2 Tim. ii. 11.) He comforts, 
sustains, and guides all true 
believers, of whatever coun- 
try, colour, or denomination 
they may be, through this 
world of tribulation; reveals 
to them fountains in the wil- 
derness, and springs in the de- 
sert ; passes with them through 
flames and floods ; gives them 
the victory over sin and death, 
and bestows on them, as a free 
gift, eternal life and blessed- 
ness,— a crown of glory that 
fadeth not away. 

Whoever seriously examines 
the great plan of salvation by 
Christ, in all that preceded, 
and has thus far attended, 
its very partial and incipient 
development, will be led to 
exclaim, with the apostle, 
Without coxtroveksy, great 
is the mystery of godliness. (1 
Tim. iii. 1(5.) The revelation of 
it sheds light on all preceding 
and succeeding time. It raises 
the veil throuerh which the in- 
stitutions ancf ordinances of 
the Jewish dispensation seem- 
ed like a vain and burdensome 
ritual, and shows us of what 
157 



CHR 

glorious things they were the 
imperfect types and shadows. 
It discloses a mode of redemp- 
tion from the curse of God's 
violated law, — safe, suitable, 
and plain for man ;— just, con- 
sistent, and glorious for the 
lawgiver ; and it reveals the 
sanction of a judgment to come, 
in w 7 hich the principles and 
purposes of the divine govern- 
ment will be carried out an the 
unchangeable destinies of men 
and angels: all God's ways 
will be vindicated in the view 
of an assembled world, and his 
perfect attributes will shine 
forth in new, endless, and in- 
finite glory. 

It has been well said, that the 
sum and substance of the en- 
tire Bible is, " Jesus Christ 

CRUCIFIED TO SAVE LOST SIN- 
NERS." The moment we lose 
sight of this grand and amazing 
design, — wnich eternal love 
and "mercy combined with in- 
finite justice and holiness to 
conceive and execute, — the 
Jewish Scriptures, from begin- 
ning to end, present only a 
vain and perplexing show, and 
the glory of the divine revela- 
tion is extinguished. 

(For a full and deeply inte- 
resting sketch of the rise and 
Erogress of the religion of 
hrist, and of his character 
and ministry, see Biblical 
Antiquities, vol. ii. ch. i.: 
Christ our Saviour ; Sister 
Mary's Stories, (No. 6, The 
Wonderful Redeemer;) First 
Lessons, Lesson xiii.— xix. ; 
all by the Am. S. S. Union.) 

It may be proper, before 
closing this article, to suggest 
the leading points and princi- 
pal references, respecting the 
true and proper divinity of the 
Lord Jesus Christ. 

I. The names and titles of 
the Supreme Being are applied 
to him. (Rom. ix. 5. 1 John v. 
20. Rev. i. 11. Comp. Isa. vi. 
1—10, with John xii. 41.) 

II. The principal attributes 



CHR 

of God are ascribed to Christ j 
as, Eternity, (John i. 1 ; viii. 
58. Rev. xxii. 13;) Omnisci- 
ence, (Matt. ix. 4. John xvi. 
30; xxi. 17. Rev. ii. 23;) Om- 
nipotence, (Phil. Hi. 21. Col.ii. 
9, 10;) Omnipresence, (Matt. 
xviii. 20 ; xxviii. 20. John iii. 

13;) andUNCHANGEAELENESS. 

(Heb. xiii. 8.) 

III. The works and preroga- 
tives of God are ascribed to 
him, as the Creator of all 
things, (Isa. xliv. 24. John i. 
1.3,Col.i. 16, 17;) their Pre- 
servation, (Heb. L 3 ;) For- 
giveness of Sins, (Dan. ix. 9 
comp. with Ps. cxxx. Matt, ix 
2. 6. Col. iii. 13 ;) to raise thi 

DEAD, AND JUDGE THE WORLD 

(Matt. xxv. 31—33. John v. 2'. 
—29. Rom.xiv. 10. 2 Cor. v. 10„ 

IV. He is the object of reli 
gious worship. (Phil. ii. 10, 11 
Heb. i. 6. Rev. v. 11—13.) 

The following passages maj 
also be cited: Ps. xlv. 6, 7 
Comp. Isa. vii. 14, with Matt 
i.23. Isa. viii. 14, with IPet. ii 
8. Isa. xliv. 23,24. Ps. lxxxix 
8, 9, with Mark ,iv. 37—39 
John ii. 24, 25 ; iii. 31 ; xiv. 7. 9 
xx. 28. Acts i. 24; vii. 59, 60 
x. 36. Rom. xiv. 9. Eph. i 
20—23; iv. 8—11. Phil. ii. 6 
9—11. Col. ii. 9. 1 Tim. iii. 16 
2 Pet. iii. 18. Rev. i. 5,6; v. 8 
vii. 9—17 ; xxi. 22, 23 ; xxii! 
16. 

False Christs. (Matt, xxi v. 
24.) Our Lord w r arned his dis- 
ciples that false Christs should 
arise. Not less than twenty- 
four different persons of such 
pretensions have appeared ; 
and the defence of their claims 
to the messiahship has cost 
the Jews a great expense of 
life and treasure. One of them, 
Cariba, or Barchocheba, lived 
early in the second century. 
He put himself at the head of 
the Jewish nation as their Mes- 
siah ; they adhered to him. 
The Romans made war upon 
him ; and the Jews themselves 
allow, that in their defence ol 
153 



CHR 

this false Messiah, t.hey lost 
between Jive and six hundred 
thousand souls. In the twelfth 
century, not less than eight or 
ten impostors appeared under 
the same name, and were fol- 
lowed by great numbers of the 
Jews. Most of them were pun- 
ished for their imposture with 
death, and usually involved 
a multitude of their deluded 
followers in persecution and 
death. The last that gained 
any considerable number of 
converts was Mordecai, a Jew 
of Germany, who lived in 1682. 
He fled for his life, and his end 
is not known. 

CHRISTIAN (Acts xxvi. 28) 
was a name given to the fol- 
lowers of our Saviour. It was 
first used at Antioch. (Acts xi. 
26,) about the year 42 or 43, 
and probably (li ke the names 
Nazarenes and Galileans) as a 
term of reproach or contempt. 
This supposition is confirmed 
by the circumstance that the 
word occurs in only three 
places in the New Testament, 
viz. in the two passages before 
cited, and in IPet. iv. 16, where 
it is strongly implied that the 
very name" was associated with 
reproach and suffering. Taci- 
tus, a profane historian, tells 
us of the low, or vulgar peo- 
ple, called the followers of 
Christ, or Christians. 

The term Christian is now 
employed, (l.)In contradistinc- 
tion to Pagans and Moham- 
medans ; and, (2.) To denote 
the open professors of religion, 
in contradistinction from those 
who are not professors. In 
some countries it is still a 
term of bitter reproach, and 
the assumption of it is attended 
with persecution, cruelty, and 
death. 

The Christian religion is re- 
ceived at the presemTday (as it 
is supposed) by less than one 
quarter of the inhabitants of 
the world. Some have esti- 
mated the numbers as follows : 



CHR 



Jews 


- 2,500,000 


Mohamiredaus 


140,000,000 


Pagans 


482,000,000 


Catholics 


80,000,000 


Protestants 


65.ooo,oeo 


Greeks 


- 30,000,000 



CHRONICLES, (IKings xiv 
19,) or ANNALS. In its gene 
ral signification, this term de- 
notes a chronological history, 
or an acccount of facts and 
events in the order of time. 
The thirteenth and fourteenth 
books of the Old Testament 
are called the first and second 
books of Chronicles ; and are 
in some sense supplemental tc 
the two books of Kings which 
precede them. They appear 
to have been compiled from 
the national diaries or journals, 
but it does not satisfactorily 
appear who compiled them. 
These voluminous diaries are 
referred to frequently under 
different names, (1 Kings 
xiv. 19. 1 Chron. xxvii. 24. 
Esth. ii. 23;) but are not to 
be confounded with the ab- 
stract which constitutes the 
books to which this article 
refers. 

The principal object of the 
author of these books seems to 
have been, to point out, from 
the public records, the state 
of the different families before 
the captivity, and the distribu- 
tion of the lands among them ; 
that each tribe might, as far 
as possible, obtain the ancient 
inheritance of their fathers at 
their return. So that this por- 
tion of the Old Testament may 
be considered as an epitome 
of all the sacred history, but 
more especially from the origin 
of the Jewish nation to their 
return from the first captivity ; 
embracing a period or nearly 
3500 years. The first book 
traces the rise and propagation 
of the children of Israel, from 
Adam, together with a circum- 
stantial account of the reign 
and transactions of David : the 
second continues the narra- 
tive ; relates the progress and 



CIIU 

dissolution of the kingdom of 
Judea, (apart from Israel,) to 
the year of the return of the 

Seopl e from E aby lo n . Samuel, 
jngs, and Chronicles should 
be read and compared together, 
as they relate substantially the 
same histories, though with dif- 
ferent degrees of particularity, 
and with different means of 
information : so that the whole 
contains but one history , and 
what is obscure or defective in 
one part mav be explained or 
supplied in another. 

CHRYSOLITE. (Rev. xxi. 
20.) This was anciently a ge- 
neral name for all precious 
stones in which a golden or 
yellow colour was prevalent. 
It more particularly denoted 
a stone resembling in colour 
the modern topaz. The stone 
now called chrysolite is green, 
tinged with yellow. It Is not 
very valuable, is seldom found 
larger than a buck-shot, and 
comes chiefly from the Levant. 
CHRYSOPRASUS. (Rev.xxi. 
20.) A species of the beryl, found 
in Brazil and Ceylon, and in 
some parts of the United 
States. 

CHUB. (Ezek. xxx.5.) From 
the connexion of this word, it 
is presumed to have been an 
Ethiopian tribe or province. 

CHUN, (1 Chron. xviii. 8,) 
called Berothai in 2 Sam. viii. 
8; and Berothah, in Ezek. 
xlvii. 16. 

CHURCH. (Matt. xvi. 18.) 
This word is variously used by 
the sacred writers,but its import 
is generally to be inferred from 
its connexion. It may be suf- 
ficient to notice particularly 
two uses of the term. 

Sometimes it denotes simply 
an assembly of persons for any 
purpose, (Acts xix. 41 ;) but in 
the New Testament it is ap- 
plied particularly to Christians 
as a body or community. (Acts 
ii. 47.) It is also applied to the 
people of God in all asres of the 
world, whether Jews 'or Chris- 



CHU 

tians. (Acts vii. 38; xii. 



1, 



Eph. iii. 21 ; v. 25.) For al- 
though there have been two 
dispensations, viz. that of the 
law by Moses, and that of the 
gospel by Jesus Christ ; yet the 
religion of the Bible is, and 
ever has been, and ever will 
be one religion ; whether they 
lived before or after the coming 
of Christ, true believers are all 
one in Christ Jesus. (Gal. iii 
28.) Of this church or company 
of the redeemed, the Lord Jesus 
Christ is now the head, and the 
church is therefore called the 
body, (Col. i. 18. 24,) and com- 
prises the redeemed who have 
gone to heaven as well as 
those who are or will be en the 
earth. (Heb. xii. 23.) 

Particular portions of the 
whole body of Christians are 
also called the church, as the 
church at Jerusalem, at Co- 
rinth, &c. (Acts viii. 1. 1 Cor. 
i. 2 ; iv. 17.) 

As the incarnation, death, 
resurrection, and reigning of' 
Christ in heaven, constitute 
him the founder and head cf 
the church as it now exists, 
he is compared to "the chief' 
corner-stone-'' in the building, 
(Eph. ii. 20.) on whom the 
whole structure is dependent. 
For this purpose God "hath 
put all things under his feet, 
and given him to be the head 
over all things to the church, 
which is his body, the fulness 
of him that filleth all in all." 
(Eph. i. 22.) 

The figurative laminate 
which is employed by Christ 
himself, as well as by his 
apostles, to denote the nature 
of his relations to the church 
(as composed of all true be- 
lievers.) and its relations to 
him, are cf the most significant 
character. Some of them have 
been intimated above; others 
are, that of husband and wife, 
(Eph. v. 30—32 ;) a vine and its 
branches, (John xv. 1—6;) and 
a shepherd and his flock, (John 
160 



CIL 

X. 11.) And it is generally sup- 
posed that Solomon's Song is a 
highly figurative and poetical 
illustration of the mutual love 
of Christ and the people of his 
church in all age3. 

In modern times, the word is 
applied to various associations 
of Christians, united by a com- 
mon mode of faith or form of 
government, as the Episcopal 
church, the Baptist church, the 
Moravian church, &c. 

CHURL. (Isa. xxxii. 5. 7. 
Comp. 1 Sam. xxv. 3. 10, 11. 
17, with passage in Isaiah.) 

CHURN. (See Butter.) 

CHUSHAN-RISHATHAIM. 
(Judg. iii. 8—10.) A king of 
Mesopotamia} and an oppress- 
or of the Israelites. Othniel, 
Caleb's nephew, delivered 
them from his dominion. 

CIELED. (2 Chron. iii. 5.) 
CIELING. (1 Kings vi. 15.) 
Eastern floors and ceilings 
were just the reverse of ours. 
Their cielings were of wood, 
painted, (Jer. xxii. 14 ;) ours 
are of plaster ; their floors 
were of plaster or some sort of 
tiles, and ours of wood. Some 
public buildings in Europe are 
cieled with wood, and we 
sometimes see wooden ciel- 
ings in our own country. 

CILICIA. (Acts xxi. 39.) A 
province in the south-eastern 
district of Asia Minor, lying on 
the northern coast, at the east- 
ern extremity of the Mediter- 
ranean sea. Its capital city was 
Tarsus, the birth-place of Paul. 
The synagogue of" them ofCi- 
lieiaf J (Acts vi. 9,) was a place 
of Jewish worship in Jerusalem, 
appropriated to the use of Jews 
who might be at Jerusalem 
from the province of Cilicia. 
A similar custom in modern 
times is the fitting up of public 
houses to accommodate stran- 
gers from particular States or 
countries. Paul, being of this 
province, was probably a mem- 
ber of this synagogue, and 
perhaps one of the defeated 
14* 



CIR 

opposers and controvertists of 
Stephen. (Comp. Acts vi. 10 ; 
vii. 58.) 

CINNAMON. (Sol. Song iv. 
14.) A well known aromatic, 
produced from the inner bark 
of a tree which grows chiefly 
in Ceylon; and being peeled 
off, and cut into strips, curls up, 
in the form in which it is usu- 
ally seen. The cinnamon tree 
is a species of the laurel. Cin- 
namon was one of the ingre- 
dients of the holy oil, (Ex. xxx. 
23,) and was probably an ar- 
ticle of commerce in ancient 
Babylon. (Rev. xviii. 13.) 

CINNERETH, CINNE- 
ROTH. (See Chinnereth.) 

CIRCLE (Isa. xl. 22) means, 
in this passage, the line within 
which the earth revolves, and 
figuratively describes a posi- 
tion from which every part of 
its surface can be seen. In 
Prov. viii. 27, the same word 
is rendered compass, and de- 
notes the boundary or mound 
within which the waters are 
restrained. The Creator is re- 
presented as marking out the 
habitation of the vast expanse 
of waters, with the same ease 
with which a designer or 
draftsman delineates the plan 
of a building or an estate. 

CIRCUIT. (Job xxii. 14.) A 
circular path or route. (1 Sam. 
vii. 16.) In the passage from 
Job, God is figuratively repre- 
sented as confining his pre- 
sence to the high heavens. 
<Comp. ver. 11, 12, with ver. 
13, 14.) In Psalm xix. 6, the 
circuit of the sun is represented 
as extending from one end of 
heaven to the other, or from 
east to west. 

CIRCUMCISED. (Gen. xvii. 
10.) CIRCUMCISION. (John 
vii. 22.) Circumcision was a 
remarkable rite or ceremony 
of the Jewish religion, which 
consisted in cutting around the 
flesh of the foreskin of all 
males, on the eighth day after 
their birth. This" rite was esta 
lfil 



CIS 

blished as the token of God's 
covenant with Abraham, (Gen. 
xvii. 9—14,) who immediately 
subjected himself and all his 
family to its observance. The 
precept of circumcision was re- 
newed to Moses, (Ex. xii. 44. 
Lev. xii. 3. John vii. 22, 23;) 
requiring that all should sub- 
mit to it who would partake 
of the paschal sacrifice. And 
the Jews have always been 
very scrupulous in its obser- 
vance, though it was omitted 
in their journey through the 
wilderness for obvious rea- 
sons. Many other nations have 
adopted the rite ; and it is the 
chief ceremony of initiation 
into the religion of Moham- 
med, though it is regarded only 
as a traditionary precept, and 
is not performed till the child 
is five or six years old. The 
instrument used for this pur- 
pose was a knife, a razor, or 
even a sharp stone. (Ex. iv. 
25. Josh. v. 3.) 

The design of this require- 
ment obviously was, to fix upon 
the persons of all the natural 
descendants of Abraham a dis- 
tinguishing mark, separating 
them from all the rest of the 
world. As this rite was pecu- 
liar to the Jews, they are call- 
ed the circumcision, and the 
Gentiles the uncircumcision. 
(Rom. iv. 9.) 

The terms uncircumci3ed and 
uncircumcision are also used to 
denote impurity or wickedness 
generally; and to circumcise 
the heart was to become trac- 
table and docile. (Ex. vi. 12. 
30. Jer. iv. 4; vi. 10; ix. 26. 
Ezek. xliv. 7. Acts vii. 51.) 
Jews who renounced Judaism, 
under the Roman persecution, 
sometimes endeavoured to 
erase the mark of circumci- 
sion ; and probably Paul may 
allude to this, 1 Cor. vii. 18. 
(See Covenant, Concision.) 

CISTERN. (Prov. v. 15.) The 
face of the country, and the pe- 
culiarity of the climate, made 



CIT 

cisterns indispensable in Ju- 
dea. They were generally, if 
not universally, private pro- 
perty. (Num. xxi. 22.) Some 
were formed by merely exca- 
vating the earth; others were 
covered reservoirs, into which 
the water was conducted, and 
others still were lined with 
wood, or cement, or hewn out 
of the rock with great labour, 
and ornamented with much 
skill. When the pits were 
empty, there was a tenacious 
mire at the bottom, and they 
were used as the places of the 
most cruel and extreme pun- 
ishments. It was into such a 
pit probably that Joseph was 
cast. (See also Ps. xl. 2. Jer. 
xxxviii. 6.) Large cisterns are 
now found in Palestine, at in- 
tervals of fifteen or twenty 
miles. One oi' them is describ- 
ed by a modern traveller to be 
six hundred and sixty feet long 
by two hundred and seventy 
broad. These cisterns were 
the chief dependence of the 
people for water; hence the 
force of the alius ' 
(See Conduit.) 

CITY. (Gen. iv. 17.) li is 
not very easy to determine by 
what the Tews distinguished 
villages from towns, and 
towns from cities. Probably, 
at first, a number of tents 
and cottages formed a vil- 
lage. They were brought 
together Dy» family relation- 
ship, by local attractions, or 
more probably, for mutual de 
fence against more powerful 
clans or tribes. When their si 
tuation became insecure, they 
began to protect themselves by 
a ditch or hedge, or perhaps a 
wall. The advancement irom 
this rude state, to the fortified 
towns and cities of ancient 
days, was easy and rapid Some 
have supposed that cities were 
always walled, (Num. xiii. 2S;j 
hut there is no evidence of this 
We know they were often (if 
not always) fortified, and man* 
162 



CIT 

of them were very populous, j 
The streets were narrow, so ; 
that, in some of them, (as we 
are told,) loaded camels could ; 
not pass each other ; and even I 
at this day, in Alexandria and j 
Cairo, mats are spread across 
the streets, from house to house, 
for shade. 

We know, however, that 
many of them were spacious. 
Sometimes, in Asiatic cities, 
a broad street, or a section of 
it, is covered for the accommo- 
dation of merchants or trades- 
men, and such places are 
called Bazaars ; and the pro- 
minent branch of business 
transacted there gives the 
name to the street; as, the 
woollen drapers, coppersmiths, 
&c. Around the gates of cities 
was the principal' concourse of 
people, (Neh. viii. 1. Job xxix. 
7;) and therefore these stations 
were desirable for booths or 
stalls, for the sale of merchan- 
dise. (2 Kings vii. 1.) These 
square or open places are pro- 
bably intended in 2 Chron. 
xxxii. 6, and Neh. iii. 16 ; viii. 
1. 3. Some cities were adorned 
with open squares and large 
gardens. One-third of the city 
of Babylon, we are told, was 
occupied with gardens ; and 
Cesarea, Jerusalem, Antioch, 
and other of the largest cities 
were paved. 

Fenced Citv, (2 Kings x. 2,) 
or Defenced Cities. (Isa. 
xxxvi. 1.) A fortified city. To 
build a city, and to fortify or 
fence it, in the oriental idiom, 
mean the same thing. The 
fencing, or fortification, was 
usually with high walls, and 
wat ch-towers upon them. (Deut. 
iii. 5.) The walls of fortified 
cities were formed, in part at 
least, of combustible materials, 
(Amos i. 7. 10. 14,) the gates be- 
ing covered with ihick plates of 
iron or brass. (Ps. cvii. 16. 
Isa. xlv.2. Actsxii. 10.) There 
was also within the city a cita- 
del or tower, to which the in- 



CIT 

habitants fled when the city 
itself could not be defended. 
(Judg. ix. 46—52.) These were 
often upon elevated ground, 
and were entered by a flight of 
steps. (See Gate.) 

At the time when Abraham 
came into the land of Canaan, 
there were already in exist- 
ence numerous towns, which 
are mentioned in the book of 
Genesis ; Sodom, Gomorrah, 
Zeboim, Admah, Bela, Hebron, 
and Damascus. This laot is 
truly venerable, as it is beyond 
doubt the oldest city in the 
world. The spies who were 
sent over Jordan brought back 
an account of well "fortified 
cities. In the book of Joshua, 
we read of no less than six 
hundred towns, of which the 
Israelites took possession.— 
When the city of Ai was ta- 
ken, Us inhabitants, who were 
put to the sword, amounted to 
12,000, (Josh. viii. 16. 25 ;) and 
we are told that Gibeon was a 
still greater city. (x. 2.) It is 
commonly calculated that, in 
Europe, one-third or one-fourth 
of a nation is comprised in 
cities and towns. Reckoning 
tile Hebrews, then, at 3,000,00$ 
it would give about 1250 foi 
the average population of the 
towns; and, for greater safety 
it is probable that half the 
inhabitants dwelt in towns. 
Now in Gibeah (Judg. xx. 15? 
there were seven 'hundred 
. men who bore arms, and 
| of course, not less than 300(1 
j inhabitants. By a similar cab 
! culation, we conclude that the 
I forty-eight cities of the Levites 
' contained each about 1,000 
! souls. In the time of David, 
| the population of Palestine 
i was between five and six mil- 
| lions ; and we may_ suppose 
; that the towns and cities were 
j proportionably increased. On 
I the great annual festivals, Je- 
rusalem must have presented 
a sublime spectacle of count 
! less multitudes, when all the 
i<3 



CIT 

toales of the nation were re- 
quired to be there assembled. 
On such times the city itself 
was insufficient to contain the 
host of Israel, and thousands 
encamped around its outskirts. 
After the return from the Baby- 
lonish captivity, the population 
of the towns may have been 
inconsiderable; but the sub- 
sequent increase was most ra- 
pid, so that in the time of 
losephus, the small villages 
of Galilee contained 15,000 In- 
habitants, and the larger 
towns 50,000. At the same 
period, Jerusalem was four 
miles in circuit, and had a 
population of 150,000. The 
same author tells us, that un- 
der Cestius, the number of 
paschal lambs was 256,500, 
which would give an amount 
of about 2,000,000 attending 
the passover. At the time of 
the fatal siege of Jerusalem, 
more than a million of persons 
were shut in by the Romans ; 
so that the space included by 
the four miles must have been 
remarkably economized. 

City of David. (1 Chron. xi. 
5.) A section in the southern 
part of Jerusalem ; embracing 
mount Zion, where a fortress 
of the Jebusites stood. David 
reduced the fortress, and built 
a new palace and city, to 
which he gave his own name. 
(See Biblical Antigiuities, 
vol ii. pp. 62,63; and Selu- 
miel, pp. 50, 51, both by Am. 
S. S. Union.) Bethlehem, the 
native town of David, is also 
called,from that circumstance, 
the city of David. (Luke ii. 11.) 

City of God (Ps. xlvi. 4) 
was one of the names of an- 
cient Jerusalem, and its ap- 
propriateness is evident from 
Deut. xii. 5. 

Holy City. (Neh. xi. 1.) 
The sacredness of the temple 
extended itself in some mea- 
sure over the city, and hence 
Jerusalem itself was called the 
Holy City, and is so distin- 



C1T 

guished in the east at the pr* 
sent day. 

Cities of Refuge (Deut. 
xix. 7. 9. Josh. xx. 2. 7, 8) 
were six of the Levitical cities 
divinely appointed by the Jew- 
ish lav/ as asylums, to which 
those were commanded to 
flee, for safety and protection, 
who had been undesignedly 
accessary to the death of a 
fellow creature. The kinsmen 
of the deceased, or other per- 
son who might pursue to kill 
him, could not molest him in 
one of these cities, untu\his 
offence was investigated, and 
the judgment of the congrega- 
tion passed. If he was not 
within the provisions of the 
law, he was delivered to the 
avenger and slain. The cus- 
tom of blood revenge was deep- 
ly rooted among the Israelites, 
and continues among the Arabs 
to this day; and the institution 
of cities of refuire was wisely 
designed to check the violence 
of human passion. Several 
sections of the Jewish lawhave 
relation to this subject. For 
the size and situation of the 
cities, see Num. xxxv. 4,5. 14; 
the description of persons, and 
the manner of killing, in cases 
which entitled the slayer to 
protection, Num. xxxv. 15 — 23. 
Deut. xix. 4—11. For tie mode 
of ascertaining whether the 
offence was worthy of death, 
and the consequences of the 
judgment, see Num. xxxv. 24 
— 33 ; and for the rules to be 
observed by the manslaver, 
in order to avail himself of the 
benefit of the city of refuge, 
see Num. xxxv. 25—28. It is 
doubtful whether the trial of 
the manslayer was had at the 
city of refuge, or in the vicinity 
of the place where the offence 
occurred. Perhaps there were 
two processes; one introduc- 
tory to the other, as we have a 
preliminary examination to de- 
termine if the party accused 
shall be held to answer for his 
164 



CLE 

offence. This first process might 
have been at the city of refuge. 
The Jewish writers say that, at 
every cross-road, signs were 
erected in some conspicuous 
place, pointing to the cities of 
refuse, on which was inscribed, 
"Refuge, Refuge," which, 
with many other similar provi- 
sions, were designed to direct 
and facilitate the flight of the 
unhappy man who was pur- 
Sued by the avenger of blood. 
There were other sacred 
places, as it is supposed, parti- 
cularly the temple and thealtar 
of burnt-offerings. (Ex.xxi. 14. 
See Biblical Antiq,uities,vo1. 
i. ch. ix. § 5 ; and the Refuge. 
ch. i , both by Am. S. S.Union.j 

Cities with Suburbs. (Josh, 
xxi. 41, 42.) This expression 
is explained by reference to 
Num. xxxv. 1—5. (See Trea- 
sure-cities, Walls.) 

CLAUDA. (See Crete.) 

CLAUDIUS LYSIAS. (Acts 
xxiii. 26.) The chief captain 
or commander of a band of 
soldiers, stationed as a pub- 
lic guard over the temple. 
(John xviii. 12. Acts v. 26.) 
His conduct on the occasion 
of the uproaj: in Jerusalem, 
and his interposition for the 
protection of Paul, on two oc- 
casions where his life was in 
jeopardy, are creditable to his 
efficiency and humanity. (Acts 
xxi. xxii. xxiii.) 

CLAY. (Isa. xlv. 9.) This 
substance was used by the an- 
cients as it is by us. It was 
mixed by treading. (Isa. xli. 
25.) It was fashioned by the 
motion of a wheel or frame, 
(Jer. xviii. 3,) and was baked 
or burnt in a kiln. (Jer. xliii. 
9. For its figurative uses, see 
Natural History of the 
Bible, by Am. S. S. Union, 
pp. 80-83.) 

CLEAN and UNCLEAN. 
(Lev. x. 10.) These words are of 
frequent occurrence and obvi- 
ous meaning in the sacred 
writings; but it is in their pe- 



CLE 

culiar application, by the Jew- 
ish law, to persons, animals, 
and things, that they are now 
to be considered. 

In order to partake of the pri- 
vileges of the Jewish church, 
and to engage acceptably in 
its outward worship, the indi- 
vidual must not only be cir- 
cumcised, Dut he must be cere- 
monially clean; that is, he 
must be free from un cleanness. 
How the various kinds of un- 
cleanness were contracted, 
what time it continued, and 
what was the process of purifi- 
cation, we have particularly 
described, Lev. xi.~ xv. Num. 
xix.; and a very vivid and in- 
teresting sketch of the whole 
ceremony will be found in 
Biblical Antiquities, by Am. 
S. S. Union, vol. ii. ch. vii. 

The division of animals into 
clean and unclean existed be- 
fore the flood, (Gen. vii. 2,) and 
was probably founded upon 
the practice *of animal sacri- 
fice. Those animals only 
which divide the hoof and 
chew the cud were regarded 
as clean, (Lev. xi. 3, 4 ;) and 
the same chapter enumerates 
a variety of beasts, birds, rep- 
tiles, fishes, and things which 
are unclean. (See also Ex. 
xxii. 31 ; xxxiv. 15. 26. Deut. 
xiv. 21.) What was the design 
of these distinctions, and how 
they were abolished, may be 
learned with sufficient accu 
racy from a comparison of 
Scripture with Scripture. (Lev. 
xx.24— 26. Actsx.9— 16; xi. 1 
—4. 18—21. Heb.ix. 9—14.) It 
has been observed, that one 
object of these appointments 
may have been, to make the 
Jews suspicious of Gentile cus- 
toms and «ntertainments, and 
so induce tnem to abstain from 
all intercourse with them. Wo 
find in the New Testament 
that eating with the Gentiles 
was regarded as a peculiar 
aggravation of the offence of 
associating with them. (Matt 
165 



CLO 

Ix. 11. Acts xi. 3.) It may be 
remarked also, that some of 
the prohibited animals were 
unwholesome ; and the He- 
brews were at least taught by 
these strict regulations habitu- 
ally to regard their relation to 
God, and the necessity of ab- 
staining from every thing that 
should offend his infinite ho- 
liness, or involve the least 
appearance of pollution. It is 
very evident that the Jews 
would not worship animals 
that were set apart as un- 
clean, and still less would 
they worship those they ate ; 
so that, so far as the idol wor- 
ship of animals was concerned, 
it was very effectually guarded 
against. 
CLEOPAS. (See Alpheus.) 
CLOAK. (See Clothes.) 
CLOTH, LINEN. (See 

CLOTHES. (Matt. xxiv. 18.) 
The art of making cloth was 
known very early. The skins 
of animals supplied the place 
of cloth at first ; but we may 
suppose that spinning and nee- 
dle-work were so far perfected 
as to furnish cloth, of a coarse 
kind at least, at an early peri- 
od. (Ex. xxxv. 25. Judg. v. 30.) 
The beauty of dress consisted 
in the fineness and colour 
of the cloth. (See Colours, 
Sackcloth.) 

The Asiatic modes of dress 
are nearly the same from age 
to age ; and hence much light 
is thrown, by modern obser- 
vation, on the subject of the 
clothing of the Hebrews. We 
may suppose their ordinary 
dress to have consisted of the 
inner garment, the outer gar- 
ment, a girdle, and sandals. 
One of the oldest and sim- 
plest garments was a strip of 
cloth tlmen or cotton) bound 
around the loins with a string 
or band, and reaching to the 
knees. It is the only garment 
of the Arabs. Such a strip ap- 
pears as the inner garment 



CLO 




of the dress,in the fangcSng*r II 
This is so slight a dress, tteri, 
those who have ro other are 
said to be naked. (Isa. xx. 
2 — 4. John xxi. 7.) In its im- 
proved state, it »vas larger 
and longer, and supplied with 
sleeves. The coat was some- 
times woven in a loom, and 
had no seams. (Ex. xxviii. 




CLO 

82. John xix. 23.) The phrase 
coats and garments (Acts ix. 
39) means inner and outer <rar- 
ments. The word hosen (Dan. 
iii. 21) is supposed to designate 
an under garment, not unlike 
trousers. These Avere worn by 
the Persian kings, and are 
represented in the preceding 
figure. 

~The inner garment was at 
first single, as above described; 
soon a strip of cloth was 
thrown over the shoulder, and 
covered the arm. It was sewed 
at the sides, and extended to 
the knees. This is now a com- 




CLO 

mon dress in Arabia. Next 
came sleeves ; first to the el- 
bows, and then to the wrists. 
This garment would resemble 
a shirt, except at the neck. 
The sleeves of this garment, 
among the Arabs, are wide and 
open, and easily thrown off. To 
make bare the arm is a lively 
and beautiful figure, represent- 
ing the removal of all encum- 
brances from the most powerful 
limb of the body, that it may be 
put forth in its utmost strength. 
(Isa. Iii. 10.) The following 
cuts represent the garments 
and sleeves just described. 




Girdles. When the gar- 
ments came to be made long 
and flowing, they were con- 
fined around the loins with 
girdles, which not only served 
to bind them to the body, but 
also to hold them when tucked 
ip. This increased the grace- 
fulness of their appearance, 
and prevented them from in- 
terfering with labour or motion. 
Hence, to gird up the loins 
became a significant figurative 
expression, denoting readiness 



for service, activity,and watch, 
fulness ; and to loose the gir- 
dle was to give way to repose 
and indolence. (2 Kings iv. 29 
Job xxxviii. 3. Isa. v. 27. Jer.t, 
17. Luke xii. 35. John xxi. 7. 
Acts xii. 8. 1 Pet. i. 13.) This 
girdle was a belt or band of 
cord, cloth, or leather, six 
inches or more in breadth, 
with a buckle affixed to loosen 
or draw it closer. Travellers 
say that eastern girdles of this 
day are wide enough for a mat 
167 



CLO 

or covering, and that, when of 
this width, they are plaited in 
folds. 

Sometimes the girdle was 
made of linen, (Ezek. xvi. 10,) 
and was often adorned with 



CLO 

rich and beautiful ornaments 
of metal3, precious stones, and 
embroidery. The form? and 
plan of the girdle are seen in 
the following cuts. 




The girdle was used to carry 
weapons, (2 Sam. xx. 8,) mo- 
ney, and other things usually 
carried in the pocket. The 
Arabs carry their daggers in 
It, pointing to the right side ; 
and, through all the east, it is 
the place for the handkerchief, 
smoking materials, and the 
implements of one's profes- 
sion. (See Inkhorn.) The 
word translated purses, (Matt. 
x. 9,) is in other places trans- 
lated girdle. The girdle not 
only protected the body, but 
braced it with strength and 
firmness. The girdle is sup- 
posed by some to have been a 
chief article or appendage of 
the armour : hence, to have it 
continually fastened upon the 
person is emblematical of great 
fidelity and vigilance. And 
Because it encircled the body 
very closely, the perfect ad- 



herence of the people of God 
to his service is figuratively 
illustrated by the cleaving of 
the girdle to a man's loins, 
(Jer. xiii. 11.) In the same 
view, righteousness and faith- 
fulness are called by the pro- 
phet (Isa. xi. 5) the girdle of 
the promised Messiah. 

The outer or upper gar- 
ment, (Matt. xxi. 8,) or cloak, 
(Matt. v. 40,) was probably a 
square or oblong strip of cloth, 
two or three yards long, and 
perhaps two yards wide. Such 
a garment is now worn by the 
Arabs. It was simply wrapped 
round the body, as a protec- 
tion from the weather; and, 
when occasion required, it 
might be thrown over the shoul- 
der and under the arm, some- 
what like an Indian blanket, 
and be fastened with clasps or 
buckles, two corners being in 
108 



CLO 

front, and were called skirts, 
and were often used as aprons 
sometimes are vmong us. (Ex. 
xii.34. 2 Kings iv 39. Lukevi. 
38.) The Arabs throw this gar- 
ment over the left shoulder 
and under the right arm, and 
thus cover the whole body, 
leaving only the right arm ex- 
posed. This garment was the 
poor man's bed-clothing. (Ex. 
xxii. 26, 27. Job xxii. 6 ; xxiv. 
7.) This was probably the 
cloak and the coat or linen 
garment to which reference is 
had, (Matt. v. 40,) and, in a 
more ample form, was called 
a robe, (Luke xxiii. 11,) or d- 
mantle. (2 Kings ii. 8.) It is 
supposed that the fringes, with 
the blue riband, (Num. xv. 38,) 
were placed on the corners or 
borders of this garment. (Matt, 
xxiii. 5.) They are seen still 
on ancient figures, in the fol- 
lowing form : 




In winter, fur dresses, or 
•kins, were worn, as at the 
present day, in eastern coun- 
tries. A dress of sheep or goat- 
skins is perhaps meant in 2 
Kings i. 8 ; and in Zech. xiii. 
15 



CLO 

4. The common skins of this 
kind were worn by the poorest 
and meanesi people, (Heb. xi, 
37;) but the far dresses were 
sometimes very costly, and 
constituted a part of the royal 
apparel. The word translated 
robe (Jon. iii. 6) is supposed 
to mean a fur garment. The 
sheep's clothing (Matt. \n. 15) 
was considered emblematical 
of innocence and gentleness, 
and was the disguise of the 
false prophets, who were, in 
truth, fierce and ravenous as 
wolves, for the blood of souls. 
The word translated sheets 
(Judg. xiv. 12, 13) is supposed 
to denote some kind of garment 
worn next to the skin, and pro- 
bably the same which is spoken 
of, under the general n&mejine 
linen, in Prov. xxxi. 24. Jja. iiL 
23; and Mark xv. 46^ (See 
Sheets.) 

The linen cloth mentioned 
Mark xiv. 51, was probably an 
article of bed-clothing, caught 
up in haste, and thrown around 
the body. Some suppose that 
this young man was following 
our Saviour, while his professed 
disciples were fleeing in all di- 
rections, and that those around 
him supposed him to be one of 
his adherents, and so laid hold 
upon him. If this* view is re- 
jected, the only way of account- 
ing for the introduction of an in- 
cident so entirely unconnect- 
ed, as it seems to be, with the 
narrative, or at least unessen- 
tial to it, is to regard it as 
illustrative of the confusion 
and excitement which attend- 
ed the arrest of our divine 
Redeemer by the lawless rab- 
ble. The Arabs use the same 
garment for a complete dress 
by day, which serves them for 
a bed and covering by night. 
(Deut. xxiv. 13.) Such also is 
the use of the Highlander^ 
plaid. (See Sheets.) 

The common dress of females 
was probably as cheap and sim- 
ple as that of males. A loose 
169 



CLO 

flowing outer garment, with a ] 
belt or zone upon the waist, 
and a veil, was probably the 
principal dress. The veil or 
hood was considered a token 
of modesty in unmarried wo- 
men, (Gen. xxiv. 65,) and of 
subjection and reverence in 
those that were married. (1 
Cor. xi. 3—10.) The upper gar- 
ment or robe was often made 
f ull ; and, when tucked up, the 
front of it would answer the 
purpose of a large apron; which 
is one meaning of the word 
translated veil. (Ruth. iii. 15.) 
The Arabs put their hykes or 
cloaks to a like use. 

Handkerchiefs. (Acts xix. 
12.) These were common 
among the Hebrews ; and tra- 
vellers inform us that the peo- 
ple df eastern nations at this 
day carry them in their hands, 
and that they are often beauti- 
fully wrought with the needle. 

Aprons, (Gen. iii. 7. Acts xix. 
12,) we have no reason to doubt, 
were, in form and purpose, 
substantially like those in com- 
mon use at the present day. 

Sandals and shoes. (Deut. 
xxv. 9. Mark Vi. 9.) The san- 
dal was at first a flat piece of 
wood or leather, suited to the 
sole of the foot, and bound 



CLO 

are still in common use in 
many countries of the east: 




upon it by straps or strings. 
The fastening w^as called'" a 
latchet. (Gen. xiv. 23.) Per- 
haps the simplest form of the 
sandal is seen in the preceding 
cut, from ancient Egyptian 
monuments. 

We subjoin other forms of 
leather sandals, and such as 




The common sandal is made 
of a piece of hide, from the 
neck of a camel, and some- 
times of several thicknesses 
sewed together. It is fastened 
by two straps, one of which 
passes between the great and 
second toe, and the other 
around the heel and over the 
instep. Hence it appears that 
the shoe was easily slipped off, 
and that it afforded no protec- 
tion from the dust and dirt. 
Sandals were never worn in 
the huuse, as it was considered 
a violation of eood manners. 
The taking off the shoes was a 
mark of reverence shown to 
exalted persons and sacred, 
places. At the doors of Hindoo 
pagodas, sandals are collected 
in great numbers ; and the 
same ceremony is required by 
the Turks, even of Christians 
and strangers. 

The necessity of washing the 
feet after every \fralk is obvi- 
ous, and it was the first token 
of hospitality to supply water 
for this purpose. (Gen. xxiv. 
32. Luke \ii. 44.) To unloose 
the straps or latchets was the 
170 



CLO 

business of a menial, (Mark i. 
7,) as was also the washing of 
the feet. (John xiii. 1—16.) 

The wooden sandal is much 
worn in Arabia, Judea, and 
Egypt. It has a raised heel 
and toe, as represented in the 
following cuts; and, though 




often expensive and neat, it 
was usually a cheap, coarse, 
and very clumsy article. 

Mitre, (Ex. xxxix. 28,) or 
bonnet, (Ex. xxviii. 40,) seems 
to have been part of the sacred 
dress only. The Arab women 
wear a cap of folded cloth, 
not unlike the modern turban. 
Bonnets are mentioned as a 
part of female dress, (Isa. iii. 
20;) but it is not known, at 
this day, with any certainty, 
of what material the Jewish 
Donnets were made, nor the 
shape or mode of wearing 
them. 

Change of raiment or gar- 
ments. (2 Kings v. 5. 22.) It is 
customary in the east, at this 
day, to make presents of gar- 
ments ; and the Asiatic princes 
keep changes of raiment ready 
made, for "presents to persons 



CLO 

of distinction, whom they wish 
particularly to honour. The 
simple and uniform shape of 
the garments make this cus* 
torn practicable, and accounts 
also for the change of one per- 
son's dress for another's, which 
is mentioned in sacred his- 
tory. (Gen. xxvii. 15. 1 Sam. 
xviii. 4. See also Deut. xxii. 
5. Luke xv. 22.) 

Changeable suits of apparel 
(Tsa. iii. 22) are supposed to 
have been made of some thin 
fabric, ornamented with em 
broidery, and worn over gar- 
ments of various colours ; of 
which, beautiful representa- 
tions are to be seen in Indian 
paintings. 

Coatof many colours. (Gen. 
xxxvii. 3.) This was regarded 
as of peculiar value. A travel- 
ler mentions, that the noble 
families among the Turks at 
Haleb clothe their children, 
when small, in loose coats of 
fine texture, and woven of va- 
riegated threads; and speaks 
of them as very beautiful. 

Among the appendages to 
Jewish dress were jewels of 
gold and silver,bracelets,neck- 
laces, ear-rings, &c. Nose and 
ear-rings are very common in 
the east. A celebrated travel- 
ler (Chardin) says he never 
saw a woman or girl in Arabia 
or Persia without a ring in the 
left nostril. The thread (Gen. 
xiv. 23) is supposed by some 
to mean the thread on which 
precious stones were hung for 
neck-chains. (Ezek. xvi. 11.) 
Bracelets were worn on th 
arms by both sexes, (2 Sam. i. 
10,) and by females upon the 
leg also. (Isa. iii. 19.20.) Women 
in Persia and Arabia wear 
rings about the ankle, full of 
little bells. (Isa. iii. 16.) Hand- 
mirrors, made of molten brass, 
and finely polished, were also 
a common accompaniment of 
female dress, (Ex. xxxviii. 8 
Isa. iii. 23,) and were either 
carried in the hand or sus- 
pended from the girdle or neck. 



CLO 

In later times, these mirrors 
were made of polished steel. 

All the Grecian and Roman 
women, without distinction, 
wore their hair long. On this 
they lavished all their art, 
disposing it in various forms, 
and embellishing it with many 
ornaments. In ancient me- 
dals and statues we see the 
plaited tresses, interwoven 
with expensive and fantastic 
decorations, so pointedly con- 
demned by the apostle, as 
proofs of a vain mind, and as 
inconsistent with the modesty 
and decorum of Christian wo- 
men. (1 Tim. ii. 9. 10. 1 Pet. 
iii. 1.3,4. See Phylacteries.) 

We are told (Deut. viii. 4) 
that the raiment of the He- 
brews did not grow old during 
their journey of forty years ; 
and some have supposed that 
it was literally so, and that the 
clothes of the children were 
miraculously made to grow 
with their growth. The better 
opinion seems to be, that they 
were so provided with clothes 
and other necessaries, as to be 
comfortable and decent, in 
their external appearance, du- 
ring all that tedious journey. 
(See Journeying s of Israel, 
and Omar, by the Am. S. S. 
Union, pp. 23—25.) 

Rending clothes. (See 
Rend.) 

CLOSET. (See Dwelling.) 

CLOUD, pillar of. (Ex. 
xiii. 21.) When the people of 
Israel commenced their march 
through the wilderness, God 
caused a cloud, resembling a 
pillar, to pass before the camp. 
In the day-time, it was like a 
cloud, dark and heavy, and in 
the night bright and shining, 
like fire; though some have sup- 
posed there were two clouds, 
one to shade, and the other to 
give light to the camp. It also 
eerved as a signal for rest or 
motion. (Num. ix. 17—23.) 

CLOUTED. (Josh. ix. 5.) 
Worn out and patched. 



COC 

CNIDUS. (Acts xxvii. 7.) A 
city of Asia Minor, situated on 
the point of a peninsula of the 
same name, and lying north- 
west of the island of Rhodes. 
COAT. (See Clothes.) 
COCK.(SeeCocK-cRowiNG.) 
COCKATRICE.(Jer.viii.l7.) 
A harmless species of lizard. 
The word in the Scriptures, 
however, evidently denotes a 
very venomous reptile. (Isa- 
xiv. 29.) Some have inferred 
from Isa. lix. 5, that it was of 
the viper tribe. Others have 
supposed the hooded snake is 
intended, which is known 
among the Portuguese as the 
most venomous of serpents. 
Naturalists tell us that Its bite 
is always incurable, and proves 
fatal usually within an hour. 
This serpent is, however, un- 
known in Judea and the adja- 
cent countries. In the passage 
from Jeremiah above cited, al- 
lusion is made to the unyield- 
ing cruelty of the Chaldean 
armies under Nebuchadnez- 
zar, who were appointed mi- 
nisters of divine vengeance 
on the Jewish nation fcr 
their manifold and aggravated 
sins. 

COCK-CROWING. (Mark, 
xiii. 35.) A name given to the 
watch of the night, from mid- 
night to daybreak. Some per- 
plexity has been occasioned 
by the difference between the 
expressions in Matt. xxvi. 34, 
" before the cock crow, thou 
shalt deny me thrice," and 
Mark xiv. 30, " before the cock 
crow twice, thou shalt deny 
me thrice." To reconcile this 
seeming variance, it is stated 
that there were two cock- 
crowings ; one soon after mid- 
night, and the other about 
three o'clock ; and that the last, 
which was the signal of ap- 
proaching day, was spoken of 
as the cock-crowing. To this 
it has been answered, that only 
one hour elapsed between the 
denials. (Luke xxii. 59.) Thij 
172 



COL 

is true of the second and third ; 
but there seems to be no au- 
thority for saying it of the first 
and second. It seems most j 
natural to suppose, that the 
phraseology in both cases was 
substantially the same, and 
that the Jews understood, by 
the phrase, " before the cock 
crowr," the same time which 
was denoted by the phrase, 
■' before the cock crow twice :" 
both referred to that cock- 
crowing which especially and 
most distinctly marked a 
watch or division of the night. 

COCKLE. (Job xxxi. 40.) 
This word, as we use it, de- 
notes a common wild plant, 
usually found in the borders of 
fields and among grain. The 
original perhaps refers to some 
offensive and poisonous weed ; 
but it is not necessary to sup- 
pose any thing more than a 
reference to noisome weeds 
generally. 

COFFIN. (See Bury.) 

COHORT. (See War.) 

COLLEGE. (2 Kings xxii. 
14., Perhaps a place of in- 
struction in or near the court 
of the temple, but more, proba- 
bly a range or block of build- 
ings in its vicinity. 

COLLOPS. (Job xv. 27.) 
Thick pieces of flesh. 

COLONY. (Actsxvi.12.) A 
city or province planted or 
occupied by Roman citizens, 
as Philippi. 

COLOSSE. (Col. i. 2.) A 
city of Phrygia in Asia Minor, 
on the river Lycus, (now the 
Gorduk.) About a year after 
Paul's epistle was written to 
the church at. this place, it 
was destroyed by an earth- 
quake. The former site of 
Colosse is now occupied by the 
castle and village of Chonos. 

COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO, 
was written by Paul, while he 
was a prisoner at Rome, about 
a. d. 61-62. It is probable that 
Epaphras, who is spoken of as 
the minister of Christ in that 
15* 



COL 

place, (Coi. i. 7,) came to Rome 
to consult Paul respecting 
some erroneous opinions that 
had been preached amons the 
Colo3sians, (Col. ii. 8— 23:) and 
Paul addressed this epistle to 
them for their instruction and 
admonition. The design and 
force of this epistle is seen by 
comparing it carefully with the 
epistle totheEphesians, which 
was written nearly at the same 
time. It is not improbable that 
Paul himself established the 
church at Colosse. (Acts xvi. 
6; xviii. 23.) 

COLOURS. (Gen. xxxvii. 3.) 
The art of colouring cloth seems 
to have attained to great perfec- 
tion among the Jews. 1 he ful- 
lers had a remarkable skill in 
imparting a splendidwhite,and 
this was considered the richest 
dress. (Esth. viii. 15. Mark ix. 
3. Rev. iii. 4, 5.) The royal 
apparel was usually of a blue 
or purple colour, and histo- 
rians say it was a perfect 
combination of the gayety of 
bright red with a sober, soft- 
ening shade of olive. The 
material with which the rich- 
est kind of this colour was 
given, is obtained from a shell- 
fish, and wa: 
scarce as to 
more precious than gold. (Luke 
xvi. 19.) The term purple 
was sometimes applied to any 
bright red colour, (comp. Matt. 
xxvii. 28, with Mark xv. 17 ;) 
and indeed it was probably the 
name of a whole class of dyes. 
Pliny gives us to understand 
that there were two kinds of 
shell-fish.which produced this 
dye, and that both were abun- 
dant on the Phenician and 
Mediterranean coast, but the 
excellence of the tint varied 
exceedingly. The colouring 
matter was found in a small 
vein, and the rest of the fish 
was useless. The most beauti- 
ful purple was dyed at Tyre. 

Scarlet or crimson was also 
used for the royal apparel. 
173 



, it is said, so 
be considered 



CON 

Lydia is said to have been a 
seller of purple, (Actsxvi. 14;) 
which may mean either that 
she kept the dye for sale, ur 
cloth of that colour. 

COMFORTER. (John xiv. 
16.) This word is used only by 
John. In four out of the five 
passages in which it occurs, it 
is applied to the Holy Ghost, 
and is peculiarly significant 
of our want of his office, viz. to 
impart hope and consolation to 
the true disciples of Christ, by 
exciting in their minds holy- 
desires and aspirations, and 
causing them to trust continu- 
ally, and without wavering, in 
his grace and love. In the re- 
maining passage, (1 John ii. 1,) 
it is translated advocate, and 
applied to our Saviour. 

COMMANDMENTS. (See 
Law.) 

COMMUNION. (1 Cor. x. 
16.) Intimate fellowship and 
communication ; such as is 
expressed in John xv. 1—7, 
andxvii. 10. 21—26. Rom. xii. 
4,5. 2 Cor. xiii. 14. Uohn i. 3. 
As the ordinance of the Lord's 
supper furnishes both the op- 
portunity and the motive (John 
xiii. 34; xv. 12) to this mutual 
love and confidence, it is call- 
ed, by way of distinction, the 
communion. 

CONCISION. (Phil. iii. 2.) 
The Egyptians, Edomiies, and 
others practised a partial or 
imperfect circumcision. It was 
a mere cutting, and not to be 
regarded as a seal of the cove- 
nant, or as, in any sense, a 
compliance with the law. The 
apostle denominates persons 
who do this the concision, — 
which implies in itself, and 
from its connexion, that they 
degraded themselves, and were 
to "be shunned as false and 
corrupt. 

CONCUBINE. (2Sam.xvi. 
22.) By the Jewish law, a 
lawful wife, of a secondary or 
inferior rank; and, conse- 
quently neither regarded nor 



CON 

treated as the matron or mis- 
tress of the house. Concubines 
were not betrothed or wedded 
with the usual solemnities and 
ceremonies which attended 
marriage. They had no share 
1 in the family government, and 
I the children of the wife were 
! preferred to the child of the con- 
i cubine, in the distribution of 
j the inheritance. Where poly- 
! gamy was tolerated, — as it was 
! among the Jews,— the permis- 
\ sion of concubinage would not 
seem so much at war with the 
interests and preservation of 
society, as we know ii to be 
The gospel restores the sacred 
institution of marriage to hs 
original character, (Gen. ii. 24, 
Matt. xix. 5. 1 Cor. vii. 2.) and 
concubinage is ranked with 
fornication and adultery. (See 
j Biblical Antiquities, by Am. 
! S. S. Union, vol. i. ch. vi. § 1.) 
CONDEMNATION. (John 
iii. 19.) This term, in Hs ordi- 
I nary acceptation, describes the 
j state of a man who is not only 
! adjudged to be guilty, but has 
| had passed on him the sentence 
j of the lav.\ In modern prisons, 
j there is often found a ward 
i or apartment, appropriated to 
; such prisoners as have received 
'. their sentence, and are await- 
! ing its execution; and it is 
'. called the condemned ward. 
| The gospel regards all man- 
1 kind as offenders against God's 
' law. Their guilt islinquestion- 
| able, and the sentence is per- 
| manent and universally the 
same. The soul that sinneth, 
it shall die. (Ezek. xviii. 20.) 
There may be pardon or re- 
prieve, under human law, 
in consequence of the imper- 
fection of all human govern- 
ments and laws; but every 
thing in the condemnation of 
the sinner is perfectly just 
and right ; and injustice would 
be done, if he were not pun- 
ished just according to law. 
If his guilt can be removed, 
or cancelled, or taken from 
174 



CON 

him, it must be by a process 
which no finite mind could 
anticipate or conceive. This 
process the gospel makes 
known to us; and well is it 
called good tidings of great 
joy. (Comp. John iii. 19, and 
v.24. Rom.v.l6.18,andviii.l.) 
The effect of faith in Christ on 
the believer himself, is to place 
him in a state of justification 
before God. Nothing of this 
kind can possibly occur under 
human governments, nor can 
it be illustrated by any analo- 
gy. It is the great mystery of 
godliness. The believer feels 
ft, and rejoices and triumphs in 
it. To him, of course, Christ is 
precious. (IPet. i. 19; ii.4.7.) 
It is because of the absence of 
all resemblance or analogy 
between the divine dispensa- 
tion, in this case, and human 
laws and proceedings, that we 
find the words justify, justified, 
and justification, opposed to 
the terms condemn, condemn- 
ed, and condemnation. (Ex. 
xxiii. 7. Dent. xxv. 1. 1 Kings 
viii.31,32. Prov.xvii. 15. Matt, 
xii. 37. Rom. ii. 13; iii. 4; v. 
17,18; viii. 30. 33, 34.) 

CONDUIT, (Isa. xxxvi. 2,) 
or aqueduct, of the upper pool 
in the highway of the fuller 's 
field. (Comp. 2 Kings xx. 20. 
Neh. iii. 16. Isa. vii. 3, and 
xxii. 9, 11.) We know that the 
fountain of Siloah, or Gihon, 
which rises at the foot of 



CON 

mount Moriah, formed two 
pools, called the upper pool, 
(Isa. vii. 3,) or king's pool., 
(Neh. ii. 14,) and the lower 
pool. (Isa. xxii. 9.) One of 
these pools is mentioned John 
ix. 7. The aqueduct, which 
connected the upper pool with 
the fountain, or with the lower 
pool, or with the city, is called 
the conduit of the upper pool ; 
and, to make Rabshakeh's 
position still more certain, it 
is added, that he stood in the 
highway or street that led to 
the fuller's field. This was 
doubtless an enclosure in the 
vicinity of the soft water of 
the Gihon, appropriated to 
the drying and bleaching of 
clothes. ("See Siloam.) 

CONEY. (Deut. xiv. 7.) Pro- 
bably the animal now known 
as the ashkoko. Instead of 
holes, these animals seem to 
delight in the clefts of the 
rock. They are gregarious; 
and frequently several dozens 
of them sit upon the great 
stones at the mouths of caves, 
and warm themselves in the 
sun, or come out and enjoy 
the freshness of the evening. 
They do not stand upright 
upon their feet, but seem to 
steal along as in fear, their 
belly being close to the ground ; 
advancing a few steps at a 
time, and then pausing. They 
have' something very mild, 
feeble-like, and timid in theii 




CON 

deportment; are gentle, and 
easily tamed. 

The celebrated traveller 
Bruce says: "The coney is 
above all other animals so 
much attached to the rocks, 
that I never once saw him on 
the ground, or from among 
large stones in the mouth of 
caves, where is his constant 
residence. He lives in families 
or flocks. He is found in Judea, 
Palestine, and Arabia, and con- 
sequently must have been fa- 
miliar to Solomon. David de- 
scribes him very pertinently, 
and joins him to other animals 
perfectly known: 'the hills 
are a refuge for wild goats, 
and the rocks for the saphan? 
And Solomon says, ' that they 
are exceeding wise,' that they 
are 'but a leeble folk, yet 
make their houses in the 
rocks.' Now this, I think, very 
obviously fixes the coney to be 
the animal; for this weakness 
seems to allude to his feet, and 
how inadequate these are to 
dig holes in the rock, where 
yet, however, he lodges. From 
their tenderness, these are very 
liable to be excoriated or hurt ; 
notwithstanding which, they 
build houses in the rocks, more 
inaccessible than those of the 
rabbit, and in which they 
enjoy greater safety ; not by 
exertion of strength, — for they 
have it not,— but by their own 
sagacity and judgment." 
CONIAH. (See^EHOiACHiN.) 
CONSCIENCE (Acts xxiv. 
16) is that within us which 
judges of the moral character 
of our actions, and approves or 
censures, condemns or justi- 
fies us accordingly. (Rom. ii. 
15.) This universal tribunal 
is established in the breast of 
every man. It may be weak- 
ened, perverted, stupified, de- 
filed, and hardened, in various 
ways; and its decisions are 
more or less clear, just, and 
imperative, according to the 
degree of improvement in the 



COJN 

understanding and heart, and 
especially according to the 
degree in which its purity and 
sensitiveness have been pre- 
served and cultivated. (John 
viii. 9. Acts xxiii. 1 ; xxiv. 16. 
Rom. ix. 1, and 1 Tim. i. 5.) 

CONSECRATE, CONSE- 
CRATION. (Ex. xxxii. 29. 
Lev. vii. 37.) The tribe of 
Levi was consecrated to the 
priesthood with the most so- 
lemn and imposing ceremo- 
nies. (See Biblical Antiqui- 
ties, vol. ii. ch. iv. § 1, by Am. 
S. S. Union.) Vessels, (Josh.vi. 
19,) profits, (Mic. iv. 13,) 
fields, (Lev. xxvii. 28,) cattle, 
(2 Chron. xxix. 33,) individu- 
als, (Num. vi. 9—13. 1 Sam. i. 
11. 28,) and nations (Ex. xix. 6) 
were anciently consecrated or 
set apart to sacred purposes. 
(See Priest.) 

CONVERSION, (Acts xv. 3,) 
or turning from one state, 
pursuit, inclination, or direc- 
tion, to another. In the gospel 
use of the term, and apart 
from technical theology, it 
denotes that change in the 
dispositions, thoughts, desires, 
and objects of affection, which 
takes place in the heart of the 
sinner, when the Holy Spirit 
convinces him of his sinful- 
ness, and leads him, by His 
sacred influences, to hate sin, 
and to forsake every evil and 
false way, and, at the same 
time, persuades him to yield 
to the claims which God his 
Saviour justly and graciously 
makes to his heart and life. 
The same thing is signified by 
the term new birth, or regene- 
ration. The Scriptures de- 
scribe mankind as alienated 
from God; as having the 
understanding darkened and 
blinded, and as being dead in 
trespasses and sins. Hence 
the corresponding force and 
pertinency of the terms by 
which the change is described ; 
such as created, renewed^ 
(Eph. iv. 23, 24,) restored to 
176 



COR 

sight, (Eph. i. 18. Rev. iii. 18,) 
and raised from the, dead. 
(John v. 21. 24, and Eph. ii. 1.) 

COOS. (Acts xxi. I.) The 
name of a small island and 
city of Greece, twenty-five 
miles long and ten broad. It 
lies near the south-west point 
of Asia Minor, and about forty 
miles north-west of Rhodes. It 
was formerly noted for its fer- 
tility, and for its wines and 
Bilk-worms, as well as for being 
the birth-place of two eminent 
men, Apelles and Hippocrates. 
It is now called Stanchio, and 
is still famous for lemons and 
maples. 

COPING. (1 Kings vii. 9.) 
The top course or finish of a 
wall. It is usually of flat or 
semi-circular bricks or hewn 
etone, projecting beyond the 
face of the wall, and forming 
an ornament similar in effect 
to the capital of a column. 

COPPER. (Ezra viii. 27.) 
A well known metal, but not 
now (as it was once) precious 
as gold. The word translated 
copper in this passage is else- 
where rendered brass; and 
coppersmith (2 Tim. iv. 14) 
signifies a worker in brass. 
Perhaps the same name was 
given to both substances. (See 
Brass.) 

COR. (See Measures.) 

CORAL (Ezek. xxvii. 16) 
was an article ■* of Tyrian 
merchandise, and is well 
known as a marine production, 
found in almost every variety 
of shape and size, and some- 
times increasing to such an 
extent as to form the basis of 
islands, or to stretch out in 
dangerous reefs for many miles. 
It is capable of being worked 
up into beads, and other orna- 
ments ; for which use the red 
species is the most valuable. 
Job mentions it in connexion 
with pearls. (Job xxviii. 18.) 

CORBAN (Mark vii. 11) 
signifies a gift or thing conse- 
crated to God or his service. 



COR 

It seems the Jews permitted 
such an abuse to be made of 
this ceremony of consecration, 
that a child was permitted to 
deny the req uest of his parents, 
or withhold assistance from 
them in their distress, merely 
on the pretence that what they 
asked or needed was conse- 
crated to God. It would seem 
they sometimes exempted their 
whole substance from any con- 
tribution to the support of their 
parents ; and said, concerning 
any thing and every thing that 
could assist them, it is corban, 
or devoted to God. 

CORDS. (See Ropes.) 

CORIANDER SEED. (Ex. 
xvi.31.) The coriander plant 
is a native of China and the 
south of Europe, but natu- 
ralized in England and the 
United States. The seeds are 
globular, and, when dry, are 
pleasant to the taste and 
smell, and are often sold by 
confectioners incrusted with 
sugar. We are told that the 
particles of manna were 
shaped like coriander seed. 

TOR1NTH. (Acts xviii. 1.) 
A renowned and voluptuous 
city of Greece, about twenty- 
five miles west of Athens, in 
which Paul resided a year and 
a half, and where he founded 
the church to which he after- 
wards addressed two of his 
epistles. (See Life of Paul, 
by Am. S. S. Union, ch. xi.) 
Situated on the isthmus that 
separates the Egean from the 
Ionian sea, and possessing 
singular advantages for com- 
merce, as it was a mart for 
the exchange of Asiatic and 
Italian goods, it became cele- 
brated for its wealth and 
magnificence, as well as the 
learning and ingenuity of its 
inhabitants. Profane histori- 
ans speak of it as the light 
and ornament of all Greece. 
It was not less remarkable- 
however, for its corruption and 
177 



CGR 

ficentifr'isnes?. lnieed, so pro- 
verbially profligate did the city- 
become, that the very name of 
Corinthian, applied to a fe- 
male, was infamous. 

This was its corrupt state 
when Paul arrived there, not 
far from a. d. 52, as a Christian 
missionary. (SeeMAP,p.488~9.) 

A traveller, who visited Co- 
rinth in 1821. says it had hardly 
any occupants except soldiers ; 
and that, though a few ruins 
remain to attest the ancient 
magnificence of the city, they 
are rapidly disappearing. The 
fragments of capitals and co- 
lumns are employed to build 
the houses of the Turks ; and 
the wrought side of the richest 
specimens of architecture are 
found turned inwards ! The 
story that Corinthian brass 
originated here, from the ac- 
cidental fusion of different 
metals, when the city was 
taken and destroyed by fire, is 
fabulous. The composition so 
called was known long before 
that event. 

CORINTHIANS, epistles 
to. These were both written 
by Paul. The first was proba- 
blv written at Ephesus, (comp. 
1 Cor. xvi. 19. Acts xviii. 18. 
26. 1 Cor. xvi. 8, 9. Acts xix. 20. 
26,) in the beginning of a. d. 57, 
or a^out four years after the 
church was organized. During 
that interval," it would seem 
that some false teacher had 
appeared among them, and 
had succeeded in exciting 
strong prejudices against the 
apostle. To vindicate his own 
ministerial character and of- 
fice from the aspersions and 
calumnies that were heaped 
upon him by his opposers, to 
answer some inquiries they 
had put to him, (1 Cor. vii. 1,) 
and to furnish them with rules 
of conduct adapted to their 
peculiar circumstances, temp- 
tations, and faults, (1 Cor. i. 10 
—31,) seem to have been the 
main design of this first leUer, 



COR 

It contains also the most per- 
fect and triumphant argument 
for the doctrine of the resur- 
rection. 

The second epistle, written 
probably from Macedonia, less 
than a year after the first, 
seems designed to continue the 
good influence which the for- 
mer letter had exerted, and 
to furnish grounds of comfort 
and confidence to the steadfast 
believers 

CORMORANT (Lev. xi. 17) 
was of the unclean class of 
birds; and its presence is used 
in the prophetic writings as an 
emblem of ruin and desolation, 
(lsa. xxxiv. 11. Zeph. ii. 14,) 
though the original word in 
these passages is elsewhere 
translated pelican. 

CORN. (Mark iv. 28.) This 
word, in the United States, is 
generally applied to maize, or 
Indian corn, but the Scriptures 
use it as the general name for 
all sorts of grain. A corn of 
wheat is a kernel of wheat. 
The figurative use of the word 
corn, usually in connexion 
with wine and oil, is very fre- 
quent; as grain, and wine, and 
olives were the leading pro- 
ductions of the country. (Deut. 
xi. 14; xviii. 4; xxviii. 51. 2 
Chron. xxxii. 28. Hos. ii. 22, 
Joel ii. 19.) 

It is probable that grain was 
commonly used in its crude 
state in the early ages of the 
world. It was sometimes done 
in later times, (Matt. xii. 1 ;) 
and even now it is no uncom- 
mon thing, in passing a field 
of wheat, to pluck an ear, 
and after rubbing the husk or 
beard off, by rolling it be- 
tween the hands, to eat the 
grain, which, even in that 
state, is very palatable. The 
Jewish law permitted standing 
corn to be plucked by any one 
passing through it, (Deut. xxiii. 
25 ;) and this custom, or right, 
is still respected in some parts 
of the east. (See Mills.) 
178 



COR 

CORNELIUS. (Actsx.l— 3.) 
A. Roman officer residing at 
Cesarea. He was a Gentile by 
birth, and, though the highest 
character is given of him as a 
religious man, he was regarded 
by the Jews as an unclean 
person. (Acts x. 28, 29 ; xi. 3.) 
His prayers, being offered in 
the faith of a promised Mes- 
siah, were heard ; and God 
was pleased to send Peter to 
make known to him the plan 
of salvation through a crucified 
and risen Redeemer. Thus 
the door of faith was opened to 
the Gentiles; Cornelius and 
his family became converts to 
the Christian religion, and 
were baptized in the name of 
the Lord Jesus. 

CORNER. (2 Chron. xxviii. 
24.) The corner of the house- 
top (Prov. xxi. 9) is a narrow 
place exposed to sun and rain, 
contrasted with the wide room 
or house below. The " corners 
of Moab," or any other country, 
(Num. xxiv. 17. Jer. xlviii. 45,) 
mean its capital, cities, &c, or 
the strength and substance of 
the country. Corner of a bed, 
(Amos iii. 12,) the corner of a 
room, was on the elevated part, 
(used by night for a bed, or 
couch,) and contained the most 
honourable seat. (See Bed.) 
In the passage last cited it 
figuratively denotes the most 
proud and luxurious of the 
Israelites in Samaria. InZech. 
x. 4, the word comer is used to 
denote either the corner-stone 
or the most conspicuous part 
cf a building, a.nd evidently 
refers to Christ, (Matt. xxi. 42,) 
where he is mentioned as the 
head {or chief) of the corner, 
though the Jews, in erecting 
the temple of their faith, re- 
jected him as unfit for so 
important a place. If God is 
.rue, they must find their error 
sooner or later ; for other foun- 
i ation can no mar. lay than 
that is laid, which is Jesus 
Christ- (1 Cor. iii. 11. See 



COU 

! a'solsa. xxviii. 16.) The word 

I corners is figuratively employ. 

| ed to denote the whole length 

and breadth of a country, 

(Ezek. vii. 2,) or the world. 

(Isa. xi. 12. Rev. vii. 1.) 

Corner-stone. (Jobxxxviii. 
6.) Christ is called a corner- 
stone, (1.) In reference to his 
being the foundation of the 
Christian faith, (Eph. ii. 20 ;) 
(2.) In reference to the import- 
ance and conspicuousness of 
the place he occupies, (1 Pet. 
ii. 6;) and, (3.) As a projecting 
coi-ner-stone is likely to be 
stumbled against, so it is not 
surprising that the doctrine of 
Christ and him crucified would 
prove an offence and a stone 
of stumbling to unbelievers, as 
it ever has been. (Comp. Isa. 
viii. 14. Matt. xxi. 44. Rom. 
ix. 32, 33. 1 Cor. i. 23. 1 Pet 
ii. 8.) 

CORNET. (1 Chron. xv. 28.) 
An instrument of music about 
eighteen inches long, shaped 
like the flute; used by the 
priests, and giving a loud, 
smooth sound. 

CORRUPTION, mount op. 
(See Olives, mount of.) 

COTTAGE. (Isa. xxiv. 20.) 
The same with tent. 

COUCH. (See Bed.) 

COUNCIL (Matt. x. 17) de- 
notes a judicial tribunal, ana 
generally the Sanhedrim. It i« 
supposed by some to be the 
same tribunal which was in- 
stituted under Moses. (Num. 
xi. 16.) This is the opinion of 
the Jews. It is evident that 
this tribunal existed in the 
time of our Saviour, as it is 
expressly named. (Mark xiii. 
9 ; xiv. 55 ; xv. 1.) It was be- 
fore this tribunal that our di- 
vine Saviour was arraigned 
The interior tribunals were 
very numerous, and variously 
constituted. (See Omar, by 
Am. S. S. Union, p. 181.) 

COUNSELLOR. (Lukexxiii. 
50.) An officer connected wfra 
the royal camp of the Jews 
179 



GOV 

Supposed to be referred to in 
i Kings xii. 6— 12. 

COURSE. (See Aeia.) 

COURT. (See Temple, 
Dwellings.) 

COVENANT (Gen. ix. 12) 
usually means an agreement 
or mutual obligation, contract- 
ed deliberately, and with so- 
lemnity. The scriptural sense 
is peculiar. God's covenant 
with men signifies his solemn 
promise or engagement. (Gen. 
xvii. 14. Ex. xxxiv. 10. Deut. 
iv. 13. Jsa. lix. 21.) It also 
denotes the established order 
and constitution of nature, (Jer. 
xxxiii. 20;) and, again, a pre- 
cept. (Jer. xxxiv. 13.) It is 
remarked, that where the par- 
ties are equal,— so that either 
may accept or reject the pro- 
posal of the other, — the word 
used denotes a proposition ; but 
where the party proposing is 
greatly exalted above the 
other, the term used signifies 
appointment, or institution ; 
whereby the proposer pledges 
himself, but the other party is 
neither entitled to the privi- 
leges nor benefits of the obli- 
gator, until he accepts. 

The Hebrew word for mak- 
ing a covenant signifies cutting 
off, because covenants were 
often made by cutting off or 
slaying sacrifices. (Gen. xv. 
a— 19. Jer. xxxiv. 18.) 

The term the covenants 
(Rom. ix. 4) refers to the va- 
rious promises made to Abra- 
ham. (See Abraham.) 

The chief and most important 
use of the word, however, is in 
relation to the two great dis- 
pensations under which men 
have lived, and which are 
distinguished as the old and 
new dispensation, or covenant. 
(Heb. viii. 8.) The former was 
made with the children of Is- 
rael, and rested much in the 
outward ceremonies and ob- 
servances which the law by 
Moses enjoined, (meats and 
drinks, and divers washings 



cow 

and carnal ordinances;) by 
strict obedience to which, with 
full faith in the promises and 
declarations of Jehovah, they 
became interested in the bless- 
ings of that new and better 
covenant which was thereafter 
to be revealed, (Gal. iii.,) and 
which, by way of distinction, 
is called the new or second 
covenant. (Heb. viii. 7. 13. 
Comp. Ex. xx.— xxiv. with 
Heb. viii.) 

The sign of the covenant 
was its seal or memorial. 
Thus the rainbow was a sign 
or memorial of God's covenant 
with Noah, respecting a second 
deluge. So of the Sabbath, 
(Ex. xxxi. 16, 17,) and circum- 
cision. (Gen. xvii. 11.) 

The new covenant, of which 
Christ is the Mediator, was 
confirmed or sealed by his 
own blood, and secures to 
every true believer the bless- 
ings of salvation and eternal 
life. 

Covenant of Salt. (Num. 
xviii. 19. 2 Chron. xiii. 5.) 
This term is supposed to de- 
note a covenant, in the sealing 
or ratification of which salt 
was used. (Lev. ii. 13. See 
Salt.) 

COVET, (Ex. xx. 17,) CO- 
VETOUSNESS, (Ex. xviii. 21. 
Luke xii. 15.) To covet is to 
desire strongly. (1 Cor. xii. 
31.) When such a desire is felt 
for that which we cannot law- 
fully possess, it is sinful, and 
becomes covetousness, which 
is idolatry, (Col. iii. 2;) for it 
is placing the heart and affec- 
tions on the creature rather 
than on the Creator. Covet- 
ousness has relation commonly 
to riches, and, in the scriptu- 
ral sense, includes the desire 
of accumulating, whatever 
may be the means. (Prov. 
xxviii. 16. Eccl. v. 10. Luke 
xii. 15-34. 1 Tim. vi. 9, 10.) 

COW. (Isa.vii.21.) In this 
remarkable prophecy, the 
event foretold is, that the face 
180 



CRE 

of the land of Judah should be ! 
fo completely changed, and 
the inhabitants so greatly re- 
duced in number, that, with 
only a single young cow, and 
two sheep, a family should be 
supplied with an abundance 
of milk and butter; and vine- 
yards, which before command- 
ed a high rent, should be over- 
grown with briers and thorns. 

By the Levitical law, (Lev. 
xxii. 28,) a cow and her calf 
were not to be killed on the 
same day. A similar precept 
is found in Ex. xxiii. 19; and 
another in Deut. xxii. 6, 7. 
Whether they were designed 
to prevent inhumanity, or re- 
ferred to some heathen custom, 
is uncertain. The cow is es- 
teemed holy by the Hindoos. 

CRACKNELS. (1 Kings xiv. 
3.) A kind of thin hard bread, 
not unlike the crackers or 
sea-biscuit of modern days, 
spread, as some say, with aro- 
matic seed. 

CRANE. (Jer. viii. 7.) A 
large bird of passage, measur- 
ing three or four feet in height, 
and living on worms and in- 
sects, or (if these cannot be 
had) on grain. Its cry is hoarse 
and melancholy; hence the 
allusion, Isa. xxxviii. 14. The 
regular return of this and 
other birds from their annual 
migrations, discovered a re- 
gard to their instinctive know- 
ledge which, in the passage of 
Jeremiah, is used to reprove 
the ignorance and wayward- 
ness of God's people, in not 
regarding the judgments of his 
hand. (For illustrative cut, see 
Bible Natural History, by 
Am. S. S. Union, art. Crane.) 

CREATE, (Ps. li. 10,> CRE- 
ATOR, (Eccl. xii. p CREA- 
TION. (Mark x. 6.) The word 
creation sometimes denotes all 
living things, (Rom. viii. 22,) 
and at others the great era or 
event of the creation. (2 Pet. 
iii. 4.) To create is to cause 
any tiling to exist that never 
16 



CRE 

existed in any form or manner - 
before. (Gen. i. 1. Col. i. 16.) 
It is to make, without materials 
to make of. Thus, God said, 
Let there be light, and there 
was light. (Gen. i. 3.) 

And with respect to the na- 
ture and duration of those six 
days, so particularly denned 
in the record, which it pleased 
the Creator, for an obviously 
wise and beneficent end, to' 
occupy in this incomprehensi- 
ble work of creation, we can 
have no reasonable doubt tha 
they were such days as are \ 
now, and ever have been, 
occasioned by one revolution 
of the earth on its axis; be- 
cause a perfect creation may 
be as easily the work of one 
day, or of one moment, as of 
thousands of years; and be- 
cause that record, on the evi- 
dence of which our confidence 
rests, on the subject of the 
creation, has distinctly defined 
each of these days by its even- 
ning and its morning ; which 
terms, so often repeated, can 
be in no way applicable to 
any indefinite* periods. 

CRETE, (Acts xxvii. 70 
(CRETIANS, Tit. i. 12,) now 
called Candia, Kirid, or Kriti^ 
is an island of the Mediterra- 
nean, one hundred and seventy 
miles long and fifty broad ; po- 
pulation 250,000, about equal 
numbers of Greeks and Turks, 
Constantinople lies five or 
six hundred miles north-east . 
of it, and Syria six or seven 
hundred miles east. It was 
formerly a rich and powerful 
kingdom, and is still remark- 
able for its delightful climate 
and fertile soil. Oil, corn, 
fruit trees, and vines are among 
its principal productions. The 
city of Candia, which is also the 
fort and capital of the island, 
lies on the northern coast. A 
Christian mission is already 
established there. 

Crete was settled, as it is 
generally supposed, by Phibfr 
181 



0R1 

tines from Egypt, part of whom 
afterwards passed over to Pa- 
lestine, and are called Caph- 
torim, (Gen. x. 14,) Chere- 
Ihims, (Ezek. xxv. 16,) and 
Cherethites. (1 Sam. xxx. 14. 
Zeph. ii. 5.) Some suppose that 
Crete itself is the Caphtor of 
the Scriptures. (Jer. xlvii. 4.) 

Salmone (Acts xxvii. 7) was 
a cape on the eastern ex- 
tremity of the island ; the Fair 
Havens (Acts xxvii. 8) was the 
name of a harbour, roads, or 
anchorage, near Lasea, on the 
southern shore The apostle, 
sailing from the last named 
place to Phenice, (Acts xxvii. 
12,) on the western coast, was 
driven under an island called 
Clauda, (Acts xxvii. 16,) (now 
Qozzo. See Map to art. Paul.) 

Probably Paul visited this 
island after his first imprison- 
ment at Rome, and establish- 
ed a Christian church there, 
which he left under the over- 
sight of Titus. (Tit. i. 5.) 

^The Cretans were once noted 
for vicious habits. This charac- 
ter was given them by many 
profane historians; and among 
them was one of their own na- 
tion, who was also a prophet 
or poet, (which terms were sy- 
nonymous among the Romans,) 
and who says they were liars, 
evil beasts, that is, brutal and 
ferocious as wild beasts, and 
slow bellies, or addicted to 
voluptuousness and gluttony, 
as in Phil. iii. 19. (See Life 
of Paul, ch. xviii., by Am. 
S. S. Union, and map prefixed 
to that volume.) 

CRIMSON. (Jer. iv. 30.) A 
beautiful variety or shade of 
red. Stuffs lor the drapery of 
Solomon's temple were em- 
broidered in this colour. (2 
Chron. ii. 14; iii. 14.) Crimson 
is a deeper dye than scarlet ; 
and hence tlie force of the 
figure in lsa. i. IS, where the 
most free and perfect forgive- 
ness is offered to guilt of the 
deepest dye 



CRO 

CRISPUS (Acts xviii. 8) was 
an officer of the Jewish syna- 
gogue at Corinth. He and his 
family were converted under 
Paul's preaching, and he re- 
ceived the ordinance of bap- 
tism at the apostle's hands. 
(1 Cor. i. 14.) 

CROSS, CRUCIFY. (Matt, 
xxiii. 34 ; xxvii. 32.) Crucifix- 
ion is a mode of execution of 
great antiquity, and still pre- 
vails among the Hindoos and 
Chinese. It was regarded by 
the Romans as the basest ana 
most ignominious death, de- 
served only by traitors. (Luke 
xxiii. 2.) It was an accursed 
death. (Deut. xxi. 23. Gal. iii. 
13.) Hence the force of the 
expressions, 1 Cor. i. 23. Phil, 
ii. 8. Heb. xii. 2. As soon as 
the sentence w T as pronounced, 
" Thou shall be crucified,'- \\ie 
person was stripped entirely 
naked, (or leaving at most a 
narrow strip around the loins,) 
and fastened to a post about as 
high as the waist, and was then 
terribly scourged with rods or 
whips made of leather strips, 
(lsa. liii. 5,) armed with small 
bits of lead or bone ; and often 
so severely as to occasion 
death. After the scourging, 
the person was compelled to 
bear his own cross to the 
place of execution. This was 
usually an elevated place with- 
out the city, and near the high- 
way. 

The simplest form of the 
cross was the following: 



c^ 



(1 



182 



CKO 



UKO 




Other forms, of the cross, and 
modes of execution, as seen 
above, illustrate the nature of 
the punishment. 

The cross was fixed into the 
earth, and was so high (say ten 
to fifteen feet) that the feet of 
the sufferer were usually about 
four feet from the ground. 
The transverse piece was usu- 
ally seven or eight feet in 
length. In or near the middle 
of the upright post there was 
a projection, to which he was 
raised by cords; and, being 
previously divested of his cloth- 
ing, he was first bound to the 
cross-beam, and then nailed 
by his hands, with strong iron 
spikes, to its extremities. 
There is conclusive evidence, 
from profane history, that the 
hands and feet were pierced 
in this way, and that it was 
peculiar to the punishment of 
crucifixion ; but whether the 
feet were nailed separately, or 
whether a single nail transfix- 
ed them both,ls doubtful. In 
order to lessen the pain, it 
was customary to give the 
eufferer wine medicated with 
myrrh, &c. Our Redeemer re- 
jected this draught, (Mark xv. 
13,) choosing,probably,to suffer 
(to the full extent the pains of 



that painful death. Vinegar, 
too, was a refreshing and sus- 
taining drink of the Italian 
soldiery; and this also was 
offered to him. (Matt, xxvii. 
48.) The criminal was fasten- 
ed to the cross by four soldiers 
appointed for the purpose, who 
were allowed the apparel of 
the sufferer as the perquisite 
of their office. (Matt, xxvii. 
35.) Hence the passage, Ps. 
xxii. 18, was prophetic of the 
mode of death to be endured 
by Christ. 

Over the cross was commonly 
placed a writing or superscrip- 
tion, indicating the offence for 
which the individual was put 
to death. It was called by the 
Romans titulus, or the title. 
(John xix. 19, 20.) 

Among the Romans, the pri- 
soner remained upon the cross 
often till his body fell to the 
earth by its own weight: but 
in the province of Judea, the 
Jews were permitted, in obe- 
dience to the precept of their 
law, (Deut. xxi. 22, 23,) to ter- 
minate the sufferings of th 
malefactor before sundowi. 
This was effected in various 
ways: sometimes by setting 
fire" to the foot of the cross ; 
and. at others, bv breaking 
183 



CRO 

.he limbs with a hammer, or 
piercing the body with a lance. 
(John xix. 31—37.) It is to be 
observed, that the agonies of 
this death were so extreme 
that it was regarded as the 
utmost torment. Cicero him- 
self says : " The executioner, 
the covering of the head, the 
very name of the cross, should 
be removed afar, not only from 
the body, but from the thoughts, 
the eyes, the ears, of Roman 
citizens; forofall these things, 
not only the actual occurrence 
and endurance, but the very 
contingency and expectation, 
nay, the mention itseli, is 
unworthy of a Roman citizen 
and a free man." Even the 
judges denominated it ' the ut- 
most torment, the extremest 
punishment. 1 

The extension of the limbs, 
just after so severe a scourging, 
and the impossibility of mak- 
ing the slightest change or 
motion without occasioning 
suffering rather than relieving 
it ; the piercing of the hands 
and feet, in the parts most 
susceptible of acute and ago- 
nizing pain; the exposure of 
the wounded and lacerated 
flesh to the action of the sun 
and. air hour after hour; the 
loss of blood, and the sense of 
indignity and contempt, which, 
in oar Saviour's case, was the 
most bitter, malicious, and un- 
spaving that can be conceived : 
all conspired to make, to the 
very last degree, a death of 
pain. Often the strength of 
the malefactor lingered for 
three days, and even longer. 
Hence the surprise of Pilate, 
(Mark xv. 44.) 

The cross is often used figu- 
ratively for those reproaches, 
self-denials, and sacrifices 
which the true followers of 
Christ must be expected to 
endure, if they,faithfully main- 
lain their profession. (Matt, 
xvi. 24.) 

CROWN. (2 Kings xl 12.) 



CRO 




Anciently the crown or dia 
dem was only a head band. 
(Ezek. xvi. 12,) or a riband oi 
fillet, made of silk or linen, 
surrounding the head, and 
probably connected behind. 
(Ex. xxviii. 36, 37; xxix. 6.) 
We find it represented on 
ancient medals. Newly mar- 
ried persons of both sexes wore 
crowns. (Comp.Sol.Songiii.il, 
with Ezek. xvi. 12.) It was usu- 
ally a badge of royaltyor prince- 
ly distinction. It was sometimes 
of pure gold, and was worn by 
kings,(2Chron.xxiii. 11. Matt, 
xxvii. 29,) and sometimes in 
battle. (2 Sam. i. 10 ; xii. 30.) 
The weight, in the last pas- 
sage, denotes the value, and 
not the gravity of the crown. 
Afterwards the shape and size 
were changed, and costly or- 
naments appended to it. (2 
Sam. xii. 30.) It was worn by 
queens. (Esth. ii. 17.) It was 
customary for a king to wear 
as many crowns as he had 
kingdoms. (Rev. xix. 12.) The 
word is figuratively used by 
the sacred writers to denote 
honour, (Pro v. xii. 4,) prosperi 
ty, (Lam. v. 16,) eternal life 
and blessedness. (1 Pet. v. 4.) 
The inscription on the crown 
of the high-priest (Ex. xxxix. 
30) was significant of his sa- 
cred office and functions. 
Such inscriptions have some- 
times been placed on the 
crowns of princes and heroes, 
to indicate some splendid ac- 
tion or service. In Rev. xvii. 
5, allusion seems to be made 
184 



CRU 

to the crown of the Jewish 
high-priest, whose raiment is 
described as having the colours 
and ornaments of the sacred 
vestments. It is said that 
the word mysterium (mystery) 
was formerly engraven on the 
papal crown, and was erased 
in the time of Julius III. 
CRUCIFY. (See Cross.) 
CRUSE. (1 Kings xvii. 12.) 
A small vessel for lfquids, used 
by the Jews. The following 
are given as representations 
of vessels now used for like 
purposes in the east : 




No. 1 represents a kind of 
flask, common at the present 
day in the east; and which, 
on journeys, is covered with a 
wicker case, as in 2. Figure 3 
is also a travelling cruse or 
flask ; and others are also 
found in the east of the form 4. 
Figures 2 and 3 represent the 
vessels which they take when 
on pilgrimages and other long 
journeys. 

16* 



cue 

CRYSTAL. (Ezek. i. 22.) 

The Scriptures use this term 
to denote what is now known 
as rock crystal, — one of the 
most beautiful of precious 
stones,— perfectly transparent, 
and resembling the purest 
glass. It is ranked with gold 
in value, (Job xxviii. 17,) and 
its transparency is alluded to 
in Rev. iv. 6; xxi. 11 ; xxii. 1. 
.In the passage in Ezekiel, first 
above cited, reference may be 
had to the peculiar dazzling 
effect of light reflected from 
the surface of crystal. The 
same werd, which is translated 
crystal in some passages, i3 
translated/rosJ, (Gen. xxxi. 40. 
Job xxxvii. 10. Jer. xxxvi. 30 ;) 
and ice, (Job vi. 16; xxxviii. 
29. Ps. cxlvii. 17.) 

CUBIT. (See Measures.) 

CUCKOO. (Lev. xi. 16.) 
There is some uncertainty 
whether the bird known to us 
by this name was the unclean 
bird mentioned in this verse. 
The prevailing opinion is, that 
it was what we call the sea- 
mew, or gull. 

CUCUMBER. (Num. xi. 5.) 
A garden vegetable well 
known in this country. Cu- 
cumbers, melons, and onions 
are now among the leading 
productions of Egypt ; and the 
first is found in many varieties, 
some of which are highly va- 
lued for their medicinal pro- 
perties : and others are much 
larger and more palatable, re- 
freshing, and wholesome, as a 
melon, "than the same fruit is 
among us. 

These plants grow in the 
open country ; and, to protect 
the fruit from thieves and 
beasts, a mound is erected in a 
central place, overlooking the 
plantation ; with a small hut 
for shelter of the guard. For. 
two or three months, this poor 
watchman fulfils his painful 
trust, through storms and tern- - 
pests: and we find in Isa. i. 8, 
a striking allusion to this cus- - 
185 



UUP 

torn. The prophet likens the 
city of Jerusalem, figuratively 
called the daughter of Zion, 
{see ZiONj) standing alone, in 
f .he midst of desolation, and 
itself soon to yield to its ene- 
mies, to a cottage or temporary 
shed, in which the person was 
sheltered who guarded a vine- 
yard when the grapes were 
ripening ; or the same kind of 
structure put up for the same 
purpose in a field of cucum- 
Ders. As soon as the fruits 
were gathered, these booths or 
"lodges" were abandoned. In 
like manner, the great capital 
Stood for a momentary purpose, 
but soon, like them, was to be 
destroyed and removed. This 
prophecy was fulfilled in the 
various calamities of Jerusa- 
lem, especially when the Jews 
were taken captive to Baby- 
lon. (2 Chron. xxxvi. 19.) A 
similar illustration is employed 
in Job xxvii. 18. (See Youth's 



CUP 

Friend, vol. v., also same work 
for April, 1836, by Am. S. S. 
Union, for illustrative remarks 
and cuts. See Garden.) 

CUMMIN. (Matt, xxiii. 23.) 
An herb abounding in Syria, 
which produces aromatic seeds. 
In Isa. xxviii. 25. 27, reference 
is made to the manner of sow- 
ing and threshing it. The same 
method is observed in Malta 
at this day. It was one of 
the things of less consequence 
which the Pharisees strictly 
tithed. (See Mint.) 

CUP. (1 Kings vii. 26.) The 
horns of animals were ancient, 
ly used by some nations as 
drinking vessels; but the Jews 
had cups and goblets at a very 
early period, (Gen. xliv. 2,) 
though they used horns for 
anointing oil. (1 Sam. xvi. 13.) 
Some of their cups were highly 
ornamented, (1 Kings vii. 26,) 
and in shape were probably not 
unlike the following, which are 




copied from figures in ancient 
nuns. Cups of this kind, made 
of gold, silver, copper, &c, ac- 



cording to the owner's wealtht 
are in use in Persia at this 
day. 

186 



CUR 



CUR 



The simplest forms of these ! and cuts under it.) The figu- 
cessels may be inferred from | rative use of this word in the 
the following cuts, (See Cruse, j Scriptures is frequent. Gene- 





rally, however, it represents 
the blessings or the judgments 
of Heaven, or the allotments 
of God's providence. (Ps. xxiii. 
5; lxxv. 8; cxvi. 13. lsa. li. 
17—22. Comp. Jer. xxv. 15, 
and li. 7, with Rev. xiv. 10, 
and xvi. 19.) The sufferings 
of our Saviour are also repre- 
sented by a similar figure. 
(Matt. xx. 22, and xxvi. 39.) 

CUP-BEARER. (See But- 
ler.) 

CUP OF BLESSING. (See 
Blessing.) 

CURSE. (Gen. xxvii. 12.) 
In the scriptural use it is the 
opposite of bless. To curse 
is to imprecate evil upon any 
one. (Gen. ix. 25. Comp. Gen. 
xxvii. 12. Neh. xiii. 2. Matt. 
v. 44. John vii. 49. James 
iii. 9.) The curses which are 
recorded in the Bible as be- 
ing pronounced by Noah, Mo- 
ecs, Joshua, and others, are 
Dot to be regarded as the 



effects of passion or revenge. 
They were either pronounced 
under the immediate influ- 
ence of God's Spirit, or are to 
be viewed as only predictions 
of evil, uttered in the form of 
imprecation. 

The words curse and cursed 
are the opposite of bless and 
blessed* and are often so con- 
trasted. (Deut. xxviii. See 
Bless.) The curse of the 
ground, and of the serpent, 
(Gen. iii. 14. 17,) is to be re- 
garded as the doom or judg- 
ment of God upon them. 

The curse of the lata is 
the sentence of condemnation 
which it pronounces on the 
transgressor, (Gal. iii. 10,) and 
from which Christ redeems us 
by being made a curse for us. 
(Gal. iii. 13. Comp. Rom. viii. 
1, and Gal. iii. 13, with Rom. 
v. 16, and 2 Cor. iii. 7—9.) 

To curse, in an evil or blas- 
phemous sense, is to affirm or 
187 



CYP 

deny any thing with thought- 
less or rash imprecations of 
divine vengeance. (Matt.xxvi. 
74.) 

CUSH. (Gen.x.6— S.) 1.(4 
person.) The eldest son of 
Ham, and father of Nimrod. 

2. (A place.) It is believed 
there are three distinct coun- 
tries mentioned in the Bible 
under this name : one of them 
was probably the same with 
Midian. (Comp. Ex. ii. 16. 21. 
Num. xii. 1.) Cuth, or Cutlia, 
2 Kings xvii. 24. 30,) was evi- 
dently', from the connexion, a 
•province of Assyria; and Cush 
is the marginal reading for 
Ethiopia, in Gen. ii. 13. Hab. 
iii. 7, and elsewhere. (See 
Ethiopia.) 

CUSHAN. (See Ethiopia.) 

CYMBALS. (IChron. xvi. 
5.) There is an instrument 
of music now common in the 
east, which consists of metallic 
plates about the size of a dollar, 
two of which are held in each 
hand, one upon the thumb, 
and the other upon the middle 
finger, and, being struck toge- 
ther skilfully, make an agree- 
able sound. Some have de- 
scribed the cymbals as two 
broad convex plates of brass, 
the concussion of which pro- 
duced a shrill piercing sound, 
like clattering, rather than 
tinkling. (1 Cor. xiii. i.) 

The following are given as 
the figures of the ancient cym- 
oalsTbut, in some respects, 
\hey are unlike both the above 
descriptions. 




CYPRESS. (Isa. xliv. 14.) 
A tall evergreen, the wood of 



CYK 

which is heavy, aromatic, and 
remarkably durable. Its foliage 
is dark and gloomy, and its 
form close and pyramidal. Cof- 
fins were made of it in the east, 
and the mummy-cases of Egypt 
are found at this day of the cy- 
press-wood. The timber has 
been known to suffer no decay, 
by the lapse of eleven hwidred 
years. It was used and culti- 
vated for idol timber, though 
some have thought that a spe- 
cies of oak was intended in the 
passage from Isaiah. 

CYPRUS. (Acts iv. 36.) A 
large, fertile, and salubrious 
island of the Mediterranean. 
It is of a triangular form, 
two hundred miles long, and 
sixty in its greatest breadth. 
Population 120,000, of whom 
40,000 are Greeks. Some sup- 
pose it to be the same with 
Chittim. (Num. xxiv. 24. Dan. 
xi. 30. See Chittim.) The 
chief productions of Cyprus are, 
as formerly, wines, oil, honey, 
and wool. It is a famous place 
in mythological history, and 
was distinguished for the li- 
centiousness of its inhabitants. 

Salamis (Acts xiii. 5) was 
the principal city, and was 
situated on the eastern coast, 
and Paphos (Acts xiii. 6) was 
another large town on the op- 
posite extremity of the island 
which is new called Paphos, or 
Baffa. In Paphos, and its vici- 
nity, 25,000 Greeks were mas- 
sacred in the late revolution; 
and it is said that, upon the 
whole island, not less than 
seventy-four villages, contain- 
ing 18,000 Christians, were de- 
stroyed by the Turks. Several 
interesting incidents of apos- 
tolic history occurred on this 
island. (See Life of Paul, 
ch. iv., by Am. S. S. Union.) 

CYRENE. (Acts xi. 20.) A 
province and city of Libya. 
There was anciently a Pheni- 
cian colony called Cyrenaica, 
or "Libya about Cyrene." 
(Acts ii. 10.) It was in the 
188 



CYR 

north of Africa, west of Egypt, 
and comprised five cities ; one 
of which was Cyrene. (See 
Lybia.) The ancient city of 
Cyrene is now called Cyreune, 
Cairoan, or Cat/ran, and lies 
in the dominion of Tripoli. 
This district of the earth has 
lately occasioned much inte- 
rest among the Italian and 
French geographers. 

Great numbers of Jews re- 
sided here. (Matt, xxvii. 32. 
Mark xv. 21. Luke xxiii. 26.) 
Some of the Cyrenians were 
among the earliest Christians, 
(Acts xi. 20 ;) and one of them, 
it is supposed, was a preacher 
at Antioch. (Acts xiii. 1.) We 
find also, that among the most 
violent opposers of Christiani- 
ty, were the Cyrenians who 
had a place of worship at Jeru- 
salem. (Actsvi, 9.) 

CYRENIANS (See Cy- 
rene.) 

CYRENIUS (Luke ii: 2) be- 
came the governor or proconsul 
of Syria, eight or ten years 
after the birth of our Saviour. 
The taxi ng or enrolment which 
ted Joseph and Mary to go up 
to Bethlehem, is said to have 
been " first made when Cyre- 
nius was governor of Syria." 
Various constructions of this 
passage have been proposed, 
to remove the supposed chro- 
nological difficulty. We have 
no doubt of the historical truth 
of the statement, whatever 
perplexity may attend it. If 
here is nothing in profane his- 
ory to corroborate it, neither 
s there any thing to contradict 
t. It may be that Cyrenius 
was associated in the govern- 
ment of Syria during the pro- 
gress of the enrolment, and had, 
in some sense, the superin- 
tendence of it. It may be that 
the enrolment was made at 
one period, and the levy of 



CYR 

taxes (of which that enrolment 
was the basis) was not made 
till a subsequent period. We 
know that such a tax was im- 
posed, and occasioned great 
popular discontents. (Acts v. 
37.) And it may be also, that 
the phraseology employed by 
the sacred writer is susceptible 
of a construction which would 
remove every difficulty ,though 
critics are not agreed in such a 
construction. At any rate, the 
occurrence of such passages is 
strong presumptive evidence 
of the truth of the narrative ; 
for it would have been an easy 
matter to avoid all appearance 
of difficulty, if the object of the 
writers had been simply to 
make a book that should be 
believed. 

CYRUS. (Isa. xlv. 1.) A 
prince, statesman, and con- 
queror, of great renown, and 
an instrument or agent em 
ployed by Jehovah in the exe- 
cution of his designs of mercy 
towards the Jews. (Isa. xiii. 
xiv. xxi. xliv. 23; xlv.— xlvii. 
Jer. xxv. 12; li. 54. Dan. vii. 
viii.) The early life of Cyrus 
is involved in obscurity. It is 
generally agreed that he was 
the son of Cambyse3, king oi 
Persia. His chief biographers 
(Xenophon and Herodotus;pre- 
sent his history and exploits in 
very different aspects. His con- 
quests extended over all west- 
ern Asia, but the most brilliant 
of them was that of Babylon, 
which took place b. c. 536. 
After this event, he ordered a 
return of the Jews, who had 
been seventy years in captivi- 
ty, to their own land, and fur- 
nished them very lib-jxally 
with the means of rebuilding 
their temple. (See Lit , of 
Daniel, ch. xiii. xiv. xv ■ /ii . 
xviii., by Am. S. S. Unv B 



m 



DAG 



DAM 



DABERATH. (Josh. xix. 
12. 1 Chron. vi. 72.) A 
town on the borders of ls- 
sachar and Zebuion. The 
description of the sacred his- 
torian leaves it uncertain to 
which tribe it belonged, and 
perhaps there was a town of 
this name in eacn tribe ; and, 
according to the most authen- 
tic modern maps, such was the 
fact. It was situated in the 
plain of Jezreel, at the foot of 
mount Tabor, and probably 
where modern travellers have 
found the village of Dabira, or 
Debora, or Uabury. 

DAGGER. (Judg. iii. 16. 21, 
22.) A short sword, usually- 
made with a double edge, and 
suspended from the girdle. 
(See Arms.) 

DAGON. (1 Sam. v. 2.) This 
was the r>ame of a celebrated 
idol of the Philistines, wor- 
shipped at Gaza, (Judg. xvi. 
23,) at Ashdod, (1 Sam. v. 1—3,) 
at Beth-dagon, (the house or 
temple of Dagon j) in the bounds 
of Judah, (Josh. xv. 41,) in a 
town of Asher, (Josh. xix. 27,) 
and elsewhere. There are va- 
rious opinions as to the ap- 
pearance of this idol ; but it is 
usually represented with the 
head, hands, and face of a man, 
and the body like that of a fish. 
The name was probably de- 
rived from dag, signifying a 
large fish. One of"the incar- 
nations of the Hindoo God 
Vishnu was of the same form. 
(See Scripture Illustra- 
tionSjVoI. ii. pp. 57—59, by Am. 
S. S. Union, for description and 
cut of Dagon.) The fall and 
destruction of this idol, when 
the ark was brought into the 
same apartment with it, is one 
of the most remarkable pas- 
sages of Jewish history; and 
tve are told that the ruins of 
the temple of Dagon at Gaza, 
vvhicn was pulled down by 
Samson, are still visible. 



DALMANTJTHA, the parts 
of, (Mark viii. 10,) or THE 
COASTS OF MAGDALA, 
(Matt. xv. 39,) as Matthew de- 
scribes it in his account of the 
same transaction; were pro* 
bably small towns on the shore 
of Tiberias ; and the vicinity 
of either of them would em- 
brace the same district of 
country. 

DALMATIA. (2 Tim. iv. 10.) 
Originally part of Illyricurru 
but at present a province ol 
Austria, lying on the north- 
east of the Adriatic shore, or 
gulf of Venice. Population 
300,000. The towns on the 
coast are inhabited chiefly by 
Catholics, who speak Italian. 
The inhabitants of the interior 
are of the Greek church. It is 
supposed, from the passage 
above cited, that the gospel 
was planted here by Titus. 
(See Illyricum.) 

DAMASCUS. (Gen. xv. 2.) 
The capital of ancient Syria, 
for three centuries the resi- 
dence of the Syrian kings, and 
the oldest city whicfi now 
exists. Its modern name is 
El-shams. It i3 situated on 
the river Baradi, about two 
hundred miles south of Anti- 
och, and a hundred and twenty 
north-east, of Jerusalem. The 
country around it, within a 
circuit of twenty or thirty 
miles, is well watered, ana 
exceedingly fertile. The city 
itself is about two miles in 
length, and surrounded by a 
wall. The streets are narrow, 
but well paved ; and it is said 
that one of them, which runs 
through the breadth of the city 
and suburbs, from two to three 
miles, is still called "straight." 
(Acts ix. 11.) The adjoining 
country is so beautiful in sce- 
nery, and so rich in soil, that 
the orientals regard it as a 
paradise on earth; and such is 
its commanding %ituat ion, that 
190 



DAM 

ane of the Roman emperors 
called it the Eye of the East. 
It is sai-l that when Moham- 
med viewed the city from a 
distant elevation, he was so 
much enchanted with the pros- 
pect, that he would not enter it; 
saying that there was but one 
heaven for man, and he was 
determined not to have his 
upon earth. 

The first notice we have of 
Damascus, in the Old Testa- 
ment history, except that it 
was the residence of Eliezer, 
(Abraham's steward.) is, that 
the Syrian army, which came 
to succour an ally, was de- 
feated by David with a loss of 
twenty-two thousand men; that 
the Syrian nation became tri- 
butary to Israel ; and David 
" put garrisons in Syria of 
Damascus," or in Syria, of 
which Damascus was the ca- 
pital. After this we find many 
of the most interesting pas- 
sages of history and pro- 
phecy connected with Syria 
and its splendid capital. (1 
Kinsrs xi. 24; xv. IS. 2Kin£S 
xiv. 25-38; xvi. 9. lsa. ix. 11.) 
Since a. d. 1517, it has been 
under the Turkish dominion, 
and is the capital of one of 
their pashalics; hence called 
The Pas/udic of Damascus. 

Mr. King, an American mis- 
sionary, visited Damascus in 
1824, We learn, from his de- 
scription of it, that it is situated 
in a large plain, and is sur- 
rounded by several considera- 
ble villages. The plain is 
covered with gardens of chest- 
nut, olive, and fi? trees, apri- 
cots and vines. ^No Christian 
is allowed, under any cir- 
cumstances, to ride within the 
city. Even the French consul 
was compelled by force to dis- 
mount as soon as he entered 
the city. In the room of a 
convent, where Mr. K. lodged, 
was a picture of the apostle 
Paul. 

Without tha city are four 



DAM 

streams of water, which ran 
close to each other. On their 
beautiful shady banks were 
great numbers of Turks dri lik- 
ing, smoking, and playing. 
On an eminence, at " the 
distance of two or three 
miles, the city appears thick- 
ly set with houses of a dusky 
white. 

" The minarets, of which 
there may be seventy or eighty, 
with here and there a tall cy- 
press rising above the houses, 
are the only things which 
break in upon the uniformity. 
This whitish city we see m the 
midst of a large wood, about 
fifty miles in circumference, 
with little variety, except what 
arises from the dark green of 
the chestnuts, and the dark, 
mournful appearance of the 
olives and poplars. 

"In the skirts of the wood is 
to be seen here and there a 
little village, with a mosque. 
This wood, which actually 
consists of an immense num- 
ber of gardens and orchards, 
lies in a great plain, having, 
on the south-by-west, a hill, or 
rather a chain of little hills, 
which skirt the northern part 
of the Hainan. On the north- 
west, north, and north-east, 
stretches along a part of the 
eastern range of Anti-Libanus. 
On the south-east and east we 
see, at a great distance, rising 
in the horizon, a chain of hills, 
or mountains, which divide 
this Mohammedan paradise 
from the hot regions of the 
desert. These mountains are 
not seen very distinctly, on 
account of the clouds, mist, 
and smoke which seem to 
cover them." 

According to the best in- 
formation, Damascus contains 
about one hundred and fifty 
thousand souls, about ten thou- 
sand of whom are Christians. 
The Christians are divided 
nearly as follows: <rreeks,3,000; 
Greek Catholics, fc,000; Maron- 
191 



DAM 

Ites, 100; Syrians, Armenians, 
and Catholic Armenians, 900. 
Of Jews, there are about 400 
houses, and 3,000 souls. 

Malte Brun informs us that 
Damascus has a manufacture 
of soaps, and of stuffs made of 
a mixture of cotton and silk. 
The cabinet work of fine wood, 
adorned with ivory and mother 
of pearl, has excited the admi- 
ration of Europeans. This city 
is enlivened by the bustle of 
commerce, and the passage of 
the caravans to Mecca. The 
great street straight, which 
is two miles long, from east to 
west presents two rows of 
shops, in which the riches of 
India glitter along with those 
of Europe. The private houses 
of Damascus, simple in exter- 
nal appearance, exhibit in the 
interior all the splendour and 
elegance of refined luxury. 
The floors are of marble; ala- 
baster and gilding are display- 
ed on every side. In every 
great house there are several 
fountains playing in magnifi- 
cent basins. The smallest 
house has three water pipes ; 
one for the kitchen, another 
for the garden, and a third for 
washing. The same magni- 
ficence" is displayed in the 
mosques, churches, and coffee- 
houses. The environs of the 
city, watered by the Barrady 
and other streams, present, at 
all seasons of the year, a 
pleasing verdure, and contain 
an extensive series of gardens 
and villas. 

The art of inlaying iron or 
steel with other metals, es- 
pecially gold and silver, to 
make them elastic and yet 
very hard, was formerly so 
extensively carried on in this 
city, as to give its name to the 
substance. Hence Damascus 
razors, swords, &c. Silks, lea- 
ther, dried fruits, and sweet- 
meats are among the chief 
exports. The fabric which is 
called Damask is, by some, 



DAM 

supposed to have been once 
manufactured chiefly in this 
city, and hence to have de- 
rived its name. The guides of 
travellers show the house, and 
the very room, in which, they 
say, Paul lodged during the 
three days of his blindness, and 
where, they tell us, he had hia 
wonderful vision. (2 Cor. xii. 
2.) Here, too, they point out the 
grave of Ananias, the spot on 
the Jerusalem road where Paul 
was converted, and the wall 
by which he escaped ; the 
house of Naaman the Syrian, 
now a hospital for lepers, and 
the tomb of Gehazi, Elisha's 
servant 

The commerce of Damascus 
is still very extensive, and is 
carried on by caravans. The 
place is regarded with interest 
as the theatre of missionary 
labours. The (London) Church 
Missionary Society, and the 
British and Foreign Bible So- 
ciety, have had encouraging 
success in .their efforts, in 
Damascus and its vicinity. 
The hope has been entertain* 
ed, that the immense conflu- 
ence of merchants and pilgrims 
there may be made the means 
of dispersing the Scriptures 
through all the countries of 

DAMNATION. (Mark iiL 

29.) This term, in its common 
scriptural use, denotes the 
final and endless perdition of 
the ungodly, — a doctrine as 
clearly~tau2ht as the resurrec- 
tion of the 3ead. (Dan. xii. 2, 
Matt, xxiii. 35 ; xxv. 41. 4&. 
Mark xvi. 16. John v. 28, 29. 
2 Pet. ii. 3.) In some passages 
this word is used where con- 
demnation or judgment would 
more properly express the 
sense. The same word which 
is rendered damnation in ICor. 
xi. 29, is rendered judgment 
in 1 Pet. iv. 17. So in'Rom. xiv. 
23, the word damned would" 
better read, is self -condemned. 
(See Eternal.) 

192 



DAN 

DAN. 1. A person. (Gen. 
Xxx. 6.) The fifth son of Jacob. 
The prediction utteredby Jacob 
respecting Dan, (Gen. xlix. 16, 
17,) is variously interpreted. 
It is probable that the eleva- 
tion of his tribe to an equal 
rank with the others, notwith- 
standing he was born of a con- 
cubine, was foretold in v. 16 ; 
and the residue of the predic- 
tion may allude to the subtle 
and crafty disposition of his 
descendants. Indeed, we know 
that Samson (who was among 
the most noted of them) was 
remarkably successful in stra- 
tagem, (Judg. xiv. xv.;) and 
perhaps the~ same trait was 
characteristic .of their tribe. 
(Judg. xviii. 26, Sf. See Adder.) 

2. Tribe of, (Ex. xxxi. 6,) 
had its portion between the 
possessions of Judah and Eph- 
raim,on one side, and between 
Benjamin and the sea shore on 
the other. They were never in 
quiet possession of their pro- 
vince, (comp. Josh. xix. 43. 
Judff. i. 34, 35, and xviii. 1. 
1 Sam. v. 10. 2 Kings i. 2,) 
and were much annoyed by 
the native inhabitants. Their 
tract was pleasant and fer- 
tile, though abounding with 
winding vales and bluff hills, 
but it vv as by far the smallest 
portion, (Josh. xix. 47. Judg. 
xviii. 1 ;) and hence they 
sought some place for the 
planting of a colony. To this 
end, they sent five of their 
most enterprising men to ex- 

{Dlore the country ; and they 
bund a place on the northern 
frontier, called Laish, (Judg. 
xviii. 7,) or Leshem, (Josh. xix. 
47,) which seemed easy of ac- 
quisition, and in every respect 
suited to their purpose. (Judg. 
xviii. 10.) They accordingly 
took measures at once to obtain 
it; and a very succinct and 
interesting history of the pro- 
ceeding is given us by the 
sacred historian. The place 
17 



DAN 

was captured and destroyed by 
fire ; but the Danites rebuilt it, 
and called it Dan. (See Beer- 
sheba.) 

3. Town op, was built up 
as mentioned in the preceding 
paragraph. It lay at the north- 
ern extremity of the land of 
Israel, in the tribe of Naphtali, 
at the foot of mount Lebanon, 
near the source of the Jordan^ 
and (as some suppose) gave 
the name to that river, (Jor, 
the spring.) The town was 
captured by the king of As- 
syria. (1 Kings xv. 20.) It 
was here that Jeroboam esta- 
blished the worship of one 
of the golden calves, (1 Kings 
xii. 29. Amos viii. 14,) though 
idolatry prevailed there before 
Jeroboam introduced it. (Judg, 
xviii. 17—19. 24—31.) It seems 
to have been a place of some 
commercial importance, (Eze, 
xxvii. 19,) and, being a border 
town, is frequently the subject 
of prophecy. (Jer. iv. 15 ; viii. 
16.) rrobably the word Dan 
(Gen. xiv. 14) was inserted for 
Laish, by Ezra, or some other 
collector of the Jewish Scrip- 
tures, as Hebron is for Kirjath- 
Arba ; for it is certain that 
neither Dan nor Hebron were 
known to Moses by those 
names. 

DANCE. (Ps. cxlix. 3.) The 
Jewish dances were generally 
expressions of religious joy and 
gratitude; sometimes they were 
practised in honour of a con- 
queror, (Judg. xi. 34. 1 Sam. 
xviii. 6, 7,) and sometimes on 
occasions of domestic joy. (Jer. 
xxxi. 4. 13. Luke xv. 25.) In 
the religious service, the tim- 
brel was employed to direct 
the dance, and it was led by 
some individual, whom the rest 
followed with measured step 
and devotional songs. Thus* 
David is supposed to have led 
such a band. (Ps. cl. 4, 5. See 
also Ex. xv. 20. Judg. xxi. 20 
—23.) Individuals often ex- 
193 



DAN 

pressed feelings of joy in the 
same way. (Luke vi. 23. Acts 
ill. 8.) 

Dancing was doubtless known 
from a very early period as 
a mere ' worldly amusement. 
(Job xxi. 11—15. Mark vi. 22.) 
It is worthy of remark, how- 
ever, that the mingling of 
males and females, which is 
so common in modern dances, 
was unknown to the Jews ; 
unless, as it has been well 
observed, a precedent may be 
found in the scene of idolatrous 
confusion and madness when 
the children of Israel bowed 
themselves before the image 
of a calf. (Ex. XXX.;. 6. 19.) 

DANIEL. (Ezek. xiv. 14.) 
The name of a distinguished 
prophet, whose history is given, 
us with unusual minuteness. 
He was a descendant of the 
family of David, and, while' 
quite a youth, was carried, 
among other Jewish captives, 
to Clialdea. He was there 
instructed in the language 
and arts of the Chaldeans, 
and, with three other Jew- 
ish youths, was appointed to 
be trained specially for the 
royal service, and to reside 
in the palace. (Dan. i. 1 — 
4. See Harvey Boys, chap, 
xi., by Am. S. S. Union.) He 
was very early distinguished 
for his piety and wisdom, as 
we are informed by a contem- 
porary writer, (Ezek. xiv. 14. 
20; xxviii. 3,) and was ulti- 
mately raised to a very exalted 
station in the court of the king 
of Babylon. Daniel interpret- 
ed several remarkable dreams 
which the king had ; and was 
himself favoured with repeated 
visions, in which were dis- 
closed to him some of the 
most important and interest- 
ing events ; some of which are 
yet to take place. (See next 
paragraph.) It is uncertain 
where Daniel died, though it is 
generally supposed thaf it was 
in some part of Chaldea. (For 



a full and complete history of 
this prophet,accompamed with 
a map of all the places mention- 
ed in his history, a view of Tyre, 
and of the celebrated Hanging 
Gardens, a fine picture of Bel- 
shazzar's Feast, and other il- 
lustrations, see Life ofDaniei 
and Elisama, both by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 

Daniel, book of, is the 
twenty-seventh in the order of 
the books of the Old Testament. 
It is a mixture of history and 
prophecy, and contains (espe- 
cially the last six chapters) the 
most extraordinary and com- 
prehensive predictions that are 
to be found in the prophetical 
writings. So explicit are they 
respecting the advent of the 
Messiah, that the Jews were 
formerly unwilling to admit 
their genuineness; but this 
cannot be contested. (Matt, 
xxiv. 15.) Josephus, the Jewish 
historian, regards him as the 
chief of the prophets. (Lib. x. 
ch. xi. § 7.) They were uttered 
during the captivity of the 
Jews, and both before and 
after the time of Ezekiel. The 
Life of Daniel, above men 
tioned, contains a succinct 
view of these prophecies. 

There are one or two re- 
markable incidental proofs of 
the genuineness of this book, 
which ought not to be passed 
over. The first twelve chap- 
ters of the book, and indeed 
all the narrative part, were 
originally written in Hebrew ,• 
but when the prophet relates 
the conversation, or uses the 
language of others, (as from 
ch. ii. 4, to the end of ch. vii.) 
he employs the very words of 
those who spoke, whatever 
tongue they used. This shows 
his unusual accuracy. The 
title, dissolver of doubts, (Dan. 
v. 12,) (or untier of knots, as 
the marginal reading is,) by 
which the queen descnoed 
Daniel, is still used in the 
east as a title of honour. Sii 
194 



D AR 

Isaac Newton regards Daniel 
as the most distinct of all the 
prophets, in the order of time, 
and the least difficult to be 
understood, and therefore, in 
the things relating to the last 
times, he is to be regarded as 
a key to the rest of the pro- 
phets. The prophecy of Da- 
niel, and the Revelation of 
John, are supposed by some to 
be illustrative of each other. 

DARIUS. (Ezraiv. 5.) There 
are several princes of this 
name in ancient history. The 
one, who is distinguished as 
the Median, (Dan. v. 31,) or 
Mede, (Dan. xi. 1,) called the 
son of Ahasuerus, (Dan. ix. 1,) 
or Astyages by the apocryphal 
writers, was the successor of 
Belshazzar. (Dan. v. 30, 31.) 
Another was the last of the 
Persian kings, who adopted 
this name on his accession to 
the throne. Alexander the 
Great conquered him, and 
ended the Persian monarchy ; 
thus fulfilling the prophecies 
of Daniel. (Dan. ii. 39, 40 ; vii. 
5, 6 ; viii. 5, 6. 20. 22.) A third 
prince of this name was the 
son of Hystaspes. It was under 
his reign that the Jews return- 
ed to Jerusalem, and renewed 
the work of rebuilding the 
temple. The city of Babylon, 
dissatisfied with some of the 
edicts of Cyrus, revolted ; and 
Darius, after a siege of nearly 
two years, in which the pro- 
phecy of Isa. xlvii. 7—9, was 
literally fulfilled, obtained pos- 
session of the city by a base 
"tratagem, though historians 
epeak of it as an heroic sacri- 
fice. Herodotus tells us that 
Darius ordered the hundred 
gates of brass to be taken 
away. (Jer. Ii. 58.) 

DARKNESS. (Gen.i.2.) It 
is said of the darkness which 
constituted one of the plagues 
of Esypt, that U U might be 
felt." (Ex.x.21.) This might 
nave been occasioned by a 
thick, heavy vapour, or other 



DAV 

sensible change in the atmo 
sphere, which caused an en- 
tire interception of the sun's 
rays. It was evidently miracu- 
lous ; and the dread and terror 
it inspired is vividly described. 
(Ex. x. 22, 23.) So of the dark 
ness that shrouded the earth 
when our Saviour was put to 
death, (Luke xxiii. 44, 45;) it 
was manifestly miraculous. No 
natural eclipse of the sun could 
take place at that period of 
the moon ; and the heathen 
writers themselves acknow- 
ledge that it was a prodisry. 
DART. (See Armour.) 
DATHAN. (SeeKoRAH.) 
DAVID (1 Sam. xvi. 13) was 
the son of Jesse, of the tribe of 
Judah. He was born in Beth- 
lehem b. c. 1085, and was, both 
in his prophetical and regal 
character, an eminent type~of 
the Messiah. While he was 
employed as a shepherd in his 
father's fields, God sent Sa- 
muel to Bethlehem, with in- 
structions to anoint David as 
king of Israel, in the place of 
Saul, who had incurred the 
divine displeasure, and was 
therefore to be deposed. He 
was then about twenty-two 
years old. He did not succeed 
at once to the throne, but first 
became Saul's armour-bearer. 
(1 Sam. xvi. 14— 23.) Then he 
retired to Bethlehem, but soon 
appeared as the champion of 
the Israelites, against Goliath, 
a famous giant of the Philis- 
tines, whom he slew. (1 Sam. 
xvii.) This victory greatly 
advanced his reputation, and 
secured him a high place in 
the court and camp of the 
king. In this situation, he 
formed a friendship with Jona- 
than, the king's son, which is 
memorable for its strength and 
sacredness. (ISam.xviii. 1—5.) 
Soon, however, Saul found that 
his own fame was likely to be 
eclipsed by that of the young 
man from Bethlehem ; he be- 
came jealous of him, and from 
195 



DAV 

that time to the end of his own 
life pursued him with a most 
malignant hostility, (1 Sam. 
xviii. 10, 11 ;) and he even 
gave his daughter Michal in 
marriage to him, with the se- 
cret hope that she would prove 
a snare to him. 

After a series oi military 
successes, in which his wisdom 
and valour were conspicuous, 
and after several narrow es- 
capes from the malice of the 
ting, which are minutely de- 
tailed by the sacred histori- 
an, and which David himself 
celebrates in his Psalms, he at 
length received succours from 
the tribes of Judah and Ben- 
jamin, at least sufficient to 
protect himself in his exile. 
(1 Chron. xii.) This only ren- 
dered Saul still more implaca- 
ble, for he regarded it as an 
open act of rebellion, and per- 
secuted him with increased 
malignity. Two or three times 
the king was completely at 
David's mercy, but he forbore 
to take his life. (1 Sam. xxiv. 
xx vi.) 

In process of time, Jonathan 
and his two brothers were kill- 
ed, in a battle with the Philis- 
tines, on mount Gilboa, (ISam. 
xxxi. 2 Sam. i. ;) and Saul, 
finding himself defeated, and 
his army completely routed, 
fell upon his own sword and 
died. Then David, by divine 
direction, removed to Hebron, 
where the chief men of Judah 
met him, and offered him the 
government of their tribe, 
which he accepted, and ad- 
ministered it for upwards of 
seven years ; but at the end of 
that period, and when every 
other claim to the throne had 
been extinguished, David as- 
cended the throne of Israel, 
for which he had long before 
been designated. Soon after he 
assumed "the government, he 
obtained possession of Jerusa- 
lem, reduced the fortress which 
the Jebusites had maintained, 



DAV 

and established the seat of his 
government there. Under his 
wise and liberal policy, the 
place was greatly enlarged ; 
magnificent edifices rose up 
on every side; fortifications 
were erected, and the ark, 
which had been before without 
a fixed abode, was brought into 
the new city with religious ce- 
remonies peculiarly joyful and 
solemn. Thenceforward, Jeru- 
salem became the capital of 
the kingdom, the residence of 
the royal family, and, more 
than all, the city of God. (Ps. 
xlviii. 2. Matt. v. 35.) To it 
the tribes repaired from every 
quarter of the land to cele- 
brate their annual festivals; 
and its growth in population, 
wealth," and splendour was 
very rapid. 

David now formed the design 
of building a magnificent tem- 
ple for the worship of Jehovah, 
to take the place of the taber- 
nacle, which was but a tempo- 
rary and moveable structure. 
He was informed, however, by 
God's direction, that this ser- 
vice would be reserved for his 
son Solomon. 

After several contests with 
the nations that bordered on 
Israel, in which David was uni 
formly victorious, there broke 
out a war with the Ammon- 
ites, (see Ammonites,) during 
the progress of which David 
fell into those most aggravated 
sins, of murder and "adultery, 
which brought disgrace and 
distress on his family and go- 
vernment, and involved him 
in trouble during the remnan 
of his days. (2fSam. xii. 9.) 
His domestic peace was de- 
stroyed by the sin of Arnnon 
and Tamar. Then came the 
cruel and unnatural rebellion 
of Absalom, which compelled 
the king to flee from his capi- 
tal, and exile himself, to avoid 
being cut off by a parricidal 
hand. Then the death of Ab 
salom, though it brought relief 
196 



DAV 

to trie kingdom, inflicted a 
deep wound on the father's 
heart. The insurrection un- 
der Sheba, and the murder of 
Amasa by Joab, followed in 
quick succession. And, to 
close the melancholy cata- 
logue, was the terrible judg- 
ment which he brought upon 
himself and the nation by num- 
bering the people, for some 
purpose which was sinful in 
the sight of God, though not 
explained to us. Davfd was 
now seventy years old, and 
had reigned forty years over 
the tribe of Judah, and thirty- 
three over the whole kingdom 
of Israel. Just before his death, 
his son Adonijah made a bold 
attempt to usurp the throne; 
out his purpose was defeated, 
and, to secure the kingdom 
against any pretender, David 
resigned the crown to Solo- 
mon ; put into his hands the 
plan and model of the tem- 
ple, and the treasure he had 
accumulated for the erection 
of it; summoned the influ- 
ential men of the nation, and 
delivered his farewell address. 
And then, in the year B.C. 1014, 
exchanged, as we have every 
reason to believe, a corruptible 
crown for an incorruptible one, 
and a state of severe probation 
and discipline for the glory 
and blessedness of the "" hea- 
venly world. (For a full and 
lucid history of this eminent 
monarch, with a map adapted 
expressly to the sacred narra- 
tive; interesting illustrations 
of several scenes in his life; 
an appendix of references ; a 
complete analysis of his tra- 
vels; and a table, indicating 
the date and occasion of the 
most remarkable psalms,— see 
Life of David, by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

The term David is sometimes 
dfctplied to the Messiah. (Ezek. 
xxxiv. 23, 24. Hos. iii. 5.) 

When David is spoken of as 
the man after God's own heart. 
17* 



DA? 

(1 Sam. xiii. 14. Acts xiii. 22,) 
reference is obviously intended 
to his general character and 
conduct, and not to every par- 
ticular instance of it. As he 
was human, he was imperfect; 
and, when he sinned, God 
punished him, and that with 
great severity. But he was re- 
markable for his devotion to 
God's service, and he kept 
himself from idols. He esta- 
blished the government of Is- 
rael, and extended its domi- 
nions to the full extent of the 
promise to Abraham, and left 
a compact and united empire, 
stretching from Egypt to Leba- 
non, and from the Euphrates 
to the Mediterranean. His 
Psalms place him among the 
most eminent of prophets and 
holy men. It has been well 
said, that in sublimity and 
tenderness of expression, in 
loftiness and purity of reli- 
gious sentiment, they are with- 
out parallel. They imbody 
the universal language of re- 
ligious emotion. The songs 
which cheered the solitudes of 
Engedi, or animated the He- 
brews, as they wound along 
the glens or hill sides of Judea, 
have been repeated for ages, 
in almost every part of the 
habitable world ; in the re- 
motest islands of the ocean ; 
among the forests of America, 
and the deserts of Africa. How 
many hearts have they soften- 
ed, purified, consoled, and ex- 
alted, by the deep devotional 
fervour they have kindled, 
and the views of the divine 
wisdom, holiness, and love to 
which they have led ! 
Key of David. (See Key.) 
DAY. (Gen. i.5.) The na- 
tural day consists of twenty- 
four hours, or one revolution 
of the earth around upon its 
axis. Three hundred and six- 
ty-five of such revolutions 
make a year, or one revolution 
of the earth around the sun. 
The artificial day is the time 
197 



DAY 

during which the sun is above 
the horizon. Both these uses 
of the term occur, Gen. i. 5. 
The civil day is reckoned dif- 
ferently by different nations: 
some from sunrise to sunrise ; 
others from sunset to sunset ; 
others still from noon to noon, 
or from midnight to midnight. 
(See Creation.) The Jewish 
day was reckoned from eve- 
ning to evening. Their Sab- 
bath, or seventh, began on 
what we call Friday, "at sun- 
S3t, and ended on what we 
call Saturday, at sunset. (Ex. 
xii. 18. Lev. xxiii. 32.) This 
mode of reckoning days was 
not uncommon in other east- 
ern nations. Some have 
conjectured that this compu- 
tation was established after 
the children of Israel left 
Egypt, in order to distinguish 
them in this, as in all other 
respects, from the surrounding 
nations,whose day commenced 
in honour of their chief god, 
the sun, at the time of his 
rising. If we suppose this was 
the origin of the practice, it 
was not confined to the Jews, 
but extended to the Pheni- 
cians, Numidians, and others. 
The day was originally divided 
into morning, noon, and night. 
The word day, in John xi. 9, 
is used in contradistinction 
from night, or darkness. The 
term hour is first introduced 
into the sacred writings, Dan. 
iii. 6; but it is very doubtful 
whether any definite term is 
denoted by it. In our Saviour's 
time, the division of the day 
into twelve hours was known. 
(John xi. 9.) In Europe and 
America, and most civilized 
countries, the day begins at 
midnight. (See Watch.) The 
word day is often used by the 
sacred writers to denote an 
indefinite time. (Gen. ii. 4. 
[sa. xxii. 5. Acts xvii. 31.) So 
also it may be remarked, that 
the term, " three days and three 
nights," (Matt. xii. 40,) de- 



DEA 

notes the same space of time as 
"three days." (Matt, xxvii. 
63,64. See on the whole subject 
of the division of time, Biblt- 
cal Antiquities, by Am. S. S. 
Union, vol. i. ch. viii. § 4.) 

Daysman. (Jobix.33.) An 
arbitrator, or person to judge 
between contending parties. 

Dayspring. (Job xxxviii. 
12. Luke i. 78.) The first 
dawning of light. (Comp. Isa. 
lx. 1, 2, and Rev. xxii. 16.) 

DAY-STAR,or Morning-star, 
(2 Pet. i. 19,) in the figurative 
language of the apostle, is sup- 
posed to mean the light which 
shines on the soul of the be- 
liever, and cheers him with 
the expectation of a perfect 
day of holiness and ioy. 

Lord's-day. (See Saebath.) 

DEACON. (1 Tim. iii. 10.) 
This name, as a title of office, 
was first given to seven men 
of honest report, full of the 
Holy Ghost and wisdom, who 
were appointed over the busi- 
ness of serving tables, in order 
that the apostles might be at 
liberty to give themselves con- 
tinually to prayer and the mi- 
nistry of the word. They were 
set apart by prayer and the 
lay ingon of the apostles' hands. 
(Acts vi. 1-4.) The qualifi- 
cations and duties of deacons 
are particularly set forth in 
Acts vi. 1 — 6, and 1 Tim. iii. 
8 — 12. The female ministers, 
or deaconesses, were probably 
employed in attending upon 
those of their own sex, in some 
of the same offices and duties' 
which the deacons performed 
for their brethren. 

DEAD, DEATH. (Gen. xxv. 
11. Ex. iv. 19.) Death is the 
destruction or extinction of 
life. By the transgression of 
God's commandment, our first 
parents became liable to death. 
The threatening was, " in tlm 
day that thou eatest thereof 
thou shalt surely die." (Gen. 
ii. 17. Rom. v. 12—14. 1 Cor- 
xv. 21,22. Heb. ix. 27) This 
' 198 



DEB 

expression does not mean to 
define the time of actual disso- 
lution, but rather to denote an 
inevitable liability or exposure 
to death, which, in that day, 
and by that act, they should 
Burely incur. 

The sacred writers speak of 
a death which affects the body 
only, (Gen. xxv. 11;) of another 
which describes the condition 
of the soul under the power of 
sin, (Eph. ii. 1;) and a third, 
which denotes the everlasting 
perdition of the wicked. (James 
v. 20.) In each of these senses, 
our divine Redeemer may be 
regarded as having virtually 
destroyed death, and deliver- 
ed them who, through fear of 
death, were all then* lifetime 
subject to bondage. (Heb. ii. 
14, 15.) To avail ourselves, 
however, of the benefits of his 
perfect triumph, we must be- 
lieve, trust, love, and obey him. 
(See Bury, Resurrection, 
Christ.) 

DEBIR, or KIRJATH-SE- 
PHER, (Judg. i. 11,) or KIR- 
JATH-SANNAH. (Josh. xv. 
49.) A stronghold of the sons 
of Anak, which was conquered 
by Joshua, (Josh. x. 38, 39,) and 
assigned to the tribe of Judah. 
It was afterwards recaptured 
by the Canaanites, and again 
subdued by the Israelites" un- 
der Othniel. (Josh. xv. 15— 
17.) It afterwards became a 
city of the Levites. (Josh. xxi. 
15.) There was another town 
of this name among the pos- 
sessions of Gad, east of the 
Jordan, (Josh. xiii. 26,) and a 
third on the border of Judah 
and Benjamin. (Comp. Josh, 
xiii. 26, and xv. 7.) 

DEBORAH. 1. (Judg. i v. 4.) 
A. woman of eminent wisdom 
and holiness, (called a pro- 
phetess,) and a judge of the 
k people of Israel. She was the 
I wife of Lapidoth, (though some 
think the passage should read, 
a woman of Lapidoth,) and 
had her judgment-seat under 



DEC 

a palm tree, which is hence 
called by her name. (Judg. iv 
5.) Israel was suffering at that 
time a most oppressive bondage 
under Jabin, a Canaanitish 
king, to which they were 
doomed in consequence of 
their sin. Deborah, by divine 
direction, called upon Barak, 
who had probably signalized 
himself in some way, and com- 
manded him, as from God, to 
station himself upon mcaint 
Tabor, with a prescribed num- 
ber of men, and she would see 
to it that Sisera, the command- 
er of the tyrant's army, should 
be there, and should fall into 
Barak's hands. Barak en- 
gaged to undertake the enter- 
prise, if Deborah would ac 
company him. To this she 
consented; intimating, how 
ever, that if » she went, the 
honour of the victory would 
be her's, and not his, and that 
Sisera would be regarded as 
having fallen by the hands 
of a woman. (Judg. ix. 54.) 
The two armies met, and the 
event was as Deborah pre- 
dicted. Sisera fled, though his 
army was cut off, and every 
man slain. The triumphal 
song, composed or dictated by 
Deborah on that occasion, ia 
regarded as a fine specimen of 
oriental poetry. (See Barak, 
Jael.) 

2. (Gen. xxxv. 8.) The 
name of Rebekah's nurse, who 
died and was buried near 
Bethel. 

DECAPOLIS. (Matt. iv. 25.) 
Usuallyd escribed as a province 
or canton of Judea, within the 
half tribe of Manasseh, east of 
the Jordan ; but probably the 
name is applied to ten detach- 
ed cities of Persia, that might 
have been united in some alii 
ance or confederacy, not ex- 
tending to the residue of the 
the district within which they 
were situated. Geographers ge- 
nerally agree that Scythopolis 
was the chief of these cities- 
199 



DED 

and was the only one of them 
west of the Jordan ; that Hippo, 
(Hippos,) Gadara, Dion, (or Di- 
es,) Felea, (or Pella,) Gerasa, 
(or Gergesa,) Philadelphia and 
Raphana, (or Raphanae,) were 
seven of the remaining nine, 
and the other two were either 
Kanatha and Capitolias, or 
Damascus and Otopos. These 
cities were inhabited chiefly 
by foreigners (Greeks) in the 
days of our Saviour, and not 
by Jews. Hence the keeping 
of swine by the Gergesenes, 
(Matt. viii. 30—33,) which was 
forbidden by the Jewish law. 

DED AN. 1. (Jer. xxv. 
23; xlix. 8. Ezek. xxv. 13.) 
A district of Arabia Petraea, 
south of Idumea, or Edom, set- 
tled by the descendants of 
Dedan, son of Jokshan, son of 
Abraham and Keturah. (Gen. 
xxv. 3.) 

2. A country of Arabia, on 
the Persian gulf, which traded 
with Tyre in ivory and ebony. 
(Ezek. xxv. 13 ; xxvii. 15 — 20 ; 
xxxviii. 13.) It was inhabited 
by the posterity of Dedan, son 
of Raamah, (Gen. x. 7,) son of 
Cush ; and long after 'he ruin 
of Tyre, there was a city Da- 
den in this region, which car- 
ried on an extensive trade, 
part of which was in those ar- 
ticles mentioned by Ezekiel. 
The location of these places is 
uncertain. The Dedanim, (Isa. 
xxi. 13,) or Dodanim, (Gen. x. 
4,) were probably the people 
ofDedan. 

DEDICATE, DEDICATION. 
(Num. vii. 84. 2 Sam. viii. 11.) 
A religious ceremony, by which 
any person, place, or thing is 
set apart for the service of God, 
or to some sacred use. (Ex. xl. 
Num. vii. 1 Kings viii. Ezra 
vi. Neh. xii.) Cities, walls, 
gates, and private houses were 
thus dedicated. The practice 
of consecration was very com- 
mon among the Jews, and was 
suited to the peculiar dispen- 
sation under which they lived. 



DEG 

The persons, places, and 
things consecrated were, how- 
ever, for the most part designed 
to serve as patterns, examples, 
or shadows of better things in 
reserve; and now that the 
Messiah, — the true temple, 
altar, priest, and sacrifice, — 
(John li. 19—22. Heb. ix. 10,) 
has come ; that which was 
figurative and typical is done 
away ; the presence of the di- 
vineRedeemer in all the assem- 
blies of his people, even where 
only two or three are met in 
his name, may be regarded 
as consecrating every place 
where it isenjoyed. (Matt.xviii. 
20. Acts vii. 48. Heb. iii. 6.) 

Dedication, feast op the* 
(See Feast.) 

DEFILE. (Lev.xi.44.) Un- 
der the Jewish law, many ble- 
mishes of person and conduct 
were regarded as defilements 
or pollutions, rendering those 
upon whom they were found 
unclean, and subjecting them, 
for the time being, to many 
civil and religious disabilities. 
(Mark vii. 2.) The term is 
most frequently used by the 
sacred writers in a figurative 
sense. 

DEGREE. (Ps. cxx. title.) 
This word is used to signify 
rank or station. (Ps. lxii. 9.) 
The phrase, " so?ig or psalm 
of degrees,"— which forms the 
title to psalms cxx. to exxxiv. 
inclusive,— has been variously 
interpreted : some suppose it 
has reference to the elevated 
voice in which they were suns ; 
others to the time when they 
were sung, viz. at the annual 
festivals, when the Jews went 
up to Jerusalem, and that, in 
this sense, they were called 
odes of ascension. (See Se- 
lumzel, p. 21, by Am. S. S. 
Union.) Others suppose they 
were sung by the Levites as 
they ascended the steps of th ' 
temple ; and others again sup- 
pose that it denotes the pecu» 
liarly climacteric style of tbeso 
200 



DEM 

Psalms, viz that the thought or 
expression of one verse is re- 
sumed and carried forward in 
the next succeeding verse, as 
in Ps. cxxi. 

DEHAVITES. (Ezraiv.9.) 
Supposed by Herodotus to be a 
Persian tribe, and, as some 
think, the same who are men- 
tioned as from Ava. (2 Kings 
acvii. 24.) 

DELILAH. (Judg. xvi. 4.) A 
licentious woman, of the val- 
ley of Sorek, in the tribe of 
Judah, and near the borders 
of the Philistines, whom Sam- 
son loved, and who was the 
instrument of betraying him to 
his enemies. (See Samson.) 

DEMAS. (Col. iv. 14.) A 
zealous disciple and fellow 
labourer of Paul, (Phile. 24,) 
who afterwards apostatized 
from the faith, through inordi- 
nate love of the world. (2 Tim. 
iv. 10. 1 John ii. 15.) 

DEMETRIUS. 1. (Acts 
xix. 24.) A silversmith who re- 
sided at Ephesus, and manu- 
factured silver shrines, or small 
portable temples and images 
of Diana. (See Diana.) This 
was a very lucrative business 
in that city, where her worship 
was chiefly maintained; and 
hence, when the gospel began 
to make an impression, and 
the people to forsake their 
vain idols for the service of the 
living God, Demetrius saw that 
he should lose his business, 
unless he could still keep the 
people in sin. So he called a 
meeting of those who worked 
at that trade, and made a 
speech to them, charging the 
apostle Paul with having 
taught that the gods which 
they made were no gods, and 
with persuading the people not 
jo purchase the images by the 
manufacture of which they ob- 

•tained their living; and be- 
sides this, (or rather as a cover 
to their selfish and avaricious 
motives,) he showed them that 
the worship of Diana, which 



DEU 

they had maintained so long, 
and with so much magnifi- 
cence, and probably to the 
great pecuniary advantage ot 
the city, would be brought into 
contempt, if the apostle's doc- 
trine should prevail. By this 
harangue, he inflamed the pas- 
sions of his fellow craftsmen, 
and they excited the multitude, 
until the whole city of Ephesus 
was thrown into an uproar, 
which was finally quelled by 
the politic and seasonable ad- 
vice of the town-clerk. 

2. (3 John 12.) A disciple 
of high reputation, and, as 
some suppose, (though without 
warrant,) the Demetrius of 
Ephesus, converted to the faith 
of the eospel. 

DERBE. (Acts xiv. 6.) A 
town of Lycaonia, east of Ico 
nium, whither Paul and Bar 
nabas fled when expelled from 
Lystra, and where they preach 
ea the gospel with success 
(Acts xiv.20.) Derbe was the na- 
tive place of Gaius. (Acts xx. 4.) 

DESERT. (Ex. v. 3.) This 
word is nearly synonymous 
with wilderness. It signifies 
generally a waste or unculti- 
vated territory, as pastures 
and forests. The modern ac- 
ceptation of the word al ways 
implies barrenness ; not so the 
ancient. (Ps. lxv. 12.) The 
different tracts mentioned un- 
der this name in the Bible, as 
Shur, Sin, Par an, &c, will be 
found particularly noticed in 
their proper places. (See Ev. 
Recreations, by Am. S. S. 
Union, vol. Hi. pp. 104—110.) 

DESOLATION, abomina- 
tion of. (See Abominable.) 

DEUTERONOMY, or the 
second law, (so called from 
its repeating the law,)is the fifth 
book of the Bible, and (except 
the last chapter) was evidently 
written by Moses. (Deut. i. 
5, comp. with Deut. xxxiv. 1. 
2Chron. xxv. 4. Dan. ix. 13 
Mark xii. 19. Acts ill. 22.J 
This book embraces a period 
201 



DEV 

of about five or six weeks, 
of the fortieth year of the 
journey ings of the children 
of Israel ; and for the benefit 
of those who were born after 
the giving of the law from Si- 
nai, it recites that law, with 
some unessential variations of 
language, and enforces its ob- 
servance by many powerful 
motives and pathetic exhorta- 
tions. Moses directed that it 
should be read every seven 
years, and appointed the time 
and manner of doing it. (Deut. 
xxxi. 9—13.) It is the last of 
the five books of Moses, and 
was written a little before his 
death; probably a. m. 2552. 
The portions of this book 
which are not substantially 
found in other parts of the 
Pentateuch, are treated of in 
Union Questions, vol. iv. less. 
xxvi. to xxx., and Teacher's 
Assistant to the same vol., 
pp. 205 to 224, both by Am. S. 
S. Union. 

DEVIL. (lPet.v.8.) This 
word, which originally means 
traducer, or false accuser, is 
sometimes applied to very 
wicked men or women, (John 
viii. 44. Acts xiii. 10. 2 Tim. 
iii. 3. Tit. ii. 3,) but usually it 
denotes the one most subtle 
and malignant of the evil spi- 
rits, and the great enemy of 
God and man. 

That there are wicked an- 
gels or spirits, and that there 
is one more eminently evil 
than all others, who, in some 
form, was instrumental in the 
temptation and fall of man, 
and who, for purposes un- 
known to us, has now power 
to seduce and destroy men, and 
who goeth about in our world 
as a raging lion ranges the 
forest in search of prey, seek- 
ing in every place, and at all 
times, whom he -may destroy ; 
that such a malignant and 

Sowerful being exists, none can 
oubt, unless it is those whose 
minds are " spoiled by philoso- 



DEW 

phy and vain deceit." That 
there are difficulties attending 
every attempt to define the 
character and relations of this 
prince of evil, none will de- 
ny; but the difficulties are 
much greater if we attempt to 
reconcile the expressions of 
the sacred writers with the 
opinion that they merely per- 
sonify the principle of evil. If 
we compare the passages in 
which his name, character, or 
power is introduced, we shall 
find they can only apply to a 
living, active, and malicious 
being, who has exalted himself 
against God, and who is striv- 
ing to frustrate all his purposes 
of mercy towards man. (Job 
i. and ii. Matt. iv. 1. John viii. 
44; xii. 31. 2 Cor. iv.4; xi. 14, 
15. Eph. ii. 2, 3. 1 John iii. 8; 
v. 13. Rev. xx. 2.) And we 
are also taught that this chief 
apostate has under his control 
angels or ministers that exe- 
cute his malicious designs, and 
that both are finally to be de- 
stroyed with an everlasting 
destruction. (Matt. xxv. 41. 
Jude 6. Rev. xx. 10.) It is im- 
portant to guard against those 
subtle errors whicti'deprive the 
prominent and essential truths 
of the gospel of all their force 
and character, by turning the 
expressions in which they are 
conveyed to us into fables, or 
mere figures of speech. East- 
ern travellers have furnished 
very curious accounts of people 
who worship the devil, and of 
other heathen nations who will 
not have the name of the devil 
spoken, because, they say, it 
may seem like taking part in 
a controversy between God and 
a fallen angel. 

DEW. (2 Sam. i. 21.) A 
dense vapour which falls on 
the earth during the night, and 
which, in Judea, was so copious 
as in a great measure to supply 
the absence of showers. It thus 
became a beautiful emblem of 
spiritual blessings,(Deut. xxxii. 
202 



DIA 

E. Hos. xiv. 5—7,) as well as of j 
temporal prosperity. (Jobxxix. i 
19.) Travellers inform us that I 
the heat and dryness of the air i 
are such, that if it were not for 
the dews, the earth would 
be parched, and all its fruits 
withered ; and they state that 
the dews are so heavy as to 
soak the earth like a heavy 
shower. The same fact may 
be inferred from Judg. vi. 37— 
40 2 Sam. xvii. 12. Job xxix. 
19. Sol. Song v. 2. The psalm- 
ist (Ps. cxxxiii. 3) mentions 
particularly the dew of Her- 
mon as emblematical of the 
rich and abundant blessingo 
of spiritual communion. So 
Hos. xiv. 5—7. And Maun- 
drell tells us that their tents, 
when pitched on Tabor and 
Hermon, "were as wet with 
dew as if it had rained on 
them all night; 5 ' and others 
speak of their cloaks, in which 
they wrapped themselves while 
they slept, as being completely 
wet, as if they had been im- 
mersed in the sea. 

Dr. Shaw, in his travels, 
speaking of Arabia Petraea, 
says : " The dews of the 
night, as we had the heavens 
only for our covering, would 
frequently wet us to the skin ; 
but no sooner was the sun 
risen, and the atmosphere a 
little heated, than the mists 
were quickly dispersed, and 
the copious moisture which the 
dews had communicated to the 
sands would be entirely evapo- 
rated." (Hos. vi. 4.) 

DIADEM. (See Crcwn.) 

DIAL (2 Kings xx. 11. Isa. 
xxxviii. 1—9) is" an instrument 
employed by the Hebrews to 
• measure time, or to determine 
the apparent progress of the 
sun by the shadow which he 
casts on the dial. It is a mat- 
ter of much speculation, but 
little importance, what was the 
form, &c. of the dial mentioned 
in these passages. 

Hezekiah, king of Judah, 



DIA 

was sick and near to death. 
He prayed, with great earnest- 
ness, that his life might be 
prolonged. Isaiah was^sent to 
inform him that God would 
relieve his disease, and that in 
three days he should be able to 
go up to the temple. The asto- 
nished king asked a sign from 
the Lord, that a thing so incre- 
dible should be done to him. 
The prophet gave him his 
choice of two signs, viz. that 
the shadow of the sun, on the 
dial of Ahaz, should go forward 
or backward ten degrees. The 
king, supposing that it would 
be a more wonderful token 
of the divine interposition, 
(2 Kings xx. 10,) preferred that 
the shadow should go back, 
and, in answer to the prophet's 
prayers, the sun, or the shadow 
of it upon the dial, was brought 
back or returned ten degrees. 
It is a question of inconsidera- 
ble importance whether this 
miracle was wrought upon the 
rays of the sun, by which they 
were deflected in an extraordi- 
nary manner, so as to produce 
this retrograde motion of the 
shadow, while the sun itself 
seemed to go on its way,— as 
contended by bishop Lowth and 
others, — or whether the motion 
of the earth, or the position ot 
the sun, were so changed as to 
produce this result, as held by 
archbishop Usher and the great 
body of the Jews. It was this 
miracle to which reference if 
made in 2 Chron. xxxii. 31. 

DIAMOND. (Ex. xxviii. IS.) 
The hardest and most valuable 
of gems, and found chiefly in 
the East Indies and Brazil. It 
is mentioned among the jewels 
of the king of Tyre, (Ezek. 
xxviii. 13;) and the expression 
in Jer. xvii. 1, denotes the deep 
and indelible record which was 
made of the sin of Judah. (See 
Adamant.) 

DIANA. (Acts xix. 28.) A 
heathen goddess of great ce- 
lebrity, (ver. 27,) ancl whose 
203 



DIA 

worship was attended with 
peculiar splendour and mag- 
nificence at Ephesus. Her 
temple in that city was so 
vast and beautiful, as to be 
ranked among the seven won- 
ders of the world. Pliny tells 
us that it was four hundred 
and twenty-five feet long, and 
two hundred and twenty in 
breadth, and that it was adorn- 
ed with one hundred columns, 
each sixty feet high ; twenty- 
eeven of which were curiously 
carved, and the rest polished. 
Little silver models of the 
temple, with the image of the 
goddess enshrined in them, 
were made for sale, and sold in 
such quantity as to afford pro- 
fitable work for many hands. 
(ver.24,25. See Demetrius.) 

The following cut represents, 
in miniature, a front view of 
this famous temple. The in- 
scription below signifies— Of 
the Ephesians. 





^WWW 



FtP^Pi 




Paul made himself offensive 
to the idolatrous Ephesians by 
preaching the very plain and 
sensible doctrine, "that they 
be no gods which are made 
with hands." Hence the silver- 
smiths, who depended on the 
manufacture of images for their 
living, were greatly excited by 
the fear that their craft was in 
danger; and so they moved 
the people to suppose that the 
temple itself, with all its mag- 



DIN 

nificence, would be destroyed, 
and the city cease to be the 
resort of worshippers. (See 
Ephesus, Paul.) 

DIBON. (Josh. xiii. 17.) A / 
city of Moab, a few miles north 
of the Arnon, now called Di- 
ban. It was built up by the 
tribe of Gad, (Num. xxxii. 33, 
34,) and hence called Dibon- 
gad. (Num. xxxiii. 45.) The 
same place is called JDimon, 
(Isa. xv. 9.) At a later day, it 
returned again to Moab. (Isa. 
xv. 2. Jer. xlviii. 18. 22.) In 
Neh. xi. 25, a Dibon in Judah 
is mentioned, which may be 
the same with Debir. (Josh, 
xiii. 26. See Debir.) A place 
called Diban is mentioned by 
modern travellers as situated 
about three miles north of the 
Arnon, or Madieb. 
DIDYMUS. (See Thomas.) 
DINAH. (Gen. xxx. 21.) 
Only daughter of Jacob and 
Leah. When her father was 
on his return from Padan-aram 
to Canaan, he halted at Sha- 
lem, a city of Shechem. Here 
she mingled with the young 
women of the neighbourhood, 
and fell a victim to the seduc- 
tive arts of Shechem, son of 
Hamor, who was prince of ths 
country. He afterwards sought 
to many her ; but her brothers 
refused their consent to the alli- 
ance, unless the men of She- 
chem would submit to be cir- 
cumcised. To this condition 
they agreed ; and when, by thB 
effect of the operation, they 
were all disabled from defend- 
ing themselves or their city, 
the sons of Jacob attacked 
them, slew Shechem and his 
father, completely pillaged the \ 
place, and made prisoners of • 
the women and children. Jacob 
severely reprimanded them for 
the act ; but they were so indig*. 
nant at the abuse their sister- 
had suffered, as to justify heii 
mode of revenge. (Gen. xxxiv. 
31.) Dinah is mentioned with 
the rest of the family who went 
•201 



CIS 
into Egypt. (Gen. xlvi. S. 
15.) 

DINNER. (See Meals). 

DIONYSIUS. (Actsxvii.34.) 
A convert to the gospel under 
the preaching ofPaul atAthens. 
Why he is called the Areopa- 
gite we cannot tell, unless he 
was one of the judges of the 
court of Areoj^gus. Ecclesi- 
astical historians say that he 
became an eminent minister 
of the gospel, and suffered 
martyrdom at Athens, a. d. 95. 

DIOTREPHES. (3 John 9.) 
Probably a member, and per- 
haps an officer, of the church 
of Corinth. John's third epistle 
is addressed to Gaius of this 
church, (Rom. xvi. 23. 1 Cor. i. 
14 ;) and in the course of it, a 
severe rebuke is given to Dio- 
trephes, who seems to have 
questioned the authority of the 
apostle, and to have exercised 
a most officious and unwar- 
rantable power in the church 
to which he belonged. (See 
art. John, epistles of.) 

DISCERNING OF SPIRITS 
(1 Cor. xii. 10) was one of the 
miraculous gifts of the Holy 
Ghost, by virtue of which the 
spirits of men were tried whe- 
ther they were of God. (1 John 
iv. 1.) It was a most desirable 
gift in the former ages of the 
church, when false prophets 
and wicked spirits abounded 
on every side. 

DISCIPLE. (Matt. x. 24.) 
One who receives, or professes 
to receive, instruction from an- 
other. (Matt. xi. 2. Luke xiv. 
26, 27. 33. John ix. 28.) In the 
New Testament, it denotes the 
professed followers of our Sa- 
viour ; but not always his true 
followers. (Matt. xxvi. 20, 21. 
John vi. 66-) 

DISEASES. (Deut. xxviii. 
CO.) Diseases come upon us 
by reason of sin; so that the 
multiplied forms in which 
sickness and suffering appear 
among men, to wear out their 
frail bodies and hurry them to 
18 



DIS 

the grave, are so many signs 
of the evil of sin, even in its 
present effects. Reference is 
made to the interposition of 
God in sending and removing 
diseases, Ps. xxxix. 9— 11 ; xc. 
3—12. ' 

The plagues, pestilences, 
and other instrumentalities t/ 
which, in former ages, a mul- 
titude of lives were destroyed 
at once, were often miraculous; 
that is, the natural causes and 
progress of disease were not 
employed, or were not visible. 
(Ex. xii. 23. 29. 2 Kings xix. 35. 
1 Chron. xxi. 12—15. Acts xii. 
23.) The plagues of Egypt 
were also of this character. 
From an early period, we find 
the agency of evil spirits em- 
ployed to afflict and trouble 
men ; as in the case of Saul 
and Job. In the time of our 
Saviour, they seem to have 
been permitted often to take 
entire possession of the human 
frame ; in which case the bo- 
dily, and often the mental 
powers, were to a greater or 
less extent suspended, and the 
wretched sufferer exposed to a 
train of the most dreadful dan- 
gers and calamities. (Matt, 
xvii. 15. Mark v. 11—15. Luke 
ix. 33—40. See Possessed.)'' 

The diet and habits of the 
early Jews were so simple and 
uniform, that diseases were un- 
common ; but at a later period, 
we have reason to believe they 
became common and severe, 
as the manners and customs of 
the nation grew more corrupt 
and luxurious; so that we may 
suppose, in the multitudes 
which resorted to our Saviour 
to be healed of all manner of 
diseases, there would be found 
a fearful list of painful and 
incurable complaints. 

The diseases of Egypt, and 
other countries of similar clW 
mate, were ophthalmies, or dis- 
eases of the eye3; leprosies, 
inflammations of the brain, 
consumptions, pestilential f& 
205 



DTV 

vers, &c. &c. Palsies are often 
mentioned in the New Testa- 
ment. These diseases are par- 
ticularly noticed in the appro- 
priate place. (See Biblical 
Antiquities, by Am. S. S. 
Union, vol. i. ch. vii. § 1.) 

DISH. (See Table.) 

DISPENSATION. (1 Cor. 
lx. 17.) This word, in its 
scriptural use, generally de- 
notes a plan or scheme, or a 
system of precepts and princi- 
les prescribed and revealed 
y God, for his own glory and 
or the advantage and happi- 
ness of his creatures. (Eph. i. 
10; iii.2. Col. i. 25.) In the 
passage first above cited it is 
supposed to mean an authority 
or commission to preach the 
gospel. The dispensation of 
the* law by Moses, and of the 
gospel by Jesus Christ, are ex- 
amples of the use of the word 
in its former meaning. 

DISPERSED. DISPER- 
SIONS. (Isa. xi. 12. Jer. xxv. 
34. John vii. 35.) These terms 
are usually applied to the 
Jews, who, after their capti- 
vity, and still more emphati- 
cally, after the final destruction 
of their holy city, were scat- 
tered abroad through the earth. 
(James i. 1. IPet. i. 1.) 

DIVINATION (Deut. xviii. 
10) is the practice of divining 
or of foretelling future events. 
In the passage cited, it is put 
in connexion with witchcraft, 
necromancy, and other abo- 
minations of the heathen; 
which the Jews were to 
avoid. Divination was a pre- 
vailing sin among the Israel- 
ites and many of the eastern 
nations. The modes, or means 
of divining were by consulting, 
or being familiar with spirits, 
by the motions of the stars, 
clouds, &c, and by lots, rods, 
or wands, dreams, the flight of 
birds, the entrails of animals, 
&c. &c. 

It i? said of Joseph's cup 
(Gen. .jJiv. 5) that he divined 



DIV 

by it. It is not to be inferred, 
however, that he practised 
divination. He had received 
from God the gift of interpret- 
ing dreams, and he exercised 
it with great humility, and 
always for God's glory. It may 
be that Joseph's officer mis- 
took the gifts of his lord, and 
supposed that he must have 
the power of divination. This 
is certainly the most obvious 
construction. It is said, how- 
ever, by a learned critic, that 
the word here rendered di- 
vineth elsewhere signifies to 
make an experiment"; so that 
the passage may read thus : Is 
not this the cup wherein my 
lord drinketh, and whereby he 
has made a trial of your ho- 
nesty, laying it in your way to 
see whether you would take it 
or not 1 

The practice of divination 
in all its forms is reprobated 
with marked severity by the 
law of Moses and by the sacred 
writers. (Lev. xx. 27. Deut. 
xviii. 9— 14. Jer. xiv. 14. Ezek, 
xiii. 8, 9.) It is a branch of 
pagan idolatry and supersti- 
tion ; and in whatever form it 
is practised or regarded, it is 
reproachful to Christianity, 
and argues great folly, igno- 
rance, and sin. (2 Pet. i. 19.) 

DIVORCE. (Jer. iii. 8.) The 
dissolution of the marriage re- 
lation. This was permitted by 
the law of Moses, for reasons 
of local expediency, and un- 
der circumstances peculiar to 
their situation as a people. It 
was a mere civilregulation,and 
seems to have been so much 
abused by the licentious that 
it became common for a man 
to put away his wife for the 
most trivial cause ; and many 
of the Jewish doctors contend- 
ed that this was the spirit of 
the law. To tempt our Saviour 
to say something offensive; 
they put the question to him 
whether it was lawful to do 
this ; and, in the course of the 
206 



DOG 

conversation which ensued, he 
reproves their conduct in this 
particular with great severity, 
and restrains the practice to 
one class of cases. (Matt. xix. 
8-9.) 

The husband was required 
to give his wife a writing or 
bill of divorcement, in which 
was set forth the date, place, 
and cause of her repudiation, 
and a permission was given by- 
it to marry whom she pleased. 
It was provided, however, that- 
she might be restored to the 
relation, at any future time, if 
she did not meanwhile marry 
any other man. 

The woman also seems to 
have had power, at least in a 
later period of the Jewish state, 
to put away her husband. 
(Mark x. 12.) 

DOCTOR. (Luke ii. 46.) 
Doctors or teachers of the law 
were those who made it their 
business or profession to teach 
the law of Moses; and they 
were in great repute among 
the Jews. Some have distin- 
guished the scribes from the 
doctors, by supposing that the 
former wrote their opinions, 
while the latter taught extem- 
poraneously. The doctors were 
generally of the sect of the Pha- 
risees ; perhaps always. (Luke 
v. 17.) • It is thought that the 
peculiar office of teachers is 
intended, 1 Cor. xii. 2S. (1.) 
Apostles or public instructers. 
(2.) Prophets or occasional in- 
structers ; and, (3.) Doctors or 
teachers, i. e. private instruc- 
ters. 
DODANIM. (SeeDEDAN.) 
DOEG. (See Ahimelech.) 
DOG. (Ex. xi. 7.) The dog 
was not only an unclean ani- 
mal by the Jewish law, but 
was regarded with peculiar 
contempt, (Ex. xxii. 31. Deut. 
xxiii. 18. 1 Sam. xvii.43; xxiv. 
14. 2 Sam. ix. 8. 2Kingsviii. 
13. Phil. iii. 2. Rev. xxii. 15;) 
and he is so regarded at the 



DOG 

present day by the Turks, who 
can find no more abusive and 
contemptuous language to ap- 
ply to a Christian, than to cal* 
him a dog. 

Solomon puts a living dog in 
contrast with a dead lion, to 
show that the meanest thing 
alive is of more importance 
than the noblest that is dead. 
(Eccl. ix. 4.) Abner's exclama- 
tion, " Am I a dog's head V 1 
(2 Sam. iii. 8,) has a significa- 
tion of the same kind. Isaiah 
expresses the necessity of 
repentance and sincerity to 
make a sacrifice acceptable to 
God, by declaring, that without 
them, "he that sacrifices a 
lamb, does nothing better than 
if he had cut off a dog's neck." 
(Isa. lxvi. 3.) The only useful 
purpose to which dogs appear 
to have been put was to guard 
the.- flocks, (Job xxx. 1 ;) and 
even in that passage they 
are spoken of with contempt. 
Isaiah may be understood to 
allude to this manner of em- 
ploying them in his description 
of the spiritual watchmen of 
Israel. (Isa. lvi. 10, 11.) 

Although dogs are numerous 
in the Jewish cities, they were 
not kept in their houses, but 
wandered through the streets, 
picking up whatever was 
thrown out of the remains of 
the table, after the family had 
eaten.* So David speaks of his 
wicked enemies. (Ps. lix. 6. 14, 
15.) The Mosaic law directed 
the people to throw to the dogs 
the flesh that was torn ly 
beasts. (Ex. xxii. 31.) 

This manner of living ac- 
counts for the savageness of 
the animal among that people. 
They preyed upon human 
flesh, licked the blood of the 
slain, and sometimes were 
wild enough to attack men, as 
bloodhounds do. (1 Kings xiv. 
11; xvi. 4; xxi. 19. 23; xxii. 
38. 2 Kings ix. 10. 36. Ps.xxii. 
16.20; ixviii. 23. Jer. xv. 3.) 
207 



DOR 

Their habits made them dan- 
gerous to touch. (Prov. xxvi. 
17.) 

The eastern people were in 
the practice of applying the 
names of animals to men who 
resemble them in their dispo- 
sition, as we call a cunning 
man a fox, a brave man a lion, 
&c. So our Saviour told his dis- 
ciples, " Give not that which 
is holy unto the doss, lest they 
turn upon you, and" tear you," 
after they have eaten it, (Matt. 
\ii. 6 ;) meaning that they 
should not offer the sacred 
things of the gospel to those 
insolent and abominable men 
who would only heap abuse on 
them for it: having reference 
also to the practice of the 
priests at the altar, who would 
not throw to the dogs any of 
the meat used in sacrifice. He 
told also the Syro-phenician 
woman, that it was not proper 
to give the children's meat to 
d-ogs, (Matt. xv. 26;) that is, 
the gospel was sent first to the 
Jews, who are called the child- 
ren, and was not yet to be 
given to one of the Gentiles, as 
she was, whom the Jews called 
dogs; that the children must 
be first fed before the meat 
was thrown into the street. 
Those who are shut out of the 
kingdom of heaven are dogs, 
sorcerers, &c, (Rev. xxii. 15,) 
where the word is applied to 
all kinds of vile persons, as it 
is to a particular class in Deut. 
xxiii. 18. The comparison of 
Solomon illustrating the return 
oi a fool to his folly, cited in 
2 Pet. ii. 22, is taken from a 
natural fact. Persecutors are 
called dogs, Ps. xxii. 16. (See 
Youth's "Friend, vol. v., by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 
DOOR. (See Dwellings.) 
DOR. (Judg.i.27.) This is 
now a small town on the Me- 
diterranean coast, about nine 
miles north of Cesarea. Its 
present name is Tortura. It 
is close upon the beach, and 



DOV 

contains about five hundred in- 
habitants. It was formerly a 
royal city, or capital of a dis- 
trict of Canaan, (Josh. xii. 23,) 
and was assigned to the half- 
tribe of Manasseh. 
DORCAS. (See Tabitha.) 
DOTHAN (Gen. xxxvii. 17) 
was situated near Jezreel,about 
twelve miles north of Samaria, 
at a narrow pass in the moun 
tains of Gilboa. It is memora- 
ble as the place where Joseph's 
brethren sold him, and also 
where the Syrian troops at- 
tempted to seize Elisha. (2 
Kincs vi. 13-23.) 

DOTING (1 Tim. vi. 4) sig- 
nifies being excessively fond 
of, or foolishly and vainly bent 
upon, questions and strifes 
about mere words. 
DOUGH. (See Bread.) 
DOVE. (Gen. viii. 9.) A 
bird clean by the P/Iosaic law, 
and often mentioned by the 
sacred writers. In their wild 
state, they dwell principally 
in holes in the rocks. (Sol. 
Song ii. 14. Jer. xlviii. 28.) 
They are innocent in their 
dispositions, and make no re- 
sistance to their enemies. 
(Matt. x. 16.) They are very 
much attached to their mates ; 
and when one is absent or dies, 
the other, or survivor, laments 
its loneliness. (Isa. xxxviii. 
14; lix. 11. Ezek. vii. 16. 
Nah. ii. 7.) 

There are various allusions 
to the mildness, peacefulness, 
and affection of doves. The 
church is called a turtle-dove 
and a dove, or compared to it, 
Ps. lxxiv. 19. Sol. Song i. 15; 
ii. 14; iv. 1 ; v. 2 ; vi. 9. Where 
"doves' eyes" are spoken of 
in these passages, allusion is 
made to the meekness of 
their expression. It is thought 
by eminent critics, that Sol 
Song v. 12, is wrongly trans- 
lated ; that allusion is made to 
a deep blue coloured pigeon, 
common in the east, and that 
it is meant to compare tho 
208 



DOV 

white of the eye to milk, and 
«he iris to a blue pigeon-; an 1 
that the comparison is, "His 
eyes are like a dark blue 
pigeon, standing in the middle 
of a pool of milk." It was in 
the manner of a dove that the 
Holy Spirit descended upon 
our Saviour at his baptism. 
(Matt. iii. 16. Mark i. 10. Luke 
iii. 22. John i. 32.) Hosea 
compares timid Ephraim to 
" a silly dove without heart," 
(vii. 11 j) and says, that when 
the Jews shall be called to 
their own land, they shall 
" tremble," or fly, " as a dove 
out of the land of Assyria." (xi. 
11.) David in his distress wish- 
ed that he could fly from his 
troubles as the doves do to 
warmer climates on the ap- 
proach of winter. (Ps. lv. 6— 
8.) The appearance of the 
dove is spoken of as an emblem 
of spring, Sol. Song ii. 12. 

The dove is mentioned in 
an interesting part of the early 
history of the world, as being 
sent out by Noah from the ark 
that he might discover whether 
the dry land had appeared. 
(Gen. viii. 6—12.) 

The dove was used in sacri- 
fices. It was, among other 
animals, prepared by Abram, 
when God manifested his in- 
tention to bless him, as nar- 
rated in Gen. xv. 9. When a 
child was born, the mother 
was required, within a certain 
time, to bring a lamb and a 
young pigeon, or turtle, for 
offerings; but if she was too 
poor to afford a lamb, she 
might bring two turtles, or two 
young pigeons. (Lev.xii.6 — 8.) 
Thus we may judge of the po- 
verty of Mary, the mother of 
Jesus, when, upon his birth, 
she brought to the temple at 
Jerusalem the two birds in- 
stead of a lamb. (Luke ii. 24.) 
It was to supply mothers with 
animals for sacrifice that those 

Sersons sat in the temple with 
o\es to sell, whom our Lord 
18* 



DOW 

forced to leave it, because 
" the house of prayer" was not 
a fit place for buying and sell- 
ins. (Mark xi. 15. John ii. 
14-16.) 

There is some obscurity fn 
Ps. lxviii. 13 ; but the natural 
import of it is most probably 
the correct one. The design 
of the psalmist is to present in 
contrast, the condition of the 
Israelites (who were address- 
ed) at two periods of their his- 
tory. In the day of their afflic- 
tion and calamity, they were 
covered as it were with shame 
and confusion ; but in the day 
of their prosperity, they should 
resemble the cleanest and most 
beautiful of birds. 

The allusion in Isa. lx. 8, 
may be to the immense com- 
pact masses of these birds that 
eastern travellers describe, as 
they are seen flying to their 
houses or places of general re- 
sort. They sometimes resem- 
ble a distant heavy cloud, and 
are so dense as to obscure the 
rays of the sun. (See Youth's 
Friend, vol. vi., by Am. S. S. 
Union. See Turtle Dove.) 

Dove's dung. (2 Kings vi. 
25.) There are but two modes 
of interpreting this passage; 
either of which is satisfactory. 
The first is, that this particular 
substance was remarkably va- 
luable as a manure for those 
vegetables which might be 
soonest raised to supply the 
famishing Samaritans; and the 
other is, that a vegetable re- 
sembling the chick-pea, or 
lentil, is intended, which re- 
sembles dove's dung in appear- 
ance, and is still a common 
article of food at Cairo, Damas- 
cus, &c, especially for eastern 
pilgrims, and of which the cab 
would be a suitable measure. 
(See Measures.) The pas- 
sage evidently expresses the 
extreme severity of the famine. 

DOWRY, (Gen. xxx. 20,) in 
the eastern acceptation of the 
word, means that which the 
209 



DRE 

husband pays for his wife, in- 
stead of that which the wife 
receives from her father and 
brings to her husband. (Gen. 
xx'ix. 18; xxxiv. 12. 1 Sam. 
xviii. 25.) So (Ex. xxii. 16, 17. 
Josh. xv. 18) a man was re- 
quired to pay a certain sum as 
dowry, or a nuptial present; 
and this was to be according 
to the rank she sustained, and 
such as the fathers of virgins 
of the same rank were accus- 
tomed to receive for their 
daughters. (Hos. iii. 2 ) 

DRAGON. (Job xxx. 29.) It 
is quite uncertain what ani- 
mal, if any, is intended by this 
name. It is not improbable 
that it is a generic term, de- 
noting some class ol animals 
distinguished by some common 
characteristic; and yet, from 
Lam. iv. 3, and Mic. i. 8, we 
should infer that the word is 
applied to a particular animal 
that cries and gives suck. The 
word translated dragon, Isa. 
xxvii. 1, is translated whale, 
Gen. i. 21, and Job vii. 12 ; and 
serpent, Ex. vii. 9; and dragon, 
Deut. xxxii. 33, and Ps. xci. 
13. In Isa. xxxiv. 13, the word 
translated dragons means 
some creature of the wilder- 
ness, whose presence denotes 
desolation. So in Job xxx. 29. 
Ps. xliv. 19. Jer. ix. 11; in all 
which passages, solitude and 
desolation are intended to be 
illustrated. (Mic. i. 8.) 

The figurative use of this 
term by the sacred writers, as 
in Ps. lxxiv. 13. Ezek. xxix. 3. 
Rev. xii. 3, and xx. 2, is suffi- 
ciently obvious. 

DRAMS. (See Measures.) 

DRAUGHT. (Matt. xv. 17.) 
A vault or drain for the recep- 
tion of filth. In this sense it 
is probably used, 2 Kings x. 
27. When applied to fishes, it 
means those which are caught 
by one sweep or drawing of 
the net. 

DREAM. (Dan. vii. I.) From 
a very earl} period, dreams 



DRE 

have been observed with su- 
perstitious regard. God wag 
pleased to make use of them 
to leveal his purposes or re- 
quirements to individuals, and 
he also gave power to inter- 
pret them. (Gen. xx. 3—6; 
xxviii. 12 — 14. 1 Sam. xxviii. 
6. Dan. ii. Joel ii. 28.) And 
if any person dreamed a 
dream which was peculiarly 
striking and significant, he 
was permitted to go to the 
high-priest in a particular way, 
and see if it had any special 
import. But the observance 
of ordinary dreams, and the 
consulting of those who pre- 
tend to skill in their interpre- 
tation, is repeatedly forbidden. 
(Deut. xiii. 1—5; xviii. 9—14.) 

The words dream and vision 
are sometimes used indiscri- 
minately, (Gen. xlvi. 2. Num. 
xii. 6- Job xx. 8; xxxiii. 14, 15. 
Dan. ii. 28; vii. 1,) though else- 
where they would seem to be 
distinguished. (Joel ii. 28.) It 
has been suggested, that per- 
haps where "any difference is 
intended between prophetic 
dreams and prophetic visions, 
it may be much the same in 
one sense as between common 
dreams and the wandering of 
the mind in a delirium. Olthe 
latter description might be the 
cases recorded, 2 Kings vi. 17, 
and vii. 6. In respect to Paul's 
vision, (2 Cor. xii. 1, 2.4,) it 
seems to be doubtful whether 
his soul w r ere not separated 
from the body, and permitted 
to mingle for a moment with 
celestial beings ; for we must 
remember that all our notions 
of space and distance between 
this world and the world of 
spirits, are entirely fallacious. 
Sometimes miraculous revela- 
tions of God's will are called 
visions. (Luke i. 22 ' Sam. iii. 
15. See Vision, Trance.) 

The power of interpreting 
dreams was of course a super- 
natural gift, so far as the 
dreams had reference to future 
210 



DRI 

events ; for these are necessa- 
rily unknown, except to the 
Supreme Disposer of them. 
Of course Joseph was divinely 
instructed. (Gen. xl. 5. 8; xli. 
16.) Since the fuller revelation 
of God's will has been made 
tn us in the gospel, all confi- 
dence in dreams, as indicative 
cf future events, is presumptu- 
ous and delusive, and all pre- 
tension to the power of inter- 
preting them must be regarded 
as in the highest degree impi- 
ous and absurd. 

DRESS. (See Clothes.) 

DRINK. (Gen. xxi.19.) The 
use of strong drink, even to ex- 
cess,\vas not uncommon among^ 
the Israelites. This is inferred 
from the striking figures with 
which the use and effects of it 
have furnished the sacred wri- 
ters, (Ps. cvii. 27. Isa. xxiv. 
20 ; xiix. 25 ; li. 17—22,) and 
also from various express pro- 
hibitions and penalties. (Prov. 
xx. 1. Isa.v.ll. Hab. ii. 15, 16.) 

Strong drink. A variety of 
intoxicating drinks are com- 
prised under the term strong 
drink. (Isa. xxviii. 7.) It indi- 
cates any intoxicating drink, 
whether brewed from grain or 
made of honey-combs, dates, 
or boiled fruits. The Alexan- 
drine interpreters, who were 
doubtless familiar with the 
beer of Egypt, render this 
word by other terms signify- 
ing intoxicating drink. Pliny 
enumerates various vegetables 
which enter into its compo- 
sition : among the rest, figs, 
pomegranates, apples, and par- 
ticularly dates. This date wine 
was in great request among the 
Parthians, Indians, and other 
orientals ; and is said by Xeno- 
phon to have produced severe 
headaches. "We may naturally 
infer that the strong drink in- 
cludes this liquor of dates, as 
well as other artificial beve- 
rages. 

The Pharisees, it is said, 
strained their drink for fear of 



DRO 

swallowing some unclean ani- 
mal. Hence it is believed that 
in the expression, Matt, xxiii. 
24, at should be rendered out. 
However proper this construc- 
tion may be, the original word 
requires neither a different 
rendering nor a reference to a 
doubtful custom, to render its 
meaning sufficiently obvious. 
(See Wine, Vinegar.) 

DRINK-OFFERING. (See 
Offering.) 

DROMEDARY. (Isa. lx. 6.) 
A species of the camel re- 
markable for swiftness of mo- 
tion, (Jer. ii. 23,) which is from 
sixty to ninety miles or more 
in a day. He differs from the 
ordinary camel in that he is 
smaller, cannot bear the same 
degree of heat, and has but 
one hump or protuberance on 
the back. He is controlled by 
a bridle fastened in a ring 
which passes through the nose. 
(2Kingsxix. 28.) 

DROUGHT. (Ps. xxxii. 4.) 
From the end of April to Sep- 
tember the land ot Judea was 
very dry. It was the drought 
of summer. The grass was 
sometimes completely wither- 
ed, (Ps. cii. 4,) and the parched 
earth broke into chasms. The 
heavens seemed like brass, 
and the earth like iron, (Deut. 
xxviii. 23,) and all the land 
and the creatures upon it suf- 
fered ; and nothing but the 
copious dews of the night pre- 
served the life of any living 
thing. (Hag. i. 11.) The heat 
was at times excessive. Dr. 
Clarke tells us, that when ha 
was travelling near Cana, in 
Galilee, in July, the thermo- 
meter, in a gloomy recess un- 
der ground, perfectly shaded, 
stood at one hundred degrees 
of Fahrenheit at noon. 

It is maintained by some 
critics that the word drought, 
in Deut. viii. 15, is applied to 
a serpent whose bite was poi 
sonous and attended with in 
satiable and agonizing thirst 
211 



DUN 

But the ordinary meaning of 
the word is certainly appro- 
priate to the subject and con- 
nexion. 

DRUNKENNESS. (See 
Drink, Wine.) 

DRUSILLA. (Actsxxiv.24.) 
Third daughter of the Herod 
who is mentioned Acts xii. 1 — 
4. 20—23. She married Felix 
the Roman governor, while she 
had another husband living; 
and was present at the hearing 
of the apostle Paul before her 
husband at Cesarea. 

DUKE (Gen. xxxvi. 15) 
means only a chief or leader, 
and is in no sense a title of 
nobility. 

DULCIMER. (Dan.iii.5.10.) 
The instrument denoted by 
Jhis word was a pipe or flute of 
reed, like what the Italians 
call zampogna. The Rabbins 
describe it as two pipes con- 
nected with a leather sack or 
skin. The dulcimer of the 
present day is entirely unlike 
it, both in form and in the 
mode of using it. 

Some have supposed that 
the word means a strain or 
chorus, rather than an instru- 
ment of music. 

DUMAH. (Isa. xxi. 11.) 
There was a city of Judah of 
this name, (Josh. xv. 52,) but 
the Dumah which is the sub- 
ject of this prophecy was pro- 
bably a country settled by the 
descendants of Dumah, Ish- 
mael's sixth son. (Gen. xxv. 
14.) It is said that they inha- 
bited the borders of the desert 
of Syria, one hundred and fifty 
or two hundred miles from 
Damascus, and a district of 
country is there still, bearing 
the name of Duma the stony ', 
or the Syrian Duma 

DUNG. (Ezek. iv. 12.) In 
many countries - of the east 
wood is so scarce and dear as 
to be sold by weight. Hence 
(as travellers inform us) ani- 
mal excrements are used as 
del. Le Bruyn says it is a 



DWE 

very common material for heat- 
ing ovens, even among people 
of^comfortable circumstances* 
Niebuhr says, that in Arabia, 
the excrements of asses and 
camels are collected in the 
streets by children, and mixed 
with cut straw. It is then put in 
the sun to dry, and is thus fitted 
for use. The effluvia arising 
from the use of it is very offen- 
sive, and penetrates the food. 

Dove's dung. (See Dove.) 

DURA. (Dan.iii.l.) An ex- 
tensive plain in the province 
of Babylon, where Nebuchad- 
nezzar caused the golden % 
image to be erected. 

DUST. (Job ii. 12.) To shake 
off the dust of 'one 's feet against 
another, (Matt. x. 14. Mark vi. 
11. Acts xiii. 51,) was expres- 
sive of entire renunciation. 
The custom is supposed to 
have been common among the 
Jews, when they had set a 
foot on heathen ground, to 
shake off the dust, so as to 
carry nothing unclean or pol- 
luting into their own land. 

Rain of dust. (Deut. xxviii. 
24.) In Judea, or its immediate 
vicinity, are plains or deserts 
of fine sand, which, when agi- 
tated by a violent wind, makes 
most terrific and desolating 
storms. Eastern travellers de- 
scribe them particularly, and 
think them much more dread- 
ful than storms at sea. This 
fact affords us a striking illus- 
tration of the nature and hor- 
rors of the plague, mentioned 
Ex. viii. 16. 

DWELLINGS. (Lev.vii.26.) 
The most common dwellings 
in the earlier ages of the world 
were tents. The simple habits 
of life which were then more 
prevalent, and the climate of 
the first settled portions of the 
globe, made these the most 
convenient and comfortable 
dwellings; and tents of various 
sizes and shapes were formed 
by setting poles in the ground- 
and stretching over them & 
212 



r<WE 



OWE 




covering of cloth or skin, which 
was fastened to stakes by 
means of cords. (Isa. liv. 2.) 

One mode of tent buildinsr 
is seen in the preceding cutf. 
Sometimes they were divided 
into apartments by means of 
curtains, and the ground was 
covered with mats or carpets. 
The door was formed of a fold 
of cloth, which was dropped or 
raised. The fire was kindled 
in an excavation in the middle 
of the tent ground, and the 
cooking utensils, which were 
^ery few and simple, were 
easily moved from place to 
place. (Isa. xxxviii. 12.) Some- 
times tents were expensively 
adorned and furnished; and 
they are very common dwell- 
ings at this day among many 
nations. The form of modern 
tents in the east is said to re- 
semble the hull of a ship turned 
\jp3ide down. 

When the habits of mankind 



changed, and their pursuits 
fixed them to one spot, their 
dwellings were built with a 
view to permanency, and we 
may suppose that the science 
of building was well under- 
stood at a verv early period. 
The skill required to build the 
ark, independently of inspired 
directions, must have been 
considerable. The attempt to 
build the tower of Babel would 
not have been made by those 
who had only a mere ele- 
mentary knowledge of archi- 
tectural principles. 

That large and costly houses 
were often w built in Judea we 
have scriptural evidence, (Jer. 
xxii. 14. Amos iii. 15. Hag. 
i. 4,) though doubtless those 
which were .occupied by the 
massof the people were rude 
and inconvenient when com- 
pared to the middling or even 
the very ordinary class of our 
houses. 

213 



DWE 



DWE 




= a & = = olll 

llu AREA ■ 

nil OR « 

"a OPEN COURT nil 

a ' = = 




The above cut represents 
the ground plan of an eastern 
house : A A A A is the house, 
built in the form of a cloister, 
surrounding the area or open 
court. The entrance is by a 
door which was commonly 
locked, and attended by some 
one who acted as porter. (Acts 
xii. 13.) This door opens into 
a porch, which is furnished 
with the conveniences of sit- 
ting, and through which we 
pass, both to thellight of stairs 
which leads up to the cham- 
bers and also to the open 
quadrangular court. 

We will first examine the 
court and its uses. It is called 
the middle of the house, or 
" midst," (Luke v. 19,) and is 
designed to admit light and 
air to the apartments around 
it. It is covered with a pave- 
ment, more or less costlyywhich 
receives and sheds rain, and 
is often supplied with foun- 
tains or wells of water. (2 Sam. 
xvii. 18.) In Damascus, every 
house has a court of this kind, 
and the wealthier citizens 
spare no expense in making 
them places of delightful re- 



JPUm. 



sort in the hot season. (For 
description and cut, see Ha- 
dassah, pp. 13.-16, by Am. S. 
S.Union..) A colonnade a a a a 
(such as is often seen in 
modern houses) surrounds the 
court, and supports a gallery 
or piazza above.* In this court, 
large companies assembled on 
festive and other occasions, 
(Esth. i. 5 ;) and it is then fur- 
nished with carpets, mats, and 
settees or sofas, and an awning 
or roof of some suitable mate- 
rial is stretched over the whole 
area. It was probably such a 
roof which was uncovered for 
the accommodation of the pa- 
ralytic. (Markii.4.) And it is 
also alluded to in the beautiful 
figure of the psalmist. (Ps. civ. 
2.) As to the case of the paraly. 
tic, it may be proper to observe 
that our Saviour was probably 
in the court or area surround- 
ed by a dense crowd, through 
which it was impossible to 
pass with the diseased man. 
They therefore ascended to the 
roof, and after removing the 
veil or covering which was 
stretched over the court, they 
let him down over or by the 
214 



DWE 

way of the roof into the midst 
before Christ. Around the 
court, over the doors and win- 
dows of the house, each apart- 
ment has a door opening into 
the court or gallery, and the 
communication with each is 
only on the outside ; so that to 
go from room to room it is ne- 
cessary to come out into the 
court or gallery. These galle- 
ries are guarded by a balus- 
trade or lattice work in front, 
Lo prevent accidents. 

The rooms of the ground 
floor often include a whole 
side of the court, and are en- 
tered by spacious doors from 
the piazza. The rooms on the 
farther side of the court, both 
above and below, are assigned 
to the females of the family, 
and upon them is bestowed 
the greatest expense. Hence, 
as some suppose, these rooms 
are sometimes called palaces. 
(1 Kings xvi. 18. 2 Kings xv. 
25. Isa. xxxii. 14.) The "house 
of the women" (Esth. ii. 3) was 
probably peculiar to the royal 
residence, and might be like 
that referred to, 1 Kings vii. 8 
—12. It is supposed that in 
the houses of Judea, as in those 
of Aleppo at the present day, 
the ground floor was appro- 
priated principally to domestic 
uses, such as storing provi- 
sions, oil, baggage, lodgings for 
servants, &c. &c. 
Ifwe ascend to thesecond story 
by the stairs before mentioned., 
we find the chambers are large 
and airy, and often finished 
and furnished with much ex- 
pense and elegance, with mats, 
curtains, and divans. (Mark 
xiv. 15.) This room or story is 
higher and larger than those 
below, projecting over the low- 
er part of the building, so that 
the window of the apartment, 
if there is one, considerably 
overhangsthestreet. Secluded, 
spacious, and commodious, as 
such a room must have been, 
p aul would be likely to preach 



DWE 

his farewell sermon there. And 
in a large company, it is com- 
mon to have two circles or 
ranks, the outer circle being 
next to the wall, and elevated 
on cushions, so as to be on a 
level with the lower part of 
the window-casement. In this 
situation, we may suppose Eu- 
tychus fell asleep, and was 
thence precipitated to the 
street. 

To most of the eastern 
houses a structure is attached 
called oleah. It is sometimes 
built over the porch or gate- 
way, and has two or three 
apartments ; and, in other in- 
stances, it consists only of one 
or two rooms, and often rises 
one story above the main 
house. The oleah is used to 
entertain strangers; also, for 
wardrobes and magazines, or 
for places of retirement,repose, 
and meditation. (Matt. vi. 6.) 
There is an entrance to it from 
the street, without going into 
the house; but there is also a 
communication with the gal- 
lery of the house, when it is 
needed. It is observed that the 
terrace of the oleah afforded a 
much more retired place for 
devotional exercises than the 
roof of the main house, which 
was liable to be occupied at 
all times and for various pur- 
poses by . the whole family. 
The little chamber for Elisha, 
(2 Kings iv. 10,) the summer 
chamber of Eglon, from which 
Ehud escaped by a private 
stairway, (Judg. iii. 20—23,) the 
chamber over the gate, (2 Sam. 
xviii. 33,) the upper chamber, 
(2 Kings xxiii. 12,) the inner 
chamber, (1 Kings xx. 30, — see 
Chamber,) may designate the 
oleah. (For description and 
illustrative cut, see Omar, pp. 
17—19, and Hebrew Customs, 

. 33. 34, both by Am. S. S. 

nion.) 

The upper room, (Acts i 
13,) called the upper chamber 
(Acts xx. 8,) is supposed bj 
215 



ft 



DWE 

Jowett to have resembled the 
upper room in modern houses 
of the east. He minutely de- 
scribes a house in which he 
resided. The first or ground 
floor was appropriated entirely 
to storing oil and other arti- 
cles; the second floor was 
occupied by the family for 
common daily use, and the 
third floor or loft was fitted 
up for social meetings, &c. 
(Acts i. 13 ; ix. 37 ; xx. 8.) 

But the roof is one of the 
most important parts of an 
eastern house. We ascend to 
it by a flight of steps, as al- 
ready mentioned, which are 
entirely unconnected with the 
interior of the house. (Matt, 
xxiv. 17.) It is made nearly 
flat, allowing only sufficient 
elevation to carry off the water, 
and is surrounded by a para- 
pet, battlement, or balustrade, 
lest one should heedlessly or 
unwittingly fall from it. This 
was a matter of divine com- 
mand. (Deut. xxii. 8.) A wall 
on the roof designates the li- 
mits of contiguous houses, but 
it is so low that a whole range 
of buildings, and even a street, 



DWE 

may be passed over without 
coming down. The roof is 
covered with a kind of cement, 
which hardens by exposure to 
the weather , and forms a clean, 
smooth, and very agreeable 
floor or terrace. Sometimes 
clay, or earth of some kind, 
sufficient for vegetation, was 
used, and hence the frequent 
allusion to grass upon the 
housetops, (2 Kings xix. 26. Ps. 
cxxix. 6;) and sometimes tiles 
or broad bricks were used. 
The roof was a place of repose. 
(Neh. viii. 16,) and of resort. 
(2 Sam. xi. 2. Isa. xv. 3 ; xxii. 
1. Jer. xlviii. 38. Luke xii. 3.) 
It was also used for drying 
linen and flax. (Josh. ii. 6.) 
Sometimes a tent was spread 
to protect the sleeper from the 
cold and damp of the night. 
(2 Sam. xvi. 22.) It was a 
place of conference (1 Sam. ix. 
25) and worship. (2Kingsxxiii. 
12. Jer. xix. 13. Zeph. i 5. 
Acts x. 9.) 

The following cut represents 
the roof of a house, with tha 
battlement, and a person going 
down for water. 

The windows of eastern 




DWE 



DWE 



houses, as already intimated, windows or balconies are open 



open into the court. Hence 
the appearance of eastern ci- 
ties, in passing through the 
streets, is very gloomy and in- 
hospitable. Sometimes latticed 



upon tne street, but they were 
used only on some public day, 
C2 Kings ix. 30. See IIebubw 
Customs, pp. a3— 35, before 
mentioned. (See Window. 




The above representation { 
of an Arabian house shows | 
the external appearance of an 
Eastern dwelling, and the ole- 
ah. or one kind of upper cham- 
ber, rising above the roof of the 
irraiii building. 

The doors of eastern houses 
are not hung with hinges. The 
jamb, or inner side-piece of 
the door, projects, in the form j 
of a circular shaft, at the top 
and bottom. The upper pro- 
jection is received into a socket ; 
in the lintel or head-piece, and I 
the lower projection falls mto I 
19 



a «ocket in the threshold or sili, 
tuus. 



& 



fT 



2ir 



DWE 

Chimneys were probably un- 
known,thoughthe word occurs, 
'Hos. xiii. 3. What we call 
chimneys were not invented 
till the fourteenth century. 
The smoke of ancient houses 
escaped through apertures in 
the wall. 

The hearth (Jer. xxxvi. 22) 
was a fireplace or portable 
furnace, such as is still used 
in eastern countries. 

The materials for building 
were abundant. Stone and 
brick, and the best species of 
timber, for the strong and 
heavy as well as the light and 
ornamental work, were easily 
obtained. Hewn stone was 
often used, (Amos v. 11,) and 
marble of the richest vein and 
polish. (I Chron. xxix. 2. Esth. 
1.-6.) Cedar was used for wain- 
scots and ceilings, (Jer. xxii. 
14. Hag. i. 4,) which were 
of carved pan el -work, with 
mouldings of gold, silver, or 
ivory. Perhaps the profusion 
of ivory in them may account 
for the expressions, 1 Kin<rs 
xxii. 39. Ps. xlv. S. Amos in. 
15. 

Many eastern houses are 
Duilt with mud walls, reeds, 
and rushes,and sometimes only 
stakes plastered with clay. 
Hence they were verv inse- 
cure, (Matt. vi. 19, 20,) and 
afforded a place for serpents 
and vermin. (Amos v. 19.) 
Such a house, built even on a 
rock above the reach of the 



DWE 

periodical torrents of rain. 
is strikingly emblematical oi 
weakness^ fragility, and decay, 
(Job iv. 19 ;) but when placed 
on the sand, and exposed on 
every side to the rain, and 
wind, and floods, the folly of 
the builder is almost incredi 
ble. (Matt. vii. 26, 27.) 

In addition to what we. have 
before said in treating of the 
oleah, it may be remarked that 
the winter and summer houses 
or parlours. (Amos iii. 15) 
were constructed with parti- 
cular reference to the season. 
The summer houses were built 
partly under ground, and paved 
with marbleT The fountains 
which gush out in their courts, 
and the various contrivances 
to exclude heat and secure a 
current of fresh air, render 
them exceedingly refreshing 
amid the torrid~heats of sum- 
mer. The winter houses might 
have had accommodations cor- 
responding to the season. 

We are told that it was cus 
tomary among the Hebrews to 
dedicate the house when it was 
finished and ready to be inha- 
bited. The event was cele- 
brated with joy, and the divine 
blessing and protection im- 
plored. (Deut. xx. 5.) 

The following is a sketch of 
a more ordinary Arab house, 
designed for four families. The 
doors of eastern houses are 
made low, especially whej? 
they are in an exposed situa 




DWE 
lion; and one must, stoop or 
even creep to enter them. This 
is done to keep out wild beasts, 
or enemies, or, as some say, to 
prevent the wandering Arabs 
From riding into them. (See 
Selumiel,~pp. 41 — 44, by Am. 
.S. S. Union.) 

The eastern mode of build- 
ing is brought to our view in 
L?ie case of the destruction of 
the temple of Dagon by Sam- 
son. It is probable that the 
place where Samson made 
sport for many thousand spec- 
tators (Judg. xvi. 27) was a 
court or area consecrated to 
the worship of Dagon ; that 



DWE 

I this was surrounded by a ranare 
of galleries (Ezek. xli. 15. b?,) 
or "cloisters, which were suj> 
poried chiefly by one or two co- 
lumns in front,or at the centre. 
The palaceof the dey of Algiers 
has such a structure. It is an 
advanced or projecting cloister 
over against the gate of the 
palace,~CEsth. v. 1.) where the 
officers of state assemble and 
transact public business, and 
where public entertainments 
were given. The removal of 
one of two contiguous pillars 
would involve the building, 
and all that were upon it, in 
one common destruction. 



E 



EAG 

AGLE. (Deut. xxxii. 11.) A i 
well known and ferocious ' 
bird of prey, unclean by the 
Levitical law, (Lev. xi. 13. 
Deut. xiv. 12,) whose peculiar 
properties are often alluded to 
by the sacred writers. The 
habits of the eagle are de- 
scribed in Num. xxiv. 21. Job j 
ix. 26; xxxix. 27—30. Prov. i 
xxiii. 5 ; xxx. 17. 19. Jer. xlix. ! 
16. Ezek. xvii. 3. Obad. 4. ! 
Hab. i. 8 ; ii. 9. Matt. xxiv. j 
28. Luke xvii. 37. 

In these last passages, the 
Jewish nation is compared to 
a decaying body, exposed in 
the open field, and inviting the 
Roman army, whose standard 
was an eagle, to come together 
and devour it. The eagle was 
also the Persian standard. The 
tenderness of the eagle to- 
wards its young is character- 
istic, and is beautifully and 
accurately described, Ex. xix. 
4. Deut. xxxii. 11. The rapi- 
dity of the easle ? s flight is ; 
alluded to in Deut. xxvfii. 49. 
2Sam.i.23. Jer. iv. 13; xlviii. 
40. Lam. iv. 19; its destruc- 
tive power in Isa.xlvi 11. Hos. 
viii. 1 ; and its sreat a^e, and 
the popular opinion that it re- 
news its plumage in advanced 



EAR 

life, is intimated in Ps. ciii. 5, 
and Isa. xl. 31. 

The ravenous bird (Isa. xlvi. 
11) might better be rendered 
eagle ; and it is a fact, accord- 
ing to Xenophon, that Cyrus, 
who is alluded to under the 
figure of an eagle, had an 
image of that bird for the 
standard of his army. (For cuts 
of the eagle, and a more parti- 
cular account of his properties, 
see Youth's Friend, for 1827; 
Bible Natural History, art. 
Eagle ; and Portfolio of 
Animals, all published by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

EARING, (Gen.xlv.6,) EAR- 
ING-TIME. (Ex. xxxiv. 21.) 
Earing is an old English word 
far ploughing. The same word 
is used, Ps. cxxix. 3, and is 
translated ploughed. What 
we call arable land is some- 
times written earable land, 
(Deut. xxi. 4. 1 Sam. viii. 12. 
Isa. xxx. 24.) 

EAR-RINGS. (Ge/i. xxiv 
22.) This word occurs, Ex 
xxxii. 2, 3; and in Isa. iii. 21 
we have the word nose-jewels 
and some versions have an 
ornament for the nose in the 
above passage from Genesis. 
The weight of the ornament 
219 



EAR 

mentioned in this passage | 
might appear almost incredi- j 
ble, if we were not informed 
by travellers that the women 
of the east, even in modern 
days, wear ornaments of equal 
and even greater weight. Poor 
people use glass or horn in- 
stead of gold or silver. The 
annexed cut of an Egyptian 




dancing girl shows the size 
_ d manner of wearing these 
ri£s. (See Clothes.) 

EARNEST. (2 Cor. i. -22.) 
Something going before, or 
given in advance as a pledge 
or assurance of more in re- 
serve : thus earnest, or earnest- 
money, is a sum paid in ad- 
vance as a pledge of full pay- 
ment at. a future time. In a 
spiritual sense, it denotes those 
gifts and graces which the 
Christian receives as a pledge 
or earnest of perfect holiness 
and happiness in the future 
world. A pledge is taken back 
when the promise which it 
guarantied is fulfilled ; but 
whatever is given as earnest, 
beir*g a part in advance of the 
whole, is of course retained. 

EARTH. (Fs.xxiv.l.) Be- 
sides the ordinary acceptation 
of the word, as in the passage 
cited, it is used by the sacred 
writers to denote only a par- 



E AS 

ticular countrv. Thus the 
phrase, (Ezra "i. 2,) " all the 
kingdoms of Ike earth " means 
only Chaldea and Assyria ; 
and it is often restricted to 
Judea only. 

Lower parts of the earth 
(Isa. xliv. £3) may signify lite- 
rally the valleys, or fisrura 
tively the grave. (Ps. lxlii. 9. 
Eph.iv.9.) 

EARTHQUAKE. (1 Kings 
xix. 11.) It is supposed that Kb- 
rah and his companions were 
destroyed by an earthquake. 
The earthquake mentioned, 
Amos i. 1. Zech. xiv. 5, is also 
mentioned by Josephus, who 
adds that it divided a mountain 
near Jerusalem, and was so 
violent as to separate one part 
some distance" from the other. 
The earthquake was among 
the fearful signs which attend- 
ed the crucifixion of our Sa- 
viour. Travellers tell us that 
the rocks on Calvary are 
rent asunder, and evidently 
by some such convulsion as an 
earthquake, and very early 
tradition says it was by the 
earthquake which happened 
at the time of the crucifixion. 
That the scene was terrible 
may well be inferred from 
Matt, xxvii. 51—54. 

Earthquakes are mentioned 
among the calamities which 
should precede the destruction 
of Jerusalem, (Matt. xxiv. 7.) 
and Josephus and other histo- 
rians affirm the literal fulfil- 
ment of the prediction. Earth- 
quakes, in prophetical Ian 
guage, denote revolutions and 
commotions in states and em- 
pires. 

EAST. (Gen. xxviii. 14.^ 
The Hebrews used this word 
to describe all the countries or 
provinces lying around and 
beyond the rivers Tigris and 
Euphrates, or east or north-east 
of Judea. The word is also 
used, Gen. xi. 2, "from the 
east" and denotes trie country 
east or soutr east of mount Ara 
220 






EAT 

rat. In travelling from the foot 
of that mountain to the plain 
of Shinar, the descendants of 
Noah would pass southerly on 
the eastern side of the moun- 
tains of Media until they came 
opposite to Shinar or to a point 
north-east of Babylon, from 
which, by a direct western 
course, they would pass into 
Assyria and the plain of Shi- 
nar. This is said to be the 
usual caravan route. 

East sea (Ezek. xlvii. IS. 
Joel ii. 20) is the same with the 
Dead Sea. (See Salt Sea.) 

East wind. (See Wind.) 

EASTER. (Actsxii. 4.) In 
every other passage of our 
translation, this word is ren- 
dered passover, and of course 
denotes the same season or fes- 
tival. (See Feast.) 

EAT, EATING. (Isa. lxvi. 
17. Acts xi. 3.) The Hebrews 
were scrupulous about eating 
and drinking with the Egyp- 
tians, as the Egyptians also 
were about eating and drink- 
ins with the Hebrews. (Gen. 
xlti i . 32.) So also the Hebrews 
declined to eat with the Sama- 
ritans, (John iv. 9;) and the 
refusal to eat with one implied 
an entire separation. (Matt, 
ix. 11. ICor. v. 11.) 

The manner of eating among 
the Jews is still common in 
eastern nations ; the guests re- 
clined on couches or mattrass- 
es, resting on the left elbow, 




19* 



EAT 

and using chiefly the right 
hand. This peculiar positiou 
makes the interesting scene 
described, Luke vii. 36—50, 
perfectly natural, and also 
shows how one of the guests 
could repose his head oh an- 
other's bosom. (John xiii. 23.) 
Women were never present at 
Jewish meals as guests. 

The present mode of eating 
among eastern nations illus- 
trates some interesting pas- 
sages of the New Testament. 
In" Syria the guests use their 
fingers ; a knife, spoon, and 
plate being used only by 
foreigners, and that as a spe- 
cial privilege. The bread, 
which is very thin, is dipped 
in the vegetable soup, and if 
there is a very dainty morsel 
on the table, the master of the 
house takes it in his fingers 
and presents it to the mouth 
of his guest. From Matt. xxvi. 
23, we may presume that Judas 
was near enough to our Lord 
to use the same dish, and from 
the additional circumstances 
in John xiii. 26,27, we may in- 
fer that he was near enough to 
receive the sop from our Lord's 
hand, according to the custom 
above described. (See Feast.) 
To eat a meal together is 
regarded in the east as a 
pledge of mutual confidence 
and friendship ; hence the 
force of the expression, Ps. 
xli. 9. (See Omar, pp. 30. 45, 
and Hebrew Customs, pp. 36 
—46, both by Am. S. S. Union.) 
The expression, John vi. 53 
—58, is evidently metaphori- 
cal, i This appears from the 
context, and from the design 
of the discourse, which was 
introduced by an allusion to 
the eating of manna. Our 
Saviour often speaks of him- 
self as the bread, (Johnvi. 41,) 
the bread of life, (John vi. 35,) 
and living bread, (Johnvi, 51,) 
and it was in perfect accord- 
ance with this figurative lan- 
guage 'to speak of those who 
1221 



EBE 

received him, and exercised 
faith upon him, as eating his 
flesh and drinking his blood. 
Parallel phrases may be found, 
Jer. xv. 16. Ezek. iii. 1. John 
iv. 14: the force of the last 
passage is apparent from John 
vi. 35. 

EIUL,MOUNT,(Deut.xi.29,) 
and MOUNT GERIZIM, were 
situated in the tribe of Ephra- 
im. They were but a short 
distance apart, and in the val- 
ley between, was the old city 
of Shechem, now Nablouse. 
The altitude of these mountains 
does not exceed seven or eight 
hundred feet, and they are "re- 
markable for the solemn ratifi- 
cation ot God's covenant with 
the Jews, which took place 
upon them, and a particular 
account of which we have in 
Deut. xxvii. 12—26 ; xxviii. 2— 
68. A modern traveller speaks 
of the lofty, craggy, and barren 
aspect of these nvo mountains, 
which seem to face each other 
with an air of defiance. 

According to the injunction 
of Moses, the Hebrews, after 
they obtained possession of Ca- 
naan, built an altar, and cele- 
brated a feast on mount Ebal. 
(Deut. xxvii. 4. Josh. viii. 30— 
35.) The Samaritans contend- 
ed that this should have been 
done on mount Gerizim, and 
not on mount Ebal, and they 
afterwards built a temple on 
Gerizim, the ruins of which 
%re still visible, and regarded 
it as the Jews regarded their 
temple at Jerusalem. The re- 
mark of the Samaritan woman 
at Shechem to our Lord is in 
allusion to this difference of 
-•pinion. (See Omar, pp. 110 — 
115, by Am. S. Union. See also 
Shechem, and Samaritans.) 

EBED-MELECH. (Jer. 
xxxviii. 7.) An Ethiopian ser- 
vant of Zedekiah king of Ju- 
dah, who was instrumental in 
saving the prophet Jeremiah 
from death by famine, and 

'ho, for his kindness in this 



ECC 

behalf, was promised deliver- 
ance when the city should fall 
into the enemy's hands. (Jer. 
xxxix. 15—18. See Life op 
Jeremiah, ch. x.,by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

EBENEZER. (1 Sam. iv. 1.) 
This name is used in the pas- 
sage cited, and also in 1 Sam. 
v. 1 ; but the application of it 
to a particular place was a 
subsequent event. While the 
Israelites were worshipping 
God at Mizpeh, they received 
intelligence that the Philis- 
tines were approaching them 
with a formidable army. In 
this emergency they betcok 
themselves to' sacrifice and 
prayer, and the God of armies 
interposed in a most, signal 
manner for their deliverance. 
(1 Sam. vii. 5—12.) In com- 
memoration of this event, Sa- 
muel erected a monument 
near the field of battle, and 
called it Ebenezer, or the 
stone of help, saying, "Hither- 
to hath Jehovah helped us." 
Hence it is often said, " Here 
we will set up our EbenczerJ' 
or here we will establish a 
memorial of the mercy and 
faithfulness of God. 

EBER (Gen. x. 21) was the 
great-grandson of Shem, and 
the ancestor of Abraham, in 
the seventh generation. (See 
Hebrews.) 

EBONY. (Ezek. xxvii. 15.) 
A well known wood, which is 
produced in India and some 
districts of Africa. It is sus- 
ceptible of a fine polish, and 
is used for musical instruments 
and ornamental work. 

ECCLESIASTES, or (as the 
name signifies) the Preacher , 
is the twenty-first in the order 
of the books of the Old Testa 
ment, and was written by Solo- 
mon towards the close "of his 
splendid and eventful career 
as monarch of Israel. The de- 
sign of the author evidently is, 
(1.) To demonstrate the folly 
and madness of making this 
222 



EDE 

world, its pleasures, or its, pur- 
suits the objects of affection or 
hope; and, (2.) To show the 
character, influence, and ad- 
vantages of true wisdom or re- 
ligion. Much of the obscurity 
of some passages in this book 
may be ascribed to the circum- 
stance that the author was 
refuting maxims and reprov- 
ing practices common to the 
errorists and libertines of his 
day, the particular character 
of which is now unknown. 

EDAR, tower op. (See 
Tower.) 

EDEN. (Gen. ii. 8.) That 
part of the earth in which was 
situated the garden planted by 
the Almighty for the residence 
of our first parents, and where 
they dwelt at the time of their 
apostacy. The word is also 
applied generally to denote 
any place remarkable for 
beauty and fertility. (2 Kings 
xix. 12. lsa. xxxvfi. 12.) The 
attempt to establish the locali- 
ty of the garden of Eden is of 
course attended with great dif- 
ficulty. An eminent geologist 
says,we can trace over all those 
regions through which the Ti- 
gris and Euphrates flow, the 
same monuments of the flood 
which are so remarkable in 
every other quarter of the world , 
in the form of boundless deserts 
of sand mixed with salt and 
shells ; and of course we might 
as well look for the rich and 
beautiful dwelling place of our 
first parents in the prairies of 
America or the sands of Africa, 
as expect to discover any trace 
of them on the banks of the 
Euphrates. 

It is supposed by many to be 
safe, however, to Tfix upon Ar- 
menia as embracing the site of 
this interesting spot. As to the 
precise location, it is suggested 
that God may have chosen to 
obliterate every vestige of this 
fair portion of liis works, unfit- 
ted for any thing but the re- 
sidence of innocence, and to 



EDO 

blot at once from the face of 
the earth, like the guilty cities 
of the plain, both the site and 
the memorial of man's trans- 
gression, an awful event which 
would add tenfold horror to 
their punishment. (See Eve- 
ning Recreations, vol. i. pp. 
8—16. Am. S. S. Union.) 

Eden, house of. (Amos L 
5.) This term, in its connexion, 
indicates a place of some im- 
portance. Modern travellers 
find a place near Damascus 
bearing a name of the same 
import, (house of pleasure,) 
which they suppose to be the 
same mentioned by the pro- 
phet. 

EDOM, (Judg.xi. 17,) called 
Idumea (lsa. xxxiv. 5) by the 
Greeks and Romans, was the 
name of a district of country 
inhabited by the Horites,(Gen. 
xxxvi. 21,) or Horims, (Deut. 
ii. 12,) lying south of the Dead 
Sea, and bordering on Moab. 
Edom, or mount Seir, was ori- 
ginally a small strip of elevat- 
ed land between the desert of 
Zin on the west, and Arabia 
Petrea on the east. The cli- 
mate was delightful, and it was 
remarkable for the richness of 
its soil and the almost impreg- 
nable fortress it contained. 
(Gen. xxvii. 39. Jer. xlix. 16.) 
It derives its name from Esau, 
(called also Edom, Gen. xxxvi. 
43,) whose descendants are 
supposed to have settled there. 
The same province is now 
called Sherath, and extends 
across the whole southern bor- 
der of Canaan, from the Dead 
Sea to the eastern gulf of the 
Red Sea, including mount Seir 
Of the eastern division of their 
territory, Bozrah, or Bezer, 
was the capital, and Petrea 
(or Sela) of the southern. Te- 
rnan, a grandson of Esau, (Gen. 
xxxvi. 11,) resided here, and 
gave his own name to part of 
the province. (Job ii. 11. Jer. 
xlix. 7. 20.) The Edomites 
were governed by kings (Gen. 
223 



EGG 

xxxvi. 31) until they were con- 
quered by David, (2 Sam. viii. 
14,) thus fulfilling the prophe- 
cy. (Gen. xxvii. 29.) Hadad, 
a lineal descendant of one of 
the Idumean kings, regained 
the control of the eastern pro- 
vince. The inhabitants of 
south Edom afterwards revolt- 
ed from Jehoram, (2 Chron. 
xxi.10,) and sustained some se- 
vere reverses, (2 Kings xiv. 7. 
2 Chron. xxv.. 11 ;) and were 
finally conquered by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 

There is no country on the 
face of the globe, the present 
state of which more fully at- 
tests the truth of prophecy than 
Idumea. The predictions are 
singularly specific, (especially 
Isa. xxxiv. 5. 10—17. Jer. xlix. 
13—18. Ezek. xxxv. 7. Mai. i. 
3, 4;) and their literal and 
exact accomplishment is fully 
sustained by the testimony 
even of the enemies of the 
Bible. Modern travellers unite 
in their declaration that it is 
one broad plain of barrenness 
and desolation, and that its 
present state could not be more 
graphically described than it 
is in the words of the prophe- 
tic writers. (See The Bible 
is True, ch. vii., by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

EDREI. (Josh, xiii.31.) One 
of the capital cities of Ba- 
shan, the ruins of which still 
remain under the name of 
Draa, about seventy-five miles 
north of Bozrah. Og, king of 
Bashan, was defeated at this 
place by the Israelites, and 
his kingdom assigned to the 
half tribe of Manasseh. An- 
other town of this name was 
inthetribeofNaphtali. (Josh, 
xix. 37.) 

EGG. (Deut.xxii.6.) This 
passage humanelyprohibits the 
taking away of a brooding bird 
from a nest, and is simifar in 
its nature to the provision re- 
specting other animals and 
their young. (Lev. xxii. 2S. 



BGY 

Comp. Isa. x. 14. See Part 
ridge, Scorpion.) 

EGLON. 1. A person, (Judg. 
iii. 14,) and king of the Moab- 
itesj who held the Israelites in 
bondage eighteen years. He 
formed an alliance with the 
Ammonites and Amalekites, 
and took possession of Jericho^ 
where he resided, and where 
he was afterwards assassinated 
by Ehud. (See Ehud.) 

2. A place. (Josh. x. 3; 
xv. 39.) 

EGYPT. (Exodus i. i.) One 
of the most ancient and inte- 
resting countries on the face 
of the earth. It is bounded 
south by Ethiopia, north by 
the Mediterranean Sea, and 
east by the Red Sea. Its north- 
ern and southern limits are 
given in Ezek. xxix. 10; xxx. 
(5. It presents itself to the eye 
of the traveller as an immense 
valley, extending nearly six 
hundred miles in length, and 
hemmed in on the east and 
west by a ridge of hills and a 
vast expanse of desert. It has 
an alluvial basin, owing its 
existence, fertility, and beauty 
to the river Nile, which flows 
through it. Hence Egypt was 
anciently called the gift of 
the Nile. As to the origin of 
the name, there is much dif- 
ference of opinion. In the 
Old Testament, the Hebrew 
word translated Egypt is Miz- 
raim, which was the name of 
one of the sons of Ham, (Gen, 
x. G,) who might have beer, 
the founder of the nation. It 
is sometimes called Ham, (Ps. 
lxxviii.51; cv.23.27; cvi.22.) 
and also Rahab. (Ps. lxxxvii. 
4; lxxxix. 10. Isa.li.9.) The 
Arabs now call it Blizr. 

It was in Egypt that Joseph 
was raised from the condition 
of a slave to the highest rank 
in the king's retinue. In tne 
providence of God, his father 
and brothers came thither to 
live, and in the space of four 
224 



EGY 

bundled and thirty years in- 
creased from seventy-five souls 
to between one and two mil- 
lions. Their deliverance from 
oppression under Pharaoh is 
perhaps the most striking pas- 
sage of Jewish history. w (See 
Hebrews.) 

As a subject of prophecy, 
Egypt is one of the most in- 
teresting of ancient nations. 
(Isa. xviii.xix. Jer. xlii. — xlvi. 
Ezek. xxix.— xxxii.) The pre- 
dictions concerning it are re- 
markable for their precision 
and fulness; and their exact 
fulfilment in every essential 
point is attested by incontro- 
vertible evidence. 

At the time when some of 
the most extraordinary of these 
predictions were uttered, (Eze. 
xxx. 21—26,) Egypt was flou- 
rishing in arts arid arms. Her 
splendid cities rose up on 
every side, and the stately 
monuments of her genius and 
industry were without a par 
rallel. But when the divine 
counsel was fulfilled, the scep- 
tre of the Pharaohs fell, and 
Egypt became a tributary 
kingdom, without a prince of 
its own, subject to a foreign 
yoke, and has cften been go- 
verned by slaves. 

The present population of 
Esrypt is estimated at two mil- 
lions and a half. Before the 
Persian conquest, (which took 
place b. c. 350,) the authority of 
the Pharaohs extended over 
seven and a half millions. The 
nhabitants consist of Copts, 
rabs, Greeks, Jews, and Sy- 
iansf of whom the Copts are 
he most numerous, and are 
usually regarded as the de- 
scendants of the true Egyp- 
tians; but the country has 
been so often invaded, over- 
run, and colonized, that it is 
probable the original stock is 
exterminated. Great and rapid 
changes have taken place in 
this interesting country within 
the last thirty years. The cam- 



EGY 

paign of the French army in 
1S00, which was undertaken 
with a view to subdue Egypt, 
and so secure to the French an 
important share of the East 
India trade, though it resulted 
unsuccessfully, was attended 
with important consequences 
to the interests of science and 
learning. A new era in the 
history of this country com- 
menced then. Mohammed Ali, 
the present viceroy, though a 
perfect despot, has done much 
to elevate his dominions to a 
rank with civilized nations, iu 
arts, commerce, and industry. 
The works of internal im- 
provement which he has un- 
dertaken; the extensive manu- 
factories he has establishedi 
and the encouragement he has 
given to literary institutions, 
promise to change the politi- 
cal if not the moral aspect of 
EErypt. (See Ev. Kec. by Am. 
S.S.Union, vol. iii. 23— 115.) 

Egypt, river of, (Gen. xv. 
18,) called by way of pre-emi- 
nence the River, (Gen. xli. 1. 
Ex. vii. 17.) and sometimes 
Sihor, (Isa. xxiii. 3.) or Shihor y 
(1 Chron. xiii. 5.) was the Nile, 
a remarkable river, which 
flows twelve hundred miles 
without meeting a tributary 
stream. Its overflowings inun- 
date the adjoining country, 
(Amos viii. 8; ix. 5,) and give 
it its extraordinary fertility. 
(See preceding article.) Hence 
a failure of this periodical 
overflowing must occasion the 
utmost distress. (Isa. xix. 5, 6.) 

It is not improbable, how- 
ever, that another and smaller 
river was called the river cf 
Egypt, and that it emptied into 
the Mediterranean *at some 
place south of Gaza. (Num. 
xxxiv. 5. Josh, xv. 47.) Such 
a river is mentioned by mo- 
dern travellers, about thirty 
yards wide, called Wadi Gaza, 
the same with the brook Besor. 
Its being the border of Judea, 
on the Egyptian side, might 
225 



EKR 

give it the name river of 
Egypt. The precise import 
of the phrase must be deter- 
mined in each case by its con- 
nexion. (See Besor.) 

EHUD. (Judg. iii. 15.) A 
eon of Gera, of the tribe of 
Benjamin, who delivered the 
Israelites from the oppression 
which they suffered under Eg- 
Ion king of Moab. The Israel- 
ites sent Ehud to pay some 
tax or tribute to Eglon, as a 
token of their allegiance. Un- 
der the pretence that he had 
some secret message to the 
king, he obtained ~a private 
audience; and while they were 
together in the king's apart- 
ment, Ehud drew a dagger 
which he had made expressly 
for the purpose, and gave him 
a mortal wound. The custom 
of delivering confidential mes- 
sages in secret appears to 
have been so common, that 
the attendants of Eglon left 
his presence as soon as Ehud's 
wish was known. Such is the 
custom in eastern courts at 
thi3 day, as travellers assure 
us ; as soon as a confidential 
message is announced, the au- 
dience chamber is cleared of 
all but the messenger. Ehud 
fled towards mount Ephraim, 
and summoning the oppressed 
Israelites to his help, they se- 
cured the fords of the Jordan, 
so that the Moabites, by # whom 
their land was garrisoned, 
might not escape. *As soon as 
he had collected a sufficient 
force, he fell upon the Moab- 
ites, and cut them off in every 
direction. 

EKRON. (Josh. xv. 45.) A 
city of the Philistines, lying 
north-west of Gath and north 
of Ashdod, assigned by Joshua 
originally to the tribe of Judah, 
(Judg. i.18,) but afterwards said 
to belong to the tribe of Dan. 
(Josh. xix. 43.) Neither tribe 
seems to'have been in actual 
possession of the place. (Judg. 



ELA 

i. 34, 35. ISam. v. 10; vi. 17. 
2 Kin°s i. 2. Jer. xxv. 20. Amog 
i.8. Zeph. ii.4. Zech. ix.5. 7. 
See Selumiel, p. 28, by Am. 
S. S. Union. See Philistia.) 

ELAH. 1. A person. (I 
Kings xvi.6.) Son and succes- 
sor of Baasha king of Israel. 
As he was revelling at a friend's 
house, he was assassinated by 
Zimri, one of the officers of his 
army. (See Omri.) He reigned 
only two years. 

2. A place. Valley of, (1 
Sam. xvii. 19,) li< s south-west 
of Jerusalem, three miles from 
Bethlehem, on the road to 
Jaffa. The Israelites were en- 
camped in this valley when 
David fought and subdued Go- 
liath. (See Selumiel, p. 31, 
and Life of David, pp. 26, 27, 
both by Am. S. S. Union.) 

ELAM. 1. A person. (Gen. 
x. 22.) Eldest son of Shem, 
and the ancestor of the Elam- 
ites and Persians. 

2. A country, (Gen. xiv. 
9,) settled by the family of 
Elam, and lying east of Shinar 
and north of the Persian culf, 
and a part of the ancient ^Per- 
sian empire. Chedorlaomer 
was one of its earliest kings. 
(Gen. xiv. 1.) Shushan was the 
capital of the province. (Dan, 
viii. 2.) When the country of 
Elam is mentioned by the sa- 
cred writers, Susiana or Shu- 
sistan is meant. The Elam- 
ites were a warlike people, 
and distinguished for their 
skill as bowmen, (Isa. xxii. 6. 
Jer. xlix. 35,) and were regard- 
ed as a formidable enemy. 
(Ezek. xxxii. 24.) Some of 
this nation were present in 
Jerusalem, at the miraculous 
effusion of God's Spirit on the 
day of Pentecost. (See Shu- 
shan.) 

The " bringing again the 
captivity of Ela?n" (Jer. xlix. 
39) is generally supposed to 
refer to the restoration of the 
kingdom of Persia by Cyrus, 
226 



ELD 

who subdued the Babylonians, 
as they had previously subdued 
the Persians. 

E L A T H, (Deut. ii. 8,) or 
ELOTH. (2Chron. viii. 17.) A 
seaport of Idumea, of great ce- 
lebrity, lying on the shore of 
the eastern or Elanitic gulf of 
the Red Sea. It was a place 
of much importance in Solo- 
mon's time. (1 Kings ix. 26 — 
28.) It was probably a part of 
David's conquest, (1 Chron. 
xviii. 13,) and was recaptured 
by the Edomites in the reign 
of Jehoram, (2 Kings viii. 20,) 
was taken from them again by 
Uzziahkingof Judah, (2Kings 
xiv. 22,) was afterwards taken 
by the kins of Damascus, (2 
Kings xvi. 6,) who was in his 
turn~deprived of it bv the kiner 
of Assyria. (2 Kings "xvi. 7— &.) 
Elath adjoined Ezion-Geber, 
and Akaba now occupies the 
site of one or both of those 
ancient towns. 

ELD AD (Num. xi. 26) and 
MEDAD were of the seventy 
elders of Israel appointed by 
Moses to assist him in the go- 
vernment of the people. When 
the elders were assembled 
around the tabernacle to seek 
wisdom trom God on a particu- 
lar occasion, Eldad and Medad 
were absent. The Spirit of 
God was however poured out 
on them there, while they con- 
tinued with the camp, as well 
as on their colleagues who sur- 
rounded the tabernacle, and 
'hey began to prophesy. Their 

Sroceeding was represented' to 
loses, and he was asked to 
prohibit them, but he declined, 
and, so far from wishing them 
to be silenced, uttered a prayer 
that all the people might re- 
ceive the same Spirit which 
was upon Eldad and Medad. 

ELDERS. (Ex. iii. 16.) A 
comprehensive title, the pecu- 
liar force of which must be 
determined by the connexion, 
&c. While in Esypt, the 
elders oflsrael (Ex. I v. 29— 31) 



ELD 

were probably either th*> h ^ads 
of tribes, or the oldest ana ivont 
judicious of the people. AaJ 
though their authority was n 
its nature paternal, they wei ? 
regarded to a certain exten , 
as the representatives of th+ 
nation. In the Hebrew com- 
monwealth every city had W 
elders. (Deut. xix. 12; xxi. I 
—9. Josh. xx. 24. Jude. viii 
14 ; xi. 5, 6. Ruth iv. 2. 4. 9 
Ezra x. 14.) 

There was a body of elder* 
however,selected and appoint 
ed for special duties, (Num. xi 
16, 17. 24, 25;) and they seers 
to have been taken from tht 
general class of elders. The 
expression is, " Gather me se- 
venty men of the elders of Is- 
rael,mhom thou knowest to be 
elders of the people, and offir 
cers over them." 

The seventy men who were 
with Moses at mountSinai were 
also seventy of the elders of 
Israel. (Ex. xxiv. 1. 9.) At a 
subsequent period of Jewish 
history, we find a tribunal of 
seventy elders known as the 
sanhedrim, which the rabbies 
maintain was a continuance of 
the original appointment of 
elders by Moses. It is generally 
agreed, however, that the san. 
hedrim was a distinct organi- 
zation, unknown till the time 
of the Maccabees. 

The term elders is used in 
the New Testament generally, 
if not always, to denote a class 
of officers in the Jewish or 
Chrisiian church. Concerning 
the duties which appertained 
to their office, there are con- 
flicting opinions. 

It is supposed by some that 
in Acts xi. 30, the word elders 
means simply the aged men. 

The word rendered elders, 
Acts xx. 17, is rendered over, 
seers, Acts xx. 28, and bishops 
in Phil. i. 1. However difficult 
it may be to ascertain its ori- 
ginal import, there can be no 
doubt that one class of the 
227 



ELE 

elders so frequently spoken of 
in the New Testament by the 
evangelists and others, con- 
stituted a judicial tribunal. 
When they are associated with 
the apostles, (as in Acts xv. 6,) 
officers or members of the 
Christian church are intend- 
ed; and when they are asso- 
ciated with the civil authority, 
(as in Acts xxiv. 1,) officers of 
the Jewish church are intend- 
ed. That the corruption and 
contempt which attached to 
the latter in their judicial cha- 
racter was very general in our 
Saviours time, appears from 
Matt. xxvi. 59; xxvii. 3. 41; 
and that the former had ex- 
tensive ecclesiastical power, 
appears from Acts xvi. 4. 

Estate op the elders 
(Acts xxii. 5) means the whole 
body, bench, or order of the 
elders. 

ELEALEH. (Num. xxxii. 3. 
37.) A city of the Amorites, 
assigned to'the tribe of Reuben. 
It is denounced in the prophe- 
cies among the cities of Moab. 
(Isa. xv. 4. Jer. xlviii. 34.) 
And to this day the ruins of a 
town are seen one or two miles 
north-east of Heshbon, that 
still retain the name of Eleale 
or El-Aal. 

ELEAZAR. 1. (Num. xx. 
28.) The third son of Aaron, 
(Ex. vi. 23,) and his successor 
in the office of high-priest, 
which he held for upwards of 
twenty vears, and his family 
after him, till the time of Eli. 
Nadab and Abihu, Eieazar 
and Ithamar, together with 
their father Aaron, were con- 
secrated to the sacerdotal of- 
fice. The first two were struck 
dead for a particular sin. (See 
Abihu.) 

Eieazar, being the eldest 
surviving son, succeeded his 
father, and was himself suc- 
ceeded by his eldest son Phine- 
has, according to the covenant. 
(Num. xxv. 12, 13.) The office 
continued in Eleazar's line 



ELE 

through seven successions, anc 1 
then passed into the line of 
Ithamar, in the person of Eli, 
who was both high-priest and 
judge. In Ithamar's line, it 
continued until the reign of 
Saul, who caused Ahimelech 
to be slain, and probably trans- 
ferred the priesthood to Zadok, 
who was of the line of Fhine- 
has; for in David's time we 
find the priesthood sustained 
jointly by Zadok and Abiatha^ 
who was of Ithamar's family. 
(2 Sam. xx. 25.) It is supposed 
that Zadok was advanced by 
Saul ; and David, not wishing 
to depose him, but feeling 
bound to advance Abiathaii, 
whose family had sacrificed so 
many lives" for his sake, he 
conferred the office on them 
jointly.' (2Sam.viii. 17.) The 
apparent contradiction in thte 
last cited passage, by which 
the relation of Ahimelech and 
Abiathar is reversed, is cjs* 
plained by supposing that AbW 
athar had a son Ahimelech, 
and that this son officiated in 
his father's stead, and hence 
is spoken of as executing the 
priest's office with Abiathai. 
Afterwards, Abiathar was de- 
posed, (1 Kings ii. 27,) and Za- 
dok sustained' the office alone ; 
and the succession continued 
in his line thenceforward until 
the captivity. 

Abiathar received the title of 
high-priest after his deposition, 
(I Kings iv. 4,) but it was no- 
thing rnore than nominal; H 
could only have been a se- 
condary rank, such as Zepha- 
niahheld. (Jer. lii.24.) Why 
the sacerdotal succession was 
transferred from Eieazar tc 
Ithamar, we are not informed : 
but we are told why it reverted 
to the family of Eieazar. (i 
Sam. ii. 27, &c.) 

2. (1 Ghron. xi. 12.) A war- 
rior of distinguished courage, 
two of whose' exploits are re- 
corded, 1 Chron. xi. 11—18, and 
2 Sam. xxiii. 9. „ „ 
223 



ELF 

3. (ISam. vii. 1.) The son 

of Abinadab, to whose care the 
ark was committed when it 
was sent back by the Philis- 
tines. 

EL-ELOHE-ISRAEL. (Gen. 
xxxiii. 20.) The word El is 
from a Hebrew word signifying 
strength, power, or an object 
of adoration. It is most fre- 
quently used of God, but is 
applied both to Jehovah and 
to heathen gods. It enters into 
the composition of a variety 
of words, to which it gives a 
highly significant meaning, 
as El-bethel, Eluzai, Daniel, 
Jabneel, Othniel, Penuel, &c. 
(See Elci.) 

El-eethel. (Gen. xxxv. 
7.) TVie God of Bethel. The 
same with Bethel. (See Be- 
thel.) 

ELECT, (1 Pet. i. 2,) ELEC- 
TION. (Rom. ix.ll.) Both in 
the Old and New Testament a 
clas3 of persons is spoken of as 
the elect, mine elect, (Isa. lxv. 
9,) the elect, (Matt. xxiv. 22,) 
his elect, (Mark xiii. 27,) fiis 
awn elect, (Luke xvi'ri.7,) God's 
eiect, (Rom. viii. 33. Tit. i. 1,) 
the elect of God. (Col. iii. 12.) 
So also in the New Testament 
a corresponding phrase often 
occurs, Elected together with 
you, (iPet. v. 13,) the purpose 
of God, according to election, 
(Rom. ix. 11,) election of grace, 
(Rom. xi. 5,) election of God, 
(1 Thess. i. 4,) calling and 
election. (2 Pet. i. 10.) These 
terms, in their various connex- 
ions, involve a very important 
and interesting doctrine, con- 
cerning which Christians are 
much divided in opinion. It 
is evidently a matter of mere 
revelation, and many of the 
reasonings and inferences of 
men are therefore likely to be 
very vain and erroneous. The 
counsel of the Lord, that shall 
stand. (Prov. xix. 21.) And 
we may be fully ass red, that 
in his counsel there is nothing 
inconsistent with the infinitely 
20 



ELI 

perfect attributes of his cha- 
racter. 

Elect lady. (2 John 1.) 
Whether this title is applied 
by John to some eminent 
Christian woman, or whether 
it was a figurative expression, 
denoting a Christian church, 
is uncertain. The expressions 
in verses 4, 5. 8, and 13, would 
favour the latter supposition. 

ELEMENTS, (Gal. iv. 3.9,) 
elsewhere rendered rudiments^ 
(Col. ii. 8. 20,) or the first prin- 
ciples of an art or science, is a 
term applied to the ceremonial 
ordinances of the Mosaic law, 
which were worldly, weak, 
and beggarly, inasmuch as 
they consisted very much in 
outward or worldly observ- 
ances, (Heb. ix. 1,) and were 
of temporary and partial ser- 
vice, when compared with the 
disclosures of grace and mercy 
which they were designed to 
shadow forth. In the case of 
the Colossians, probably these 
rudiments of the world em- 
braced the doctrines of some 
vain and deceitful philosophy. 

ELI. (ISam. ii. 11.) A de- 
scendant of Ithamar, the fourth 
son of Aaron, and successor of 
Abdon, as high-priest and judge 
of Israel. In consequence of 
his negligence or injudicious 
management of his two sons 
Hophni and Phinehas, he su£ 
fered severe chastisement. Sa- 
muel was directed to disclose 
to Eli the judgments that 
would come upon his family, 
(1 Sam. iii. 13, 14,) chiefly be- 
cause of his neglect of pater 
nal duty. The old man re- 
ceived the intelligence with 
remarkable submission; but V 
was not until twenty-seven 
years after, that God fulfilled 
his threatenings. Then his 
two sons were both slain in 
the same battle with the Philis- 
tines, into whose hands the ark 
of God fell. The aged priest, 
then in his ninety-eighth yeari 
was so overwhelmed when 
229 



ELI 

these calamities were made 
known to him, that he fell 
backward from his seat, and 
broke his neck. He had go- 
verned the Hebrews in all 
their concerns, civil and reli- 
gious, for the long period of 
forty years. (1 Sam. iv. 18. 
See Eloi.) 

ELIAB. (1 Sam. xvii. 28.) 
The eldest son of Jesse, (1 Sam. 
xvii. 13,) and a man of angry 
and envious temper, as ap- 

Eears from his treatment of his 
rother David. 

ELIAKIM. 1. (2Kingsxviii. 
18.) An officer in the court of 
Hezekiah king of Judah, and 
one of the commissioners ap- 
pointed to treat with the king 
of Assyria, who had laid siege 
to Jerusalem. We have a mi- 
nute and deeply interesting 
account of the whole scene, 
2 Kings xviii. and xix. 

2. (2Kingsxxiii. 34.) Son 
and successor of Josiah king of 
Judah. His name was changed 
to Jehoiakim. (See Jehoia- 
kim.) 

ELIAS. (See Elijah.) 

ELIASHIB. (Neh. xiii. 4.) 
An officer of the temple. To 
oblige Tobiah, a relative, he 
took the stores out of one of 
the courts of the temple, and 
fitted it up for Tobiah's lodg- 
ings. As soon as Nehemiah 
knew of it, he caused all To- 
Diah's furniture to be cast out, 
the apartments to be thorough- 
ly cleansed, and the stores" to 
be returned. 

ELIEZER. (Gen. xv. 2.) A 
name of frequent occurrence 
in the Old Testament. The 
most distinguished person who 
bore it was Abraham's steward 
and confidential servant. (Gen. 
xx iv. 2.) 

ELIHU. (Job xxxii. 2.) A 
friend of Job, and a kind of 
arbitrator in the controversy 
between him and three of his 
acquaintances who had come 
to sympathize with him in his 
calamities. Elihu regarded 



ELI 

both parties as in the wrong : 
Job, for justifying himself ra- 
ther than God ; and his three 
friends, for their unfair or un- 
satisfactory mode of answering 
the afflicted patriarch. Elihu 
was the youngest of them all. 
He is called the Buzite, from 
Buz, the place of his nativity, 
probably a city of Idumea, as 
were also Dedan and Teman. 
(Jer. xxv. 23 ; xlix. 7, 8. Ezek. 
xxv. 13.) The ground taken 
by the three friends of Job ; 
respecting the cause of his 
calamities, was, that his pro- 
fessions of piety were hypocri- 
tical ; and these were God's 
judgments upon him for his 
sins. Elihu shows that this 
inference of their's was rash 
and unauthorized. He cen- 
sures many of the feelings and 
expressions into which Job had 
been betrayed by the taunts 
and reproaches of his visiters ; 
and then puts him in remem- 
brance of the infinite attributes 
of the Divine Being, as a ground 
of submission and confidence. 
The soothing, yet faithful and 
honest, discourse of Elihu is 
finely contrasted with the 
sharp and severe language of 
the other three ; and especial- 
ly are his wisdom, piety, and 
benevolence admirable, when 
we consider his youth and 
the character and standing of 
those whom he addressed. (See 
Job.) 

ELIJAH, (1 Kings xvii. 1,) 
or ELIAS, (Matt. xvii. 3,) was 
a native of Gilead, and is 
called the Tishbite, probably 
from the name of the town or 
district in which he lived. He 
is first introduced to our notice 
as a messenger from God to 
Ahab, the wicked king of Is 
rael. He was sent to utter a 
prophecy of a three' years' 
drought in the land of Israe] 
He was miraculously fed, (1 
Kings xvii. 6—16; xix. 5—8,) 
and was favoured with the 
most remarkable displays of 
230 



ELI 

divine power in his behalf, 
and in answer to his prayers. 
(1 Kings xvii. 17—22 ; xviii. 15 
—46 . xix. 2—21. 2 Kings i. 3— 
17; ii. 1— 11.; Two of these 
incidents are used in the New 
Testament to illustrate im- 
portant doctrines. (Luke iv. 
25, 26. James v. 17, 18.) 

As a reprover of wicked 
men in high places, Elijah dis- 
covered great intrepidity, (1 
Kings xxi. 17—2-1. 2 Kings i. 
2—16,) though on one occasion 
he seems ttThave been betray- 
ed into some impatience. 
(1 Kings xix. 3, 4.) 

After executing the prophe- 
tic office ten years, Elijah was 
translated to heaven in a mi- 
raculous manner, in pregence 
of Elisha and fifty other per- 
sons. The advent of John the 
Baptist is prophesied under 
the name of Elijah. (Mai. iv. 5. 
Comp. Matt. xi. 14; xvii. 10. 
Markix. 11. Luke i. 17. For 
a full history of this prophet, 
with illustrative maps and 
cuts, see Life op Elijah. See 
also Bible Pictures, and 
Widow and her Son, all by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

ELDIELECH. (Ruth i. 2.) 
A Bethlehemite, and the hus- 
band of Naomi, Ruth's mother- 
in-law. 

ELIPHAZ. (Jobii.ll.) One 
of the three friends of Job who 
came to sympathize with him 
= :n his calamities. He is called 
ihe Temanite, probably be- 
cause he was a native of Te- 
man, a country of Idumea, 
(settled by one of the descend- 
ants of Esau. (Gen. xxxvi. 
10,11. Comp. Jer. xlix. 7.20. 
Ezek. xxv. 13. Amos i. 11, 12. 
Obad. 8, 9.) 

ELISABETH. (Luke i. 5.) 
The wife of Zacharias, and 
greatly distinguished as the 
mother of John the Baptist. 
She was a descendant of Aa- 
ron ; and of her and her hus- 
band this exalted character is 
given by the evangelist— They 



£LO 

were both righteous before 
God, walking in all the com- 
mandments and ordinances of 
the Lord blameless. (See Za- 
charias.) 

ELISHA, (1 Kings xix. 16, 
the disciple and successor of 
Elijah, was the son of Shaphat, 
and a native of Abel-Meholah. 
Elijah was commanded to 
anoint him; which service he 
performed at Abel-Meholah, 
where he found Elisha plough- 
ing, and threw his mantle over 
him as they stood in the field ; 
thus signifying the service to 
which he was called. Elisha 
promptly obeyed the call, and 
leaving his oxen in the field, 
took leave of his father and 
mother, and followed Elijah 
Many miracles were wrought 
by Elisha. (2 Kings ii. 19— 
22; iv. 1.8—37; v. vi. 1—7. 
See Naaman.) He received 
frequent and signal tokens of 
the divine favour,(2 Kings ii. 23, 
24 ; vi. 8—23,) and uttered se- 
veral remarkable predictions. 
(2 Kings iii. 16—27; vii. viii. 7 
—15.) He exercised the pro 
phetic office upwards of sixty 
years with great fidelity and 
success. (For a full biography 
of this eminent prophet, with 
maps and cuts, illustrating his 
travels and the prominent in- 
cidents of his life, see Life op 
Elisha, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

ELISHAH. (Gen.x.4.) A 
son of Javan, who is supposed 
to have settled upon some 
islands of the sea. (Ezek. 
xxvii. 7.) Perhaps Elis is the 
Peloponnesus. 

ELLASAR, (Gen. xiv. 1,) 
supposed to be the same with 
Thelasar, (2 Kings xix. 12.) 
and Telassar, (Isa. xxxvi i. 12,) 
was probably a country of Ara- 
bia, and perhaps the province 
which was afterwards enlarg 
ed into Assyria or El-Asur. 

ELM. (Hos. iv. 13.) The 
original is elsewhere trans- 
lated oak. (See Oak.) 

ELOI. (Mark xv. 34.) One 
231 



EMB 

of the names of the Most High, 
but is applied to other objects 
Df adoration. It is the allah of 
the Arabians. (See El.) The 
exclamation of our Saviour is 
in the Syro-Chaldaic tongue, 
and is taken from Ps. xxii. 1. 
The peculiar application of 
the passage may be learned 
from comparing Isa. liii. 4, 5. 
Zech. xiii. 7. Luke xxii. 53. 
2 Cor. v. 21. Gal. iii. 13. 
_ ELUL. (See Month.) 
ELYMAS. (See Barjesus.) 
EMBALM. (Gen. 1.2.) The 
practice of embalming prevail- 
ed at a very early period. The 
Hebrews learned it from the 
Egyptians, by whom it was i 
understood very perfectly, and 
it is said that the inundation 
of the Nile, which kept the flat 
country under water for nearly 
two months every year, proba- 
bly obliged them to resort to 
some such method of preserv- 
ing their dead. Others tell us 
it was to preserve the body for 
the dwelling place of the soul, 
after it had completed its vari- 
ous transmigrations. The era- 
balmers or physicians were 
regarded as sacred officers. 
The deceased person was open- 
ed, (both head and body,) the 
inward vessels and organs en- 



EMB 

tirely removed, and the cavi- 
ties filled with drugs and 
spices, — such as myrrh and 
cassia, — whereby the humours 
should be imbibed and ab- 
sorbed, and the tbrm preserved 
from decay. It was then swath 
ed in linen bandages, with a 
profusion of aromatics. The 
price of embalming a single 
body was sometimes upwards 
of $1000, and from that down 
to $200, or $300. Sometimes 
the process lasted from thirty 
to seventy days, and afterwards 
the body was placed in a coffin 
of sycamore-wood or stone, and 
then placed upright against 
the walls of the house, where 
it often remained for years. 
Finally,the bodies were placed 
in subterraneous vaults in the 
ground, or in the rock, where 
they were often found, after 
the lapse of two or three thou- 
sand years, in a state of perfect 
preservation. 

We have no evidence that 
embalming was practised by 
the Hebrews, except in the 
cases of Jacob and Joseph, and 
then it was for the purpose 
of preserving their remains 
till they could be carried into 
the . land of promise. (See 
Bury.) 




EMU 

EMERALD. (Ex.xxviii.18.) 
A very valuable gem, of a pure 
green colour, to which it owes 
us chief value. The deepest 
colours are the most valuable. 
The emerald was anciently 
obtained from Egypt. It is 
found in Peru and the East 
Indies, and was an article of 
Tyrian merchandise. (Ezek. 
xxvii. 16; xxviii. 13.) 

EMERODS. (1 Sam. v. 6. 9.) 
The name of a painful disease 
sent upon the Philistines. Some 
think it resembled the modern 
disease of the piles; and others, 
that it was like the dysentery ; 
and others still, that they were 
a very large and venomous 
species of the spider. It was 
customary with the heathens 
to offer to their gods figures of 
wax or metal, representing the 

Sarts which had been cured of 
isease. Whence they infer, 
in connexion with 1 Sam. vi. 
5, that the priests and diviners 
of the Philistines recommend- 
ed a similar course. 

EMIMS. (Deut. ii. 10.) A 
numerous and warlike people, 
of gigantic size, who dwelt on 
the eastern borders of Canaan, 
and who were supplanted by 
the Moabites. 
EMMANUEL. (See Imwa- 

NUEL.) 

EMMAUS, (Luke xxiv. 13.) 
A village seven or eight miles 
north-west of Jerusalem. It 
was on the way to this village 
that our Lord held a most inte- 
resting conversation with two 
of his uisciples. The supposed 
ruins of the place are still vi- 
sible, though too imperfect to 
excke much interest. 

EMULATION. (Rom. xi. 
14. Gal. v. 20.) The oppo- 
site meaning of this word, 
in the passage above cited, 
is obvious. In the last case, 
it is the same with what is 
elsewhere called envy and 
envyings, (Acts xiii. 45. 2 Cor. 
xii. 20^;) and in the former 
jpassase it signifies that holy 
20* 



ENG 

' strife or effort to equal or excel 
others, which is excited or pro- 
voked by an exhibition of good 
example. 

ENCHANTMENTS. (See 
Inchanters.) 

ENDOR. (Ps. lxxxiii. 10.) 
A town of Manasseh, with 
in the territory of Issachar, 
south of mount Tabor, where 
lived the woman whom Saul 
consulted as having a fami- 
liar spirit. A cave is still 
pointed out to travellers a few 
miles south of Nazareth, as 
the one she inhabited. (1 Sam. 
xxviii. 7 — 25.) It would seem 
from the passage in Psalms, 
above cited, that it was near 
this place that Barak defeated 
Sisera. (Judg. iv.) 

ENDOW. (See Dowry.) 

ENGEDI, (2Chron.xx.2,) or 
HAZAZON-TAMAR. A town 
about thirty miles south-east of 
Jerusalem, and directly west of 
the southern extremity of the 
Dead Sea. It was celebrated for 
its palm trees and vineyards, 
(Sol. Song i. 14;) and modern 
travellers speak of the district 
as affording the richest wines. 
It was also celebrated for its 
caves and almost inaccessible 
fastnesses. (1 Sam. xxiii. 29.) 

Wilderness of. (1 Sam. 
xxiv. 1.) Part of the wilder- 
ness of Judah. 

ENGINES. (See War.) 

ENGRAVE. (Ex. xxviii. 11.) 
Engraved seals are spoken of 
at a very early period of the 
world. The names of the chil- 
dren of Israel were directed to 
be engraved on two stones; 
and the words " Holiness to 
the Lord" were also to be 
engraved on the high-priest's 
breastplate; both to be like 
the engravings of a signet. (Ex. 
xxviii. 11. 36.) The" signet is 
mentioned before Joseph was 
sold into Egypt. Job also speaks 
of engraving with an iron pen 
upon a rock. (Job xix. 24.) 
The ten commandments were 
engraved, (Ex. xxxii. 160 and 
233 



ENO 

graven images were undoubt- 
edly among the earliest objects 
of idolatrous worship. (Ex. xx. 
4 ; xxxii. 4.) Allusion is also 
made to the engraver's art in 
Ezek. xxiii. 14. The engraved 
lines were probably filled in 
with colouring matter. (See 
also Acts xvii. 29'. See Seal.) 

ENOCH, (Heb. xi. 5,) the 
son of Jared and father of 
Methuselah, was born a. m. 
622. He is called the seventh 
from Adam, (Jude 14,) to dis- 
tinguish him from Enoch the 
son of Cain, who was only the 
third from Adam. We are 
told that he walked with God; 
an expressive figure to denote 
the closest communion with 
the divine being, and entire 
conformity to hi3 will. And 
concerning his departure from 
the world, we are told that 
he was not, for God took 
him, — a phrase which im- 
ports a mere change of resi- 
dence, without suffering the 
ordinary dissolution of the 
body. "In thi3 case, as well 
as in Elijah's, the body was 
clothed with immortality, or 
endued with the immortal 
principle by the immediate 
power of God. (1 Cor. xv. 50.) 

We have the character of 
Enoch drawn by two apostles. 
(Heb. xi. 5. 13. Jude 14, 15.) 
This last passage has been the 
subject of some controversy ; 
but the truth is apparent that 
Jude received a knowledge of 
the prophecy of the ancient 
patriarch, either through tra- 
dition or directly from God. It 
has been remarked that each 
of three grand dispensations 
of religion had its instance of 
translation into heaven: the 

Eatriarchal, in the person of 
Inoch ; the Jewish, in the 
person of Elijah; and the 
Christian, in the person of 
Christ, tf e author and spirit 
of all. 

KNON. (John iii. 23.) A 
town on the west side of the 



EPH 

Jordan, eight or ten miles 
south of Eethshean, abounding 
in water, and distinguished as 
a place where John baptized. 

ENROGEL, (Josh. xv. 7,) or 
the Fountain of Rogel, or the 
Fuller's Fountain, or Mary's 
Fountain, was a reservoir of 
water at the foot of mount 
Zion, and, as some suppose, 
the same with the fountain of 
Siloam, whence the pool of that 
name is supplied. Several 
important events of sacred his- 
tory are associated with this 
place. (Josh.xviii. 16. 2 Sam. 
xvii. 17. 1 Kings i. 9.) 

ENSIGN. (See Banners.) 

EPAPHRAS. (Col.i.7.) A 
distinguished disciple of Co- 
losse, and a faithful minister 
of the gospel. His character is 
described by the apostle Paul, 
(Col. i. 7, 8; iv. 12,) whose fel- 
low prisoner he was at Rome. 
(Phile. 23.) 

EPAPHRODITUS. (Phil. ii. 
25.) An eminent disciple who 
resided at Philippi, and was 
commissioned by the church 
in that city to visit the apostle 
Paul during his imprisonment 
at Rome, and carry him some 
supplies. He was taken sick 
at Rome, to which circum- 
stance, and the procuring 
cause of it, the apostle alludes 
with strong commendation. 

EPH AH. (See Measures.) 

EPHAH. 1. A place. (Isa. 
lx. 6.) 

2. A person. (Gen. xxv. 4,) 
Ephah was a grandson of Abra- 
ham, and his" posterity settled 
in Arabia, and were designated 
by the name of their general 
ancestor, as in the passage 
above cited from Isaiah. 

EPHESIANS. (Acts xix. 28.) 
The citizens of Ephesus. 

Epistle to, was written by 
Paul to the Christians at Ephe- 
sus. The church in that re 
nowned city was established 
and built up under Paul s mi- 
nistry (Acts xviii. 19.21 ; xix.) 
about the year 54 or 55, and 
234 



EPH 

this letter was w ritten by the 
apostle about a. d. 60 or 61, 
while he was in prison at 
Rome, and forwarded by Tych- 
: cus, a beloved brother and 
faithful minister. (Eph. vi. 21.) 
The matter and style of this 
epistle are considered by the 
most eminent critics as pecu- 
liarly elevated and animating. 

EPHESUS. (Acts xix. 35.) 
A. celebrated city of AsiaMinor, 
situated on the river Cayster, 
Bear its mouth, about thirty 
miles south of Smyrna. It was 
the ornament and metropolis 
■if proconsular Asia, and cele- 
brated for a magnificent tem- 
Dle of Diana. This temple was 
bur hundred and twenty-five 
feet in length, two hundred 
md twenty in breadth, and 
-vas supported by one hundred 
iolumns, each sixty feet in 
length. The building of it oc- 
cupied two hundred years. 

When Paul came to the city, 
A..T). 54, he commenced preach- 
ing in the Jewish synagogue. 
The blessing of God attended 
his ministry. Several con- 
verts to the faith of the gospel 
were baptized, and hail im- 
parted to them the miraculous 
gifts of tongues and prophecy. 
He afterwards commenced 
preaching in a public build- 
ing, used for a school ; and 
for two years, day by day, he 
reasoned publicly with the per- 
verse and unbelieving Ephe- 
sians. By this means, and by 
a series of wonderful miracles 
which he wrought by the power 
of God, his doctrines became 
universally known through the 
city and country. Such was 
the effect of his preaching, that 
many of the sorcerers^ and 
other persons who practised 
the superstitious art3 of leger- 
demain and necromancy, col- 
lected together their books on 
these subjects, amounting to 
several thousand dollars in 
value, and burned them. An 
exhibition like this, of the 



EPK 

power of divine truth, might 
be expected to excite the op- 
position of wicked men, and 
especially those whose selfish 
interests were likely to suffer 
by the prevalence of true reli 
gion. A great commotion was 
accordingly excited by a class 
of men whose living depended 
on the worship of Diana ; and 
Paul came near falling into 
their hands, (See Demetrius.) 
Ephesus was visited by Apol- 
los, (Acts xviii. 24.) and it was 
in Ephesus that Paul received 
the kind offices of Onesipho- 
rus. 

The church at Ephesus is 
severely rebuked and threat- 
ened (Rev. ii. 1—11) by the 
great head of the church, for 
its coldness and backsliding; 
and how fully the threat has 
been executed, appears from 
the following account given us 
by a recent wanderer among 
its ruins. A miserable Turkish 
village, called Aijasoluc, occu- 
pies "nearly the site of the 
.ancient city. 

" After breakfasting," says a 
traveller, " we passed over to 
the foot of mount Prion, (on 
the side of which the renowned 
city was built,) and at evex7 
step we encountered some scat- 
tered fragment of antiquity. 
What was formerly the har- 
bour is now a marsh, from 
whence the sea has long since 
retreated. On the hill some 
traces of the former walls, and 
a solitary watch-tower, marl: 
the extent of the city. Some- 
thing is seen that is supposed 
to be the ruins of the theatre 
in which Demetrius and the 
excited multitude rushed. Of 
the temple of Diana, not 3 
stone remains. A more tho- 
rough change can scarcely be 
conceived than that which has 
passed over Ephesus. Once 
( the seat of active commerce, 
] the very sea has shrunk from 
j its solitary shores. Its streets 
| once populous with the devo 
235 



EPH 

tees of Diana, are now piougn- 
ed over by the Ottoman serf, or 
browsed by the sheep of the 
peasants. It was early the 
stronghold of Christianity ; 
now not a single Christian 
dwells within it." 

Mr. Fisk, an American mis- 
sionary, who visited the ruins 
in 1821, describes the desola- 
tion in similar terms, and 
then adds : " While wandering 
among the ruins, it was im- 
possible not to think, with 
deep interest, of the events 
which have transpired on this 
spot. Here has been displayed, 
from time to time, all the skill 
of the architect, the musician, 
the tragedian, and the orator. 
Here some of the most splendid 
works of man have been seen 
in all their glory, and here the 
event has shown their transi- 
tory nature. How interesting 
would it be to stand among 
these walls, and have before 
the mind a full view of the 
history of Ephesus from its 
first foundation.tiil now ! We 
might observe the idolatrous 
and impure rites, and the cruel 
and bloody sports of pagans, 
succeeded by the preaching, 
the prayers.the holy and peace- 
able lives of the first Chris- 
tians.— these Christians mar- 
tyred, but their religion still 
triumphing,— pagan rites and 
pagan sports abolished, and 
the simple worship of Christ 
instituted in their room. We 
might see the city conquered 
and reconquered, destroyed 
and rebuilt, till finally Chris- 
tianity, arts, learning, and 
prosperity, all vanish before 
ihe pestiferous breath of 'the 
inly people whose sole occu- 
pation has been to destroy.' 

" The plain of Ephesus is 
now very unhealthy, owing to 
■.he fogs and mist which al- 
most continually rest upon it. 
the land, however, is rich, 
ind the surrounding country 
s both fertile and healthy. 



EPH 

The adjacent hills would fur 
nish many delightful situations 
for villages, if the difficulties 
were removed which are 
thrown in the way by a de- 
spotic government, oppressive 
agas, and wandering banditti." 

(SeeDEMETRIUS,DlANA,PAUL.) 

EPHOD. (Ex. xxviii. 6.) 
One of the articles of the 
priest's official dress. It was 
made of plain linen, (1 Sam. 
ii. 18. 2 Sam. vi. 14,) except 
the ephod of the high-priest, 
which was embroidered with 
various colours. It consisted 
of two parts, one covering the 
back and the other the breast, 
and both united upon the two 
shoulders. It is sometimes de- 
scribed as having been thrown 
over the shoulders, and, hang- 
ing down before, crossed upon 
the breast, and was then car- 
ried round the waist to serve 
as a girdle for the robe. On 
each shoulder was a large pre- 
cious stone or button, upon 
which were engraved the 
names of the twelve tribes; 
and upon the place where it 
grossed the breast was the 
breastplate. (See Breast- 
plate.) The better opinion 
is, that the girdle was woven 
with the ephod, or " upon i7," 
(Ex. xxviii. 8,) and that coming 
out from it on each side, it 
was brought around under the 
arms like a sash, and tied up- 
on the breast, and so secured 
both the ephod and the robe. 
The ephod, or something re- 
sembling it and called by the 
same name, was worn by others 
besides the'priests. (1 Chron. 
xv. 27, and passages before 
cited.) 

EPHRAIM. 1. A person. 
(Gen. xli. 52.) The second son 
of Joseph. Though younger 
than Manasseh, he was the 
object of peculiar favour ; and 
the prediction of their grand- 
father Jacob was literally ful- 
filled. (Comp. Gen. xlviiL#— 
20. Num. ii. 18, 21.) 
236 



EPH 

2. Tribe of, occupied one of 
the most eligible sections of 
the land of promise. The Me- 
diterranean was on the west 
and the river Jordan on the 
east, a portion of Manasseh on 
the north and parts of Dan and 
Benjamin on the south. The 
city of Shiloh was within the 
bounds of Ephraim ; and after 
the revolt of the ten tribes, the 
capital of their kingdom was 
always within the bounds of 
Ephraim : and hence the whole 
kingdom is sometimes called 
Ephraim. (Jer. xxxi. 9. 18. 20.) 

3. City of. (2Sam.xiii.23.) 
A considerable town situated 
about eight miles north of Je- 
rusalem, on the way to Jericho, 
and within the bounds of the 
tribe of Benjamin. It was to 
this place that our Saviour 
retired after the raising of La- 
zarus, (John xi. 54;) and it is 
not improbable the same place 
is intended in 2 Chron. xiii. 19. 

4. Forest or wood of. (2 
Sam.xviii. 6.) The territory ori- 
ginally assigned to the children 
of Joseph (Ephraim and Ma- 
nasseh) was woodland, (Josh, 
xvii. 10— 18. Ps. cxxxii. 6,) and 
probably a portion of it re- 
maining uncleared was called 
the wood or forest of Ephraim. 
(1 Sam. xiv. 25, 26. 2 Kings ii. 
24.) Another place of the same 
name was situated east of the 
Jordan, near Jabesh-Gilead, 
and was memorable for the 
battle between David and the 
rebel army under Absalom. 
(2 Sam. xviii. 6.) 

5. Mount, (Josh. xx. 7,) was 
south of the plain of Esdraelon. 
The name was given to a 
range of highlands running 
through the possessions of 
Ephraim. The soil was fertile, 
except that part of the ridge 
which lay towards the Jordan. 
This was rocky and difficult 
of ascent. 

EPHRATAH. (Ps. cxxxii. 
6.) Another name for Ephraim. 
(1 Sam. i. 1. 1 Kings xi. 26.) 



EPI 

The Ephrathites of Bethlehem- 
Judah are mentioned, Ruth i. 2, 
and we are elsewhere told that 
Ephrath is the same with Beth- 
lehem. (Gen. xxxv. 16. 19. 
See Bethlehem.) 

Bethlehem-Ephratah was so 
called to distinguish it from 
another Bethlehem in the tribe 
of Zebulon. (Josh. xix. 15.) 

EPHRATH, (1 Chron. ii. 19,) 
or EPHRATAH, (verse 50,) 
was the second wife of Caleb. 

EPICUREANS (Acts xvii. 
18) were a sect of Gentile phi- 
losophers founded by Epicurus, 
who was born in the vicinity 
of Athens about three hundred 
and forty-five years before the 
birth of Christ. They were in 
high repute at Athens in Paul's 
days, and among their doc 
trines were these,— that the 
world came into being, and 
will be dissolved by chance, 
or by the effect of mechanical 
causes, moved by chance; that 
all events happen by chance, 
or are occasioned by mechani- 
cal causes ; that trie soul dies 
with the body; that there is 
no future retribution, and that 
man's chief happiness lies in 
pleasure or bodily ease. How 
utterly at variance with all 
these false and absurd posi- 
tions, was the doctrine of "Je- 
sus and the resurrection," we 
need not show. 

EPISTLES. (2 Pet. iii. 16.) 
A term applied to the inspired 
messages or letters of advice, 
addressed by the apostles or 
first preachers of Christianity 
to churches or individuals; and 
which, though primarily de- 
signed for the rebuke, instruc- 
tion, guidance, and encourage- 
ment of those to whom they 
were addressed, furnish the 
like means of grace, and the 
like rule of faith and practice, 
to all Christians and churches 
in like circumstances. It was 
the most natural course the 
apostles could pursue, after 
preaching the gospel in any 
237 



ESA 

town or district, and establish- 
ing a church, that they should, 
in their absence, address them 
oy letter, to remind them of the 
doctrines and injunctions they 
nad received, and to illustrate 
more fully the duties and 
obligations of disciples. The 
ppistles may be regarded as 
illustrating, applying, and en- 
forcing the truths which are 
taught in the parables and 
conversations, but especially 
in the life and death of the 
divine Redeemer; and they 
present to us a beautiful and 
harmonious system of Christian 
precept and doctrine. 

Epistle to the 
Galatians 

1 Thessalonians 

2 Thessalonians 
I Corinthians 



ESH 

Of the epistles, Paul wrote 
fourteen ; James, one ; Peter, 
two; John, three; and Jude, 
one; which are more particu- 
larly noticed either under the 
names of the individuals re- 
spectively, or of the churches 
or persons to whom they wrote. 
The following table is supposed 
to show the probable chrono- 
logical order of the epistles, 
with the places at which they 
were written., and the date oV 
each. It will be perceived 
that the earliest and latest 
date embrace a period of less 
than twenty years for the 
whole. 



2 Corinthians 

1 Timothy 
Tifus 

Romans • 
James 
Philemon 
Colossians 
Ephesians 
Philippians 
Hebrews 
Jude 

2 Timothy 

1 Peter - 

2 Peter - 
1, 2, and 3 John 



Places where written. 
Thessalonica, or Corinth 
Corinth - 
Ibid. 
Ephesus 
Macedonia 
Ibid. 

Colosse, or Macedonia 
Corinth - 



Judea 

Rome 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Uncertain 

Rome 

Uncertain 

Uncertain 

Ephesus 

ERASTUS (Acts xix. 22) was 
the steward or treasurer of the 
city of Corinth, (see Cham- 
berlain,) and a convert un- 
der Paul's preaching. (Rom. 
xvi. 23.) He followed Paul to 
Ephesus, and thence went to 
Macedonia, (Acts xix. 22,) and 
afterwards returned to Corinth. 
(2 Tim. iv. 20.) 

ERECH. (Gen. x. 10.) A city 
of Chaldea, built by Nimrod 
on the Tigris. It was called 
Erecca and Aracca by the 
Greeks and Romans. Some 
have supposed there were two 
places of this name, and others 
that Erech was the same with 
Edessa, (now Orfah,) in north- 
ern Mesopotamia. 

ESAIAS. (Matt. iii. 3.) The 
same with Isaiah. 



Year of Christ. 
51-53 
52—54 
52 — 55 
56 

57—59 
56—59 
56—59 
58 
61 

61-63 
61—62 
61—62 
62 

62—63 
64 
61-62 



70 

ESARHADDON. (2 Kings 
xix. 37.) Son and successor of 
Sennacherib king of Assyria, 
and the same with Sargon,(Isa. 
xx. 1,) and with Sardanapalus 
of profane history 

ESAU, (Gen. xxv. 25,) or 
EDOM. (Gen.xxxvi. 1.) Son 
of Isaac and Rebecca, and twin 
brother of Jacob. The most 
important events of his life are 
so intimately connected with 
the life of Jacob, that they will 
be considered under that ar- 
ticle. His family settled on 
mount Seir, east of Jordan, 
which was hence called Edom, 
and his descendants were the 
Edomites, one of the most pow- 
erful and formidable nations 
ofthatasre. (See Edom.) 

ESHBAAL. (lChron.viii 
233 



EST 

53 ) The same with Ishbosheth. 
(See Ishbosheth.) 

ESHCOL. 1. A person. 
(Gen. xiv. 24.) One of Abra- 
ham's allies. 

2. A RIVULET, Or VALLEY, 

(Deut. i. 24,) in the south of 
Judea. The spies sent out by 
the Israelites to explore the 
promised land and ascertain 
its situation, fertility, &c. &c, 
came to this brook, and cut 
down a branch of a vine with a 
single cluster of grapes, which 
was so large and heavy as to 
be borne upon a staff by two 
men. This they took to their 
brethren, as a visible illustra- 
tion of the richness of the soil 
and its productions. (Num. 
xiii. 24; xxxii. 9.) 

ESHTAOL. (Josh. xv. 33.) 
A town in the valley or low- 
lands of Judah, though after- 
wards in the Dossession of Dan. 
(Judg. xiii. 25; xvi. 31.) It is 
supposed to have been situated 
south-east of Askalon. 

ESHTEMOA. (Josh. xxi. 14. 
1 Chron. vi. 57,) or ASHTE- 
MOH. (Josh. xv. 50.) A town 
in the southern part of Judah, 
assigned to the sons of Aaron. 

ESPOUSE. (See Betroth.) 

ESROM. (Matt. i. 3. Luke 
iii.33.) The same with Hezron. 
fGen. xlvi. 12.) 
* ESTATE (Mark vi. 21) ia 
the general name for an order 
or class of men in society or 
government'. As in Great "Bri- 
tain, the lords and commons 
are called the estates of .he 
realm. (See Elders.) 

ESTHER, or HADASSaH. 
(Esth. ii. 7.) An orphan child 
of the kindred of Moidecai, 
whom he adopted as his own 
daushter. She was fair and 
beautiful, and in process of 
time became the wife of Aha- 
suerus, one of the most distin- 
guished of the monarchs of 
the east. (The history of this 
celebrated queen, in all its de- 
tail, is given in Hadassah, by 
Am. S. S. Union, with a variety 



ETE 

of beautiful illustrative engrav* 
in£rs.) 

Book of, is the se vrenteeath 
in the order of the books of the 
Old Testament, and embraces 
a period of probably less than 
twenty years, commencing 
about, a. m. 3544. The author 
of the book is not certainly 
known. It bears the most un- 
questionable internal evidence 
of its authenticity, and the feast 
of Purim, of the institution of 
which this book gives an ac- 
count, is still observed by the 
Jews ; who hold, that whatever 
may be the fate of the other 
parts of their Scriptures, this 
will ever be preserved. It 
contains an account of the ele- 
vation of Esther to the throne, 
the pride and envy of Haman, 
his malicious plot for the de- 
struction of the Jews, the turn- 
ing of his schemes against 
himself, the honour and dig- 
nity of Mordecai, the destruc- 
tion of the enemies of the Jews, 
(and among them Hainan's 
family.) and the power and 
glory of the king. ■ 
~ ETAM. (Judg. xv. 8. 11.) A 
famous rock, probably near a 
city of the same name in Judah, 
built by Rehoboam, (1 Chron. 
iv. 32. 2 Chron. xi. 6,) and ly- 
ing between? Bethlehem and 
Tekoah. Modern maps place 
it in the 
of Gaza. 

ETERNAL, ETERNITY. 
(Deut. xxxiii. 27. Isa. lvii. 15.) 
These terms, when applied to 
Jehovah, embrace the past as 
well as the future. Being self- 
existent, he must be eternal. 
He is without beginning or 
end of years. When applied 
to the future existence, happi- 
ness, or misery of man, (Matt, 
xix. 16. 2 Cor. iv. 17. Jude 7,) 
they denote the endlessness 
of the state. And it is to be 
observed, that if the word is 
restricted in its application to 
future punishment, it must be 
restricted in the same degree 
239 



ETH 

n its application to future hap- 
piness and even existence. 
When applied to the princi- 
ples of truth and justice, they 
signifyunchangeableness. The 
words forever, everlasting, 
eternal, &c, are often used 
figuratively to denote long du- 
ration, as Gen. xvii. 8; xlix. 
26. Ex. xii. 14 ; but this restrict- 
ed sense is always shown by 
the connexion, and affords no 
argument in favour of the like 
restrictions in other connex- 
ions, where the term is evi- 
dently employed in its full 
force and extent. 

ETHAM. (Num. xxxiii. 6.) 
One of the early stations of the 
Israelites in their journeyings 
to Canaan. It is said to have 
Deen in the edge of the wilder- 
ness, and was" probably situ- 
ated at the extremity of the 
western gulf of the Red Sea. 

The wilderness of Etham 
(Num. xxxiii. 8) was probably 
part of the great desert or wil- 
derness of Shur, which lay 
around the bottom of the west- 
ern gulf of the Red Sea. 

ETHAN, (1 Chron. vi. 44,) 
called the Ezrahite, (Ps. 
Ixxxix. titled was of the tribe 
of Levi, and was remarkable 
for his wisdom. (1 Kings i v. 31 .) 
He is supposed to have written 
the eighty-ninth Psalm, and 
was a leader of the temple mu- 
sic. (1 Chron. xv. 19.) 

ETHANTM. (See Months.) 

ETHIOPIA. (Acts viii. 27.) 
The Hebrew word Cush, which 
is here and elsewhere trans- 
lated Ethiopia, seems to have 
been applied to at least three 
distinct countries. It was used 
very much as the word India 
is at this day. 

1. In Zeph. iii. 10, where the 
prophet speaks of Judah's re- 
turn from captivity, it refers 
probably to the country east 
of the Tigris, the principal seat 
of the captivity, which is call- 
ed Cuthah. (2 Kings xvii. 24. 
Comp. Ps. lxviii. 31. Isa. xviii.) 



EVA 

Profane writers call this <?oun. 
try Ethiopia, or Cush, irom 
which the modern name Khu- 
sistan is derived. 

2. In Num. xii. 1, the word 
Ethiopian is applied to a coun- ( 
try of southern Arabia, lying 
along the Red Sea, elsewhere 
called Cushan, (Bab. iii. 7;) in 
which last passage allusion is 
made to the portion of history 
recorded, Num. xxxi. 

3. In numerous other pas*- 
sages, (Isa. xlv. 14. Jer. xiii. 23. 
Ezek. xxix. 10; xxx. 4. 9. Acts 
viii. 27,) it must be understood 
as Ethiopia proper, lying south 
of Egypt, and including the 
modern countries of Nubia and 
Abyssinia. It was a mountain- 
ous and well watered country, 
(Isa. xviii. 2. Zeph. iii. ltf) 
The northern part of Ethiopia 
was called by the Hebrews 
Seba, (Isa. xliii. 3,) after thB 
eldest son of Cush, (Gen. x. 7,) 
and by the Romans Merob. 
The inhabitants are said to 
have been men of stature, (Isa. 
xlv. 14;) and this is confirmed 
by an eminent Greek histo- 
rian, who says they are the 
"tallest of men." 

The Ethiopian queen Can- 
dace (which, as profane histo- 
rians say, was the common 
name of the queens of that 
country) reigned in Seba. Her 
treasurer was baptized by Phi- 
lip. (Acts viii. 27.) There is a 
version of the Scriptures in the 
Ethiopian tonsue. 

EUNICE. (2 Tim. i. 5.) The 
mother of the evangelist Timo- 
thy. She was by birth a Jewess, 
but married a Gentile. (Acts 
xvi. 1.) 

EUNUCH. (2 Kings ix. 32. 
Eunuchs were employed by 
eastern kings to take charge 
of the beds and lodging apart- 
ments, and also of the secluded 
princesses. (Esth. ii. 3.) In 
Persian and Turkish courts 
the principal offices are held 
by eunuchs. (Acts viii. 27.) 

EUPHRATES, (Gen. ii. 14, 
240 



EUT 

a famous river of Asia, rises in 
Armenia, on the northern side 
of mount Taurus, receives ma- 
ny tributaries in its winding 
course along the borders of Sy- 
ria, and skirting the Arabian 
desert^passes through the mid- 
dle of Babylon to the sea. Its 
whole length is fifteen hundred 
miles. It is navigable for ships 
of five hundred tons to Bas- 
sora, seventy miles above its 
mouth, and for large boats, one 
hundred and fifty miles. It 
flows in a broad, deep current, 
filled to the level of its banks, 
and at Babylon is considera- 
bly less than a mile in width. 
The Tigris flows in a narrower 
channel, with deeper banks, 
and a less rapid current. The 
country between the two rivers 
slopes towards the. Tigris, and 
thus greatly favours the drain- 
ing off of the superfluous wa- 
ters of the Euphrates. 

The Euphrates overflows its 
banks in the spring of every 
year, when the snow of the Ar- 
menian mountains dissolves ; 
and it sometimes rises twelve 
feet. Dykes, lakes, and canals, 
constructed at vast expense, 
preserved the water for irriga- 
tion during the dry season, and 
prevented" its carrying away 
the soil. The Euphrates is 
called in Scripture the great 
river, and was the eastern 
boundary of the promised land. 
(Deut. i. 7. Josh. i. 4.) 

EUROCLYDON. (Acts 
xxvii. 14.) A very tempestu- 
ous wind, and now known un- 
der the name of a Levanter. 
It blows from all points, and 
its danger results from its vio- 
lence and the uncertainty of 
its course. 

EUTYCHUS. (Acts xx. 9.) 
The name of a young man who 
fell from the third story of a 
house where Paul was preach- 
ing in Troas. It is generally 
supposed he was killed by the 
fall, and that his restoration to 
life was a miracle. It is not im- 
21 



EVE 

portant to prove this point,how- 
ever, inasmuch as the posses- 
sion of the gift of miracles by the 
apostle is sufficiently shown 
without it. (See Dwellings.) 

EVANGELIST. (Acts xxi. 8.) 
One who brings good tidings. 
Hence the writers of the four 
gospels are called " the evaiu 
gelists," because they, in a pre- 
eminent sense, declare good 
tidings of salvation through 
Christ. Evangelists were early 
designated as a particular class 
of religious teachers, (Eph. iv. 
11 ;) and some suppose that, 
without being attached to any 
particular church, they aban- 
doned all worldly relations 
and pursuits, and probably by 
the commission of the apos- 
tles, preached the gospel 
wherever they were called. 
(2 Tim. iv. 5.) Others suppose 
that they were rather se- 
condary or assistant apostles, 
and were entirely under the 
authority and direction of the 
chief apostles when they or- 
dained ministers and regulated 
churches. The primitive order 
of evangelists, distinct from 
other public religious teachers, 
is supposed to have been mere- 
ly temporary, like that of apos- 
tles and prophets. And there 
is no doubt that whatever ex- 
traordinary gifts and powers 
they possessed have ceased; 
but the principal duties and 
services which they performed, 
and many to which they were 
not called, seem to have fallen 
upon those who in modern days 
are called missionaries. 

EVE. (Gen.iii.20.) The name 
given by Adam to his wife. It 
is derived from a word which 
signifies life, and was applied 
to her as the mother of all the 
living. In consequence of her 
disobedience to the divine com 
mand, (see Adam,) she was 
doomed to suffer a multiplica- 
tion and aggravation of sorrow, 
especially in the birth of her 
offspring. It was also declared 
241 



EVI 

concerning her, that her desire 
flhculd be to her husband, and 
he should rule over her. (Gen. 
iii. 16.) It is well known that 
in those countries which are 
unenlightened by the gospel, 
women are the most degraded 
and miserable slaves to man ; 
and, taking into view the deli- 
cacy and sensitiveness which 
are characteristic of their sex, 
we may suppose this part of 
the original sentence is visited 
upon millions of them with in- 
tense severity even at this day. 

EVENING, (Ps. lv. 17,) 
EVENTIDE. (Gen. xxiv. 63.) 
The Hebrews reckoned two 
evenings : one commencing at 
sunset, and embracing the pe- 
riod of twilight; and the other 
commencing at dark. Some 
suppose that the first evening 
commenced as early as three 
o'clock in the afternoon, and 
the second at sunset. It was 
in the interval between the 
two evenings, at whichever of 
these periods it occurred, that 
the passover was to be killed 
and the daily sacrifice offered. 
(See marginal reading of Ex. 
xii. 6. Num. ix. 3 ; xxviii. 4.) 
Eventide is the same with 
evening-time. 

EVIL-MERODACH.(2Kings 
xxv. 27.) Son and successor of 
Nebuchadnezzar king of Baby- 
lon, who reigned during the 
exile of that monarch from hu- 
man society. Soon after his 
permanent accession to the 
throne, he released Jehoiachin 
king of Judah from prison, and 
treated him with great regard 
through life. (Jer. Iii. 31—34.) 
It is supposed that when Nebu- 
chadnezzar was restored to his 
reason and his crown,he caused 
Evil-Merodach to be imprison- 
ed for the abuses of which he 
was guilty while he adminis- 
tered the government, and that 
it was then he became ac- 
quainted with Jehoiachin as a 
fellow prisoner. He at last fell 
a victim to a conspiracy,formed 



EXO 

among his own kindred, head, 
ed by his brother-in-law Neri 
srlissar, who succeeded him. 
" EXCHANGERS. (See 
Changers of Money.) 

EXODUS. The name of the 
second book of Moses, and the 
second in the order of the 
books of the old Testament, and 
descriptive of its design; for the 
word is derived from a Greek 
word which signifies going out^ 
or departing; and the book 
contains the history of the re- 
lease of the Israelites from 
their bondage in Egypt, and 
of their going out of that coun 
try up to the promised land. 

Thi3 book is cited as the 
work of Moses by David, Da 
niel, and others of the sacred 
writers ; and it has been re- 
marked, that twenty-five dis 
tinct passages are quoted from 
it by Christ and his apostles in 
express words, and nineteen 
in substance. It comprehends 
a history of nearly one hundred 
and forty-five years, viz. from 
a. m. 2369 to a. m. 2514, inclu- 
sive, or from the death of Jo- 
seph to the erection of the 
tabernacle ; and informs us 
respecting the birth, preser- 
vation, education, exile, and 
divine legation of Moses, and 
the miraculous deliverance 
of Israel from the bondage of 
Egypt, the institution of the 
passover, the entrance into the 
wilderness of Sinai, and their 
subsequent journeyings, until 
the giving of the law and the 
builcling of the tabernacle,. 

The third and fourth vo- 
lumes of Union Questions 
are framed upon portions of 
this book, and contain map? 
of the journeyings of the child- 
ren of Israel, while the Teach- 
er's Assistant, in the use ot 
those two volumes,and theLiFE 
of Moses, with maps, &c, 
furnish a full exposition of the 
leading passages of the history 
All the above works are j>uh 
lished by the Am. S. S. Unio 
242 



EZE 

EXORCISTS. (Actsxix.13.) 
Those who, by the use of the 
name of God, attem-pted to ex- 
pel evil spirits from places or 
persons of whom they had pos- 
session. It was not an un- 
common profession among the 
Jews, as we may infer ~from 
Watt. xii. 27, and Mark ix.38. 

EXPIATION, FEAST OF. 
(See Feasts.) 

EYES. (Gen. xiii. 10.) The 
figurative uses of this word 
abound in the sacred writings, 
and are generally obvious. In 
the visions of Ezekiel and 
John, (Ezek.i. 18; x. 12. Rev. 
iv. 6. 8,) the allusions are evi- 
dently to the alacrity and vigi- 
lance with which the ministers 
of Jehovah perform his will. 

EYELIDS. (Prov. vi. 25.) 
The custom of adorning the 
eyelids in any way for effect is 
not known among us, but the 
practice is often alluded to in 
the sacred writings, (2 Kings 
ix. 30. Jer. iv. 30. Ezek. xxii'i. 
40,) and prevails extensively 
now among eastern ladies. 
The hair and edges of the eye- 
lids are tinged with a fine 
black powder, moistened with 
oil or vinegar, which causes 
a small black line to appear 
around the edge, and at a dis- 
tance, and especially by can- 
dlelisht, gives a heavy dark 
shade to the eyes. The man- 
ner of doing it is particularly 
described by travellers. A 
smooth cylindrical piece of 
silver or ivory, shaped like a 
quill, and about two inches 
long, is dipped into the com- 
position and placed within the 
eyelashes, which are closed 
over it. 

EZEKIEL. (Ezek. i. 3,) the 
son of Buzi, was both a pro- 
phet and priest of the Jews, 
and was carried into capti- 
vity with Jehoachin king of 
Judah, b. c. 59S, and was 
probably settled, with other 
exiles, on the banks of the 
Chebar, a river of Chaldea. 



EZR 

(See Chebar.) He was favour- 
ed with sublime visions of the 
divine glory, and his prophecy 
as a whole is characterized by 
great force, sublime imagery, 
and as much perspicuity as 
the subjects of it would allow 

Prophecy of, is the twenty 
sixth in the order of the books 
of the Old Testament. It 
was uttered during a period of 
about twenty-one years, be- 
tween b. c. 590 and b. c. 540. 
The first eight years of this 
period were "contemporaneou 
with the last eight of Jere- 
miah. The prophecy relates 
chiefly to Tyre, Egypt, Edom, 
and Judea. It contains the 
most solemn denunciations 
against the idolatry, hypocrisy, 
and rebellion of the Jews, with 
exhortations to faith and con- 
fidence in God's righteousness, 
and with promises of mercy 
and final restoration. 

EZION-GEBER, or GABER. 
(Num. xxxiii. 35. 1 Kings ix. 
26.) A city of Arabia, at the 
head of the eastern or Elanitic 
gulf of the Red Sea, adjoining 
Elath. It was here that Solo- 
mon's vessels were built,which 
were intended to trade with 
Ophir and Tarshish. It de- 
rives its name (Ezion-Geber, 
or the back-bone of a mail) 
from a reef of rocks at the 
entrance of the harbour re- 
sembling that part of the hu- 
man frame. (See Elath.) 

EZRA (Ezra vii. 1) was a 
son or rather descendant of 
Seraiah, who was slain by or 
der of the king of Babylon 
(2 Kings xxv. 18— 21.) He go- 
verned Judea twelve years, 
under a commission from the 
king of Persia, which ex- 
pired a. m. 3558, when he was 
superseded by Nehemiah. He 
then engaged, as it is supposed, 
in collecting and publishing 
the Jewish Scriptures, and re- 
storing the purity of the Jewish 
worship. 

Book of, is the fifteeath ia 
243 



EZR 

the order of the books of the 
Old Testament, and is a con- 
tinuation of the Jewish history 
from the close of the book o'f 
Chronicles. The period em- 
braced by it is from seventy- 
five to one hundred years, 
between 3-150 and 3550 ; and it 
may be read most profitably 
in connexion with the prophe- 
cies of Haggai and Zechariah. 
It contains" a history of the re- 
turn of the Jews from the time 
of Cyrus, with an account of 
his own subsequent proceed- 
ings. There are two apocry- 
phal books ascribed to him 
under the name of Esdras, 
which is the Greek form of 
the name Ezra. 

The book of Ezra is written 
in Chaldee from the eighth 
verse of the fourth chapter to 
the nineteenth verse of the 
6ixth chapter, and from the be- 
ginning of the seventh chapter 
to the twenty-seventh verse ; 
for as this part of the work 
contains chiefly letters, con- 
versation, and decrees uttered 
in that language, it was con- 



EZR 

sistent with the fidelity of the 
sacred historian, to transcribe 
the very words which were 
used ; especially as the people 
recently returned from the 
captivity were familiar, and 
perhaps more conversant with 
the Chaldee, than even with 
the Hebrew tongue ; and it was 
probably about this time that 
the Chaldee paraphrases be- 
gan to be used ; for it appears 
by Nehemiah's account,that all 
could not understand the law ; 
which may mean that some of 
them had forgotten the Hebrew 
during their dispersion in the 
captivity. Some assign, like- 
wise, to this time, the origin of 
the Jewish synagogues, though 
it is possible that they existed 
before the captivity. (For a 
particular and highly inte- 
resting account of Ezra, and 
the events of his time, see 
Elisama, ch. xi. ; and for an 
historical and chronological 
analysis of the events of the 
same period, see Union Ques. 
tions, vol. ix., both by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 



FAC 

FACE. (Gen. iii. 19. See 
Blackness.) Whatever of 
a thing is most exposed to view, 
is called its face; hence we 
read of the face of the country, 
field, gate, house, ground,porch, 
wilderness, waters, sky, &c. 

Face, when applied to God, 
denotes, (I.) His omniscience, 
(1 Sam. xxvi. 20;) and to pro- 
voke him to the face, is to do it 
very openly and impudently. 
(Isa. lxv. 3.) (2.) The brighter 
displays of his glory, which 
cannot be enjoyed in this 
world. (Ex. xxxiii. 20. 1 Tim. 
vi. 16.) (3.) His favour and 
love, and the gracious displays 
thereof: this is always meant, 
when his face is said to shine, 
or it Is represented as a mercy 



FAI 

to behold and enjoy it, or a 
misery to be deprived of it. 
(2 Chron. xxx. 9. Ps. xxxi. 16 ; 
lxxx. 7. Dan. ix. 17.) (4.) Hig 
wrath, and the providential 
displays thereof. (Ps. xxxiv. 
16.) Christ's/ace denotes, (1.) 
His person and office, as the 
image of the invisible God. 
(2 Cor. iv. 6.) (2.) His gracious, 
glorious, or terrible appear- 
ances. (Rev. xx. 11.) 

FAIR HAVENS. (Acts 
xxvji. 8.) The name of a 
harbour or anchorage on the 
southern shore of the island 
of Crete. (See Crete.) 

FAIRS (Ezek. xxvii. 12) 
may either mean periodical 
meetings of buyers and sellers, 
for purposes of merchandise, 



FAM 

or fixed places of buying and ' 
selling ih any cily or town, 
such as we call markets. 

FAITH. (Matt. viii. 10.) The 
word sometimes denotes the 
credit we give to the declara- 
tion of God, or to the evidence 
of the parts or propositions pre- 
sented to us in the Bible. The 
word i3 also used to denote the 
truth of the gospel, or that 
which is the object of faith. 
(Jude 3.) The faith which is 
necessary to salvation, and 
without which it is impossible 
to please God, (Heb. xi. 6,) com- 
bines assent with reliance, be- 
lief with trust. Thus Christ is 
exhibited in the gospel as hav- 
ing made an atonement for 
sin ; and whoever believeth in 
him shall not perish, but have 
everlasting life. Exercising 
this faith, the sinner is receiv- 
ed and treated as if he were 
just and righteous ; and hence 
the process is called justifica- 
tion by faith. The belief or 
faith in him, by which this 
salvation is secured, includes 
not only a cordial concurrence 
of the will and affections, in 
this scheme or plan of redemp- 
tion, together with all its rela- 
tions and bearings, as they are 
revealed in the gospel, but 
also such an actual personal 
trust in Christ as a Saviour, as 
leads to the renunciation of 
every other trust; to the for- 
saking of all known sin, and 
to the cheerful and constant 
obedience of all his commands. 

The faith of God, (Rom. iii. 
B,) means his faithfulness. 

FAITHFULNESS (Ps. 
lxxxix. 1. 33,34) is a divine at- 
tribute, and denotes the truth 
and certainty of the accom- 
plishment of all that the divine 
being has declared. (Num. 
xxiii. 19. Heb. x. 23.) 

FALLOW-DEER. (See 
Hart.) 

FAMILIAR. (See Divina- 
tion.) 

FAMINE. (Gen.xii.10.) We 
21* 



FAS 

have an account of several fa« 
mines in Palestine and the 
neighbouring countries. The 
most remarkable one was that 
of seven years in Egypt, while 
Joseph was governor. It was dis- 
tinguished for its duration, ex- 
tent, and severity; particularly 
as Egypt is one of the countries 
least subject to such a calami- 
ty, by reason of its general 
fertility. Famine is sometimes 
a natural effect, as when the 
Nile does not overflowin Egypt, 
or rains do not fall in Judea, at 
the customary seasons, spring 
and autumn; or when cater- 
pillars, locusts, or other insects, 
destroy the fruits. 

FAN. (Isa. xxx. 24.) A well 
known agricultural imple- 
ment, which was used by the 
Jews as it is by husbandmen 
of the present day, to separate 
the chaff from the wheat when 
the wind is not sufficient. The 
shovel which is mentioned in 
the same passage was used to 
throw up the grain in the air, 
when the wind was strong 
enough to cleanse it. (Matt, 
iii. 12. See Thresh. 

FARTHING. (See Mea- 
sures.) 

FAST, (1 Kings xxi. 9,) 
FASTING, (Neh. ix. 1,) or 
DAYS OF FASTING. (Jer. 
xxxvi. 6.) In seasons of dan- 
ger, or general affliction, when 
nature itself ceases for a time 
to crave indulgence, it was 
customary among the Jews to 
abstain from food as a religiou3 
duty,(Josh.vii.6. Judg.xx.26,) 
and the same practice prevail- 
ed among individuals when the 
occasion was personal. (Ex. 
xxiv. 18. 2 Sam. xii. 16. IKings 
xix. 8.) So our blessed Saviour 
fasted forty days and forty 
nights. (Matt. fv. 2.) Some 
of these protracted fasts were 
endured by miraculous inter- 
position. The Jewish fasts 
were kept with great strict- 
ness, and generally from eve- 
ning to evening, that is, twea- 
245 



FEA 

ty-four hours, and included 
not only an abstinence from 
food, but from all other sensual 
indulgence. The body was 
clothed in sackcloth, no shoes 
were worn, ashes were sprink- 
led upon the head, the hands 
were-unwashed, and the head 
unanointed, and the syna- 
gogues were filled with the 
voice of supplication and the 
Bobs of grief and penitence. 
(Isa. xxii. 12. Joel ii. 15—17.) 
During the captivity, four spe- 
cial fast days were observed, 
(Zech. vii. 5 ;) the fast of the 
fourth month, for the capture 
of Jerusalem, (Jer.li. 27;) the 
fast of the fifth month, for the 
burning of the temple, (Jer. lii. 
13;) the fast cf the seventh 
month, for Gedaliah's death, 
(Jer. xli.2;) and the fast of the 
tenth month, for the com- 
mencement of the attack on 
Jerusalem. (Jer. lii. 4.) 

P'asts are evidently of di- 
vine authority. Fasting, at the 
present day, may be regarded 
as one of the outward means 
which may be profitably em- 
ployed to humble and chasten 
the soul, and train it anew to 
the love and pursuit of holy 
and spiritual joys. There can 
be no doubt of its being sanc- 
tioned under the sospel dis- 
pensation. (Man. vi. 18; ix. 
15. Acts xiii. 3. 1 Cor. vii. 5.) 

FATHER. (Gen.xlv.8.) 
The word " father" is used in 
this case to signify " an ad- 
viser," or "counsellor;" and 
it is not unusual for this idea 
to be connected with it in 
eastern countries. 

FATHOM. (SeeMEASURES.) 

FEAR. (1 Pet. i. 17.) The 
fear of God is a Christian grace, 
and denotes such a reverence 
for his holy character,and such 
a dread of offending him by a 
violation of his holy law, as 
lead to watchfulness, humili- 
ty, and unceasing prayer. It 
is entirely filial in its nature, 
and ie necessarily accompa 



FEA 

nied by love and obedience 
It is the peculiarity of the 
Christian faith, that the reve- 
lation of God's justice, in the 
suffering and death of our di- 
vine Redeemer, which fills the 
soul with fear and trembling, 
discloses at the same time "a 
scheme of unparalleled love 
and mercy ; so that our strong- 
est impressions of fear, and out 
deepest emotions of love, grati- 
tude, and confidence, are de- 
rived from a common source, 
and share a common character. 

FEAST. (Luke xiv.,13,} 
FEASTS. (Lev. xxiii. 2.) We 
often read in the Bible of feasts, 
or sumptuous entertainments, 
and of the customs pertaining 
to them. They were generally 
given to celebrate or comme- 
morate some important or joy. 
ful event. (Gen. xxi. 8 ; xxix. 
22 ; xl. 20. Eccl. x. 19.) 

It was common among the 
eastern nations to ask and 
bestow special favours at 
these festivals. (Esth. v. 6; 
i vii. 2.) As the Hebrews brought 
back with them from their 
captivity the custom of lying 
at meal*, so they learned to 
imitate the Persian voluptuous- 
ness. The Romans also were 
accustomed to this long con- 
tinuance at entertainments: 
they assembled early on such 
occasions, and often remained 
together all night. 

Entertainments in the east 
are commonly held in the 
evening; at which time the 
rooms are brilliantly illumi- 
nated. The Roman feast was 
always a supper, which, how- 
ever, began about three o'clock. 
We suppose it to have been 
much the same among the He- 
brews. The guests ~ amuset 1 
themselves with stories, oj 
sallies of humour, and some 
times with enigmatical ques 
tions, (Judg. xiv. 12.) but more 
frequently with poetry and 
music. (Isa. v. 12; xxiv.7— 9. 
vi. 4-6.) 

246 



FEA 

The customs of the Arabs re- 
semble those which have been 
described; and perhaps we 
may say the same of all orien- 
tal countries. And such being 
the festivity of these occasions, 
we see how a feast became the 
emblem of great mirth and 
gladness. (Isa. xxv. 6.) 

Among the Romans, the 
guests at feasts reclined upon 
couches. The first ceremony 
was to bathe with the master 
of the feast, and then to change 
their dress. Then the first man 
in order took his place at the 
head of the long couch, resting 
the upper part of his body on 
his left elbow, and having a 

EiUow or bolster to support his 
ack. The second guest lay 
with his head and feet on a 
line, or parallel with the first, 
trom whom he was separated 
by his own bolster. Being set- 
tled in their places, they wash 
their hands,(Mark vii.2;) after 
which the guests are served 
with garlands of flowers, and 
also with essences and per- 
fumes. CPs. xxiii. 5; xlv. 7. 
Eccl. ix.8. Lukevii.38.) 

The most honourable place, 
or seat, or uppermost room, as 
it is called, (Matt, xxiii. 6,) or 
highest or chief room, (Luke 
xiv. 7, 8,) was the middle 
couch, and the middle of that ; 
and lying below one at table, 
is to lie as it were in or upon 
his bosom. (John xiii. 23.) 

In ancient times, besides 
music and dancing while they 
were eating, they had combats 
of gladiators. 

Some idea may be formed of 
the number of guests, and the 
grandeur of an ancient feast, 
from the fact that Julius Cesar 
once gave a popular entertain- 
ment^ the guests of which oc- 
cupied twenty-two thousand 
places, (rooms or seats.) The 
accounts in the Bible,of feasts 
with a multitude of guests are 
not improbable, therefore, as 



FEA 

some have alleged. (Esth. i. 5 
Luke xiv. 10—24.) 

The cut on the next page 
represents an eastern least. 
The heads of the guests are 
crowned with garlands; the 
table, furniture, and provisions 
are seen ; also the position of 
the guests at table, and the 
amusements. The highest, or 
most honourable seat, occupied 
probably by the governor of the 
feast, is seen at the extreme 
left. The sandals which are 
put off are also seen at the side 
of the couch. 

Under the Mosaic dispensa- 
tion, the rites of hospitality 
were rendered sacred by being 
connected with religion. The 
Israelites were not merely al- 
lowed, but commanded, to re- 
joice before the Lord in this 
way. They were ordered to 
come to the holy place, and 
bring thither their sacrifices, 
tithes, and firstlings ; and there 
(says the law) ye shall eat 
before the Lord your God; 
and ye shall rejoice in all that 
ye put your hand unto. (Deut. 
xii.) Every member of the 
family was to join in this, and 
especially theLevite, who had 
no other inheritance. In these 
entertainments, not only the 
children and the Levites were 
to take part, but the slaves of 
both sexes, the poor, the widow, 
and the orphan were to be in- 
vited; and the stranger, and 
the fatherless, and the widow 
that are among you; and thou 
shalt remember that thou wast 
a bondman in Egypt. (Deut 
xvi. 11.) In consequence of 
these regulations, the feasts of 
the Hebrews were more or less 
religious observances,and were 
hence free from the abuses 
which prevailed on similar 
occasions among the heathen. 
We observe here likewise, 
that our Lord gave no new 
commandment, but simply ex 
pounded the ancient law, when 
247 



FEA 



FEA 







he said, When thou makest a 
dinner (or a feast,) call the 
poor, the maimed, the blind ; 



There were also stated sea- 
sons of religious worship among 
the Jews, attended with pax- 



and thou shalt be blessed, ticular duties and ceremonies, 
(Luke xiv 12.) 1 by the observance of which 

248 



FEA 

some great event in God's pro- 
vidence was brought into re- 
membrance :— such were the 
Sabbath, which commemo- 
rated the creation of the world, 
— the feast of the Passover&xid. 
the feast of Pentecost. 

The Sabbath. The only 
weekly feast among the Jews 
was the Sabbath. (Gen. ii. 3. 
Ex.xvi.23. Lev.xxiii.3.) This 
feast or festival did not come 
into being, however, with the 
Jewish worship, but was ap- 
pointed before the apostacy, 
as a special memorial of the 
goodness and power of God 
displayed in the finished work 
of creation ; and it is the opin- 
ion of many very learned men, 
formed after the most labori- 
ous and unprejudiced investi- 
gation, that it is in some form 
or other recognised throughout 
the world asli sacred day. It 
eeems to be agreed among 
Christians generally, that the 
knowledge and observance of 
the Sabbath were preserved in 
some form and degree, through 
Noah and his family ; nor is it 
surprising that it is not parti- 
cularly mentioned in the con- 
cise history of the intervening 
period, which the Bible con- 
tains. In the law of the ten 
commandments, the Sabbath 
not only is recognised, but its 
inviolable sanctity and perpe- 
tual obligation are both taught 
us, not only in the language 
and spirit of the commandment 
itself; but ty its incorporation 
with that original and funda- 
mental law of God's govern- 
ment which was promulgated 
amidst the thunders and light- 
nings of mount Sinai, and en- 
graved on tables of stone. 

It is true that the observance 
of the Sabbath as a Jewish fes- 
tival partook of the peculiar 
ceremonial character of their 
whole system of religion ; and 
it was also by special command 
to be regarded as a particu- 
lar and iwts-resting memorial 



FEA 

of their wonderful dell • trance 
from Egypt, (Deut. v. v,) and 
as a sign oV perpetual covenant 
between God and the r. (Ex. 
xxxi. 13—17.) And it is true, 
moreover, that so much of the 
Jewish Sabbath as itood in 
carnal ordinances was done 
away when the Lord of the 
Sabbath came and made 
known the true import of the 
ancient dispensation. (Matt, 
xii. 1—15. Mark ii. 588. Luke 
xiii. 14—17.) But in all this 
time, the original and substan- 
tial principle of the institution 
was never abandoned or lost 
sight of; but, on the contrary, 
is established and solemnly 
ratified in a variety of forms 
throughout the whole sacred 
volume. 

Labour ceased at the time 
of the evening sacrifice, upon 
the day preceding the Sab- 
bath, that preparation might 
be made for the sacred season. 
(Mark xv. 42.) Some suppose 
this was as early as three of 
the clock, or even earlier. 
Appropriate religious service 
was attended in the evening 
by each family, and resumed 
on the next day, (see Evening,) 
and every thing relating to 
food, dress, &c, was prepared. 
When the day arrived, it was 
spent in religious services, 
(2 Kings iv. 23,) two extra sa- 
crifices were offered, and the 
shew-bread was changed. This 
was the priest's work. (Matt, 
xii. 5.) 

The Sabbath, by the Jewish 
law, was observed on the se- 
venth day of the week, or on 
Saturday ; but Christ changed 
it to the first day of the week, 
(which is our Sabbath day, or 
Lord's day, as it is frequently 
called in the New Testament,) 
that it might become a memo- 
rial of hfs resurrection from 
the dead \ while it should lose 
none of its original character, 
nor answer any less perfectly 
all the nrimitive purposes of 
213 



FEA 

fts institution. The ex^res- 1 
fiion, second Sabbath after the 
first, (Luke vi. 1,) more proper- 
ly rendered, the first Sabbath 
after the second, is supposed to 
denote the first Sabbath after 
the second day of unleavened 
tread. The second day of un- 
leavened bread was a festival 
day for which a particular ser- 
vice was appointed, (Lev. xxiii. 
5. 9,) and from it the Sabbaths 
were reckoned ; as first, se- 
cond, or third Sabbath after 
the second day of unleavened 
bread. (See Sabbath.) 

The word Sabbaths is some- 
times used to denote all the 
sacred days or festivals. (Lev. 
xix. 3. 30. Sabbath day's jour- 
ney. See Measures.) 

Feast of New Moons, or 
Trumpets. The first day of 
every month was sacred to the 
Jews, (Num. xx viii . 1 1 — 15,)and 
was to be observed by absti- 
nence from common worldly 
business, and by religious du- 
ties and services. (2 Kings iv. 
23. Amos viii. 5.) Particular 
sacrifices were appointed, in 
addition to the daily sacrifices, 
and were to be attended with 
the sound of the trumpet. 

The first day or new moon 
of the seventh month, wmich 
was the beginning of the Jew- 
ish civil year, was particularly 
regarded above other feast days 
of the like period. It was dis- 
tinguished by more strict 
observance, by extraordinary 
public sacrifices, and by spe- 
cial annunciation and pro- 
clamation from the trumpets. 
(Lev. xxiii. 24. Num. xxix. 1— 
8.) The observance of these 
seasons being wholly of cere- 
monial appointment, and not, 
like the Sabbath,) an original 
fundamental law of the moral 
government of God, ceased 
with the Jewish dispensatien. 
(Gal. iv. 10. Col. ii. 16.) 

Feast of Pentecost, or Feast 
of Weeks, or Feast of Harvest, 
lasted only one day. It w r as 



FEA 

celebrated at the close of har- 
vest, and was a solemn public 
thanksgiving to God for the 
bounties of his providence. It 
was observed at the end of 
seven weeks, (or a week of 
weeks,) forty-nine days from 
the second day of the passover, 
when the offering of first-fruits 
was made, or the day on 
which " the sickle was first 
put in the corn." The sacrifices 
were special, both public and 
private. (Lev. xxiii. 15—20. 
Num. xx viii. 26— 31. Deut. xvi, 
9—12.) It was to celebrate this 
feast that the multitude of de- 
vout men out of every nation 
under heaven had assembled 
at Jerusalem, when the pro- 
mise of the Saviour was fulfil- 
led in the wonderful descent 
of the Holy Ghost, as related 
in the second chapter of Acts. 
(See Omar, »by Am. S. S. 
Union, ch. v.) 

Feast of Tabernacles lasted 
eight days, the first and eighth 
of which were peculiarly sa- 
cred. It was celebrated from 
the fifteenth to the twenty- 
third of the seventh month or 
first month of their civil year. 
It was so called because the 
people during its continuance 
dwelt in booths, (Neh. viii. 14 
—18,) or tents of the branches 
of trees, as they did in the 
journey through the wilder- 
ness, in memory of which the 
feast itself was appointed. It 
is also called the feast of in- 
gathering, (Ex. xxiii. 16. Lev. 
xxiii. 39—44,) because it took 
place at the close of the vin- 
tage, when the fruits of the 
year were all gathered in. 
Some have supposed that the 
people were required to attend 
at the temple during the whole 
of the eight days, wnile, in the 
other feasts, an attendance on 
the first and last days sufficed. 
This festival was distinguished 
by extraordinary sacrifices and 
offerings, both public and pri- 
vate. (Num. xxix. 12— 38. Deut. 
250 



FfcA 

xvi. 13—15.) A variety of cere- 
monies were appended to the 
observance of this feast, a par- 
ticular and interesting account 
of which may be found in Bib- 
lical ANTiaUITIES, ch. vi. § 4, 
and also in Elisama, ch. xii., 
both by Am. S. S. Union. 

Feast of unleavened Bread) 
or of the Passover, was insti- 
tuted to commemorate the dis- 
tinguishing mercy of God in 
passing over the families of 
Israel when he went through 
Egypt to smite the first-born of 
every other family with death. 
(Ex. xii. 1—28.) The time of its 
celebration was in the first 
month of the Jewish sacred 
year,— answering to our April, 
—and it lasted from the loth to 
the 21st, inclusive, "or seven 
days. The principal ceremony 
of this festival consisted in the 
sacred supper by which it was 
introduced ; the nature and 
preparation of which are stated 
minutely in the passage above 
cited. The utmost strictness 
was observed in regard to the 
removal of all leaven from the 
house. This was done on the 
fourteenth day, which was 
hence called the first day of 
unleavened bread, though it 
was not one of the feast days. 
The manner of celebrating this 
feast in the early and modern 
periods of the church, is given 
at length in Biblical Antiqui- 
ties, ch. vi. § 4, and Selumiel, 
ch. i v. and v., both by Am. S. S. 
Union. (See also Passover.) 

These three feasts of unlea- 
vened bread, tabernacles, and 
tceeks, were the great festivals 
of the Jews, when all the males 
of their nation who were of suf- 
ficient age were required to 
appear before God. (Ex. xxiii. 
'4—17. Deut. xvi. 16, 17.) 

The advantages of these ce- 
lebrations, both in a religious 
and civil view, are obvious. 
The formal national recogni- 
tion of Jehovah as their king 
and ruler, and as the bountiful 



FEA * 

giver of every good and perfect 
gift, made at stated times, and 
under such imposing sulemni 
ties, could not be without effeci 
on the religious character oi 
the people,, while the mingling 
together of all the nation, foi 
purposes suited tocall forth the 
best social and benevolent feel- 
ings, would remind theui ot 
their common origin, faith,.anc 
worship, and unite them mort 
closely in bondsofrelisious and 
friendly regard. (Seeliv. Rec. 
by A. S. U. vol. iv. pp. 43-60.) 
Atonement, or Feast of Expi- 
ation, was celebrated on the 
tenth of the seventh month, or 
six days before the feast of ta- 
bernacles, and was the most 
important and solemn of all 
the yearly feasts. It was the 
day on which the sins of the 
year were brought into special 
remembrance. The people 
were required to observe it as 
a day of rigid rest, fasting, 
humiliation, and affliction of 
soul. The high-priest, as the 
head and representative of the 
entire priesthood, personally 
officiated, and entered with 
blood into the Holy of Holies,— 
where the life and glory of the 
sanctuary were appointed to 
reside, — and there he offered a 
sacrifice for himself and his 
family, and the whole congre- 
gation ot Israel, from the hfgh- 
est to the lowest. This was 
the general expiation, and 
seemed designed to reach and 
wash away that deep stain of 
guilt which remained on the 
heads of the people, notwith- 
standing the blood which flow 
ed day by day, unceasingly, 
from the altar of common sa 
crifice. The manner of cele 
brating this feast is set forth 
in Lev. xvi., and an account 
of the interesting ceremonies 
which attended it, with their 
typical import, may be found 
in Biblical Antiquities, bv 
Am. S. S. Union, vol. ii. chap 
vi. § 5. 

251 



FfiA 

"The Feast ofPurim was oo- 
eerved about the middle of the 
twelfth month. It was insti- 
tuted in commemoration of the 
deliverance of the Jews from 
the power and malice of Ha- 
inan, in the days of Mordecai 
and Esther. The name is de- 
rived from Pur, a word which 
signifies lot. (Esth. iii. 6, 7; 
ix. 24-32.) 

This feast is celebrated in 
modern times with singular 
ceremonies and with great 
licentiousness and extrava- 
gance. (See Biblical Anti- 
auiTiEs, vol. ii. pp. 190. 191.) 

An American missionary, 
who was at Jerusalem, March 
16, 1835, when this feast was 
celebrated, speaks of it as a 
day of great excess, intempe- 
rance, and boisterous mirth 
with the Jews. The Talmud 
enjoins intoxication on this 
day as a duty. A man is in 
duty bound (it says) to get so 
inebriated that he cannot dis- 
tinguish between the words, 
" cursed be Haman," and 
"blessed be Mordecai." 

Feast of the Dedication. 
This feast was instituted one 
hundred and sixty-four years 
before Christ, in remem- 
brance of the new dedica- 
tion of the sanctuary, after 
it had been grossly profaned 
by a heathen monarch. The 
season of celebration was in 
the 'latter part of the ninth 
month, and of course partly in 
our December. (John x. 22.) 

The Sabbath Year, or Year 
of Release, was every seventh 
year. No particular religious 
services were prescribed for 
its celebration; but the land 
was to be leftuntilled, and the 
vineyards undressed, and the 
spontaneous produce of both 
was to be enjoyed by all the 
people of the land in common. 
(Lev. xxv. 2-7. 20—22.) Pro- 
vision was made by the special 
interposition of God, to, supply 
the deficiency of food which 



FEA 

this aDstinence from labour foi 
a whole year would necessarily 
cause; and a law was made 
that no debts should be col lect- 
ed during the Sabbatical vear, 
and yet that none should for 
this cause refuse to lend to 
such as would borrow. Whe- 
ther the law required an abso- 
lute release of debts, or only a 
suspension of the right to en- 
force payment, has been con- 
sidered doubtful. The language 
of the law is however very pre- 
cise. (Deut. xv. 1—11.) 

The Year of Jubilee was a 
most singular appointment of 
the Jewish law. It was cele- 
brated every half century, or 
at the end of every seven times 
seven years. The manner of 
its celebration is particularly 
described, Lev. xxv. 8—18. U 
commenced on the great day 
of atonement, and was ushered 
in with the universal sound of 
trumpets throughout the land. 

The remarkable feature of 
this festival was, that it re- 
stored individuals, families, 
and communities, as far as 
possible, to the same situation 
they occupied at the beginning 
of the fifty years. All servants 
of Hebrew origin were set free ; 
all pledges were given up, and 
inheritances which had been 
alienated.no matter how often, 
nor for what cause, came back 
to the hands of the original pro- 
prietors. The only exception 
was in the cases of houses, built 
in walled towns. (Lev. xxv. 29 
—31.) And as its effect was 
known and anticipated, tha 
business of society was con- 
ducted with reference to that 
period, and of course no injus- 
tice or hardship was occasion- 
ed. The manner of keeping 
the festival, and its striking 
emblematical import, are par- 
ticularly described in Biblical 
Antiq,uities, by Am. S. S. 
Union, ch. vi. § 6. 

The master, ruler, or go- 
vernor op the feast, (John 
252 



FEE 

l\. 8,) was an officer appointed 
to direct the servants, and to 
regulate tne whole order and 
ceremony of the table during 
the festivities. He seems to 
have been one of the most plea- 
sant and diverting of the com- 
pany, selected for his skill and 
adroitness for this delicate and 
important office, and after the 
feast was ended, he took his 
place with the guests. One of 
his duties was to taste of the 
wine, that he might judge of 
its quality and fitness for the 
particular stage of the enter- 
tainment at which it was 
brought on. (John ii. 8, 9.) 

Feasts of charity, or love. 
These are mentioned Jude 12, 
and are .supposed to refer to 
the social interviews estab- 
lished among the early Chris- 
tians, in imitation, perhaps, of 
the Jewish (Deut. xii. 18 ; xxvi. 
12) or Gentile observances of 
like character. The Greek.* 
and Romans observed similar 
services. The feast was sup- 
plied by the contributions of 
the guests, each according to 
his ability. There was no dis- 
tinction of rank among the 
guests ; and every thing was 
marked with simplicity, tem- 
perance, and religious feeling. 
It was held in the assembly or 
church, either after or before 
the celebration of the Lord's 
supper. Similar observances 
are customary at the present 
day among some Christian de- 
nominations. 

FEET. (Ex. iii. 5.) To re- 
move the shoes from the feet 
was regarded as a token of re- 
verence, and also of mourning. 
(Ezek. xxiv. 17.) It is supposed 
that the priests officiated with 
naked feet, and in modern 
times, among heathen nations 
and some nominal Christians, 
it is customary to enter the 
place of worship with the shoes 
off and the feet washed. To 
wash the feet was a common 
mark of hospitality, (Gemxviii . 
22 



FEL 

4,) and was usually done by & 
servant. (lSam.xxv.4L John 
xiii.5, 6.) Our eastern mission- 
aries have given particular 
accounts of the prevalence of 
this custom. At Smyrna, the 
washing of the priests' feet by 
the bishop is a distinct and 
very imposing ceremony, and 
is designed to be an exact 
imitation of Christ's example. 
(See Clothes, Dust, Foot.)j 

Foot-chains are supposed 
to be meant by the word chains 
inNum.xxxi.50,andIsa.iii.l9 », 
They were worn around the 
ankles, and caused the wearer 
to observe a certain measured 
pace. The same ornaments 
are now worn by the women 
of Syria and Arabia. Little 
rin'gs are hang upon them, . 
which tiikle when the foot is « 
in m^'oion ; and they are oftea . 
r'c'iily ornamented. 

FELIX (Acts xxiii. 26) was ; 
the Roman governor of Judea, , 
a. d. 50— 60. He persuaded Dru- 
silla to leave her husband, and 
marry him; and they were 
residing at Cesarea when Paul 
was brought there, in custody 
of a guard of soldiers, to be 
examined on a charge of sedi- 
tion, &c. 

On a certain day, Paul was 
summoned to appear before 
Felix, that he and his wife 
might hear from him some ac- 
count of the new religion of 
which he was a believer and 
advocate. The apostle obeyed 
the summons ; and so faithfully 
did he reprove and admonish 
the governor, that he made 
him tremble in view of his sins^ 
and of their impending punish- 
ment. We have good reason 
to believe, however, that the 
impression was transient; for 
he kept the apostle in custody 
two years without any warrant 
or just cause,— which was in 
itself a most cruel and arbi- 
trary act,— and postponed the 
inquiry respecting his own sal- 



FIG 

vation, which his conscience 
had been excited to suggest, 
until a more convenient sea- 
eon, which probably never ar- 
rived. Felix was recalled to 
Rome soon after, and was suc- 
ceeded by Festus. 

FENCED CITY. (See Ci- 
ties.) 

FERRY-BOAT. (2Sam.xix. 
1*8.) This word, as used by us, 
is of modern derivation, and 
we know the rivers of Judea 
were generally fordable ; but 
when the translators of the 
history found a word denoting 
the passing over the river, (it 
might have been on a raft or on 
a rude bridge of some kind,) 
they perhaps adopted a term 
to express the fact most intel- 
ligible to modern readers. 

FERRET. (Lev.xi.30.) The 
animal known to moderns by 
this name is tamed in Europe, 
and used in catching rats. It 
is of the weasel family ; but 



FIG 

| the ferret mentioned in the 
j Levitical law is supposed by 
many to have been of the 
lizard species, called the gek- 
ko, which is found in the east, 
and is said to be poisonous. 

F E S T U S, (P O R C I U S,) 
(Acts xxiv.27,) succeeded Felix 
(a. d. 60) in the government of 
Judea, under the Romans, and 
died in 62. Paul had a hearing 
before him on sundry charges 
alleged against him by the 
Jews. But in the exercise of 
his right as a Roman citizen, 
he appealed to the emperor 
and was sent to Rome for trial. 

FIG, FIG TREE. (Isa.xxxiv. 
4.) A well known fruit, which 
formerly abounded in Judea, 
(Deut. viii. 8,) and hence is 
often alluded to in the sacred 
writings. The fruit, in its natu- 
ral state, resembles the pear; 
and with the leaf, and manner 
of growth, may be seen in the 
annexed cut. 




.The fig tree spreads its 
tranches high and wide, and 
the leaves are broad, (Gen. iii. 
7 ;) in one species they are said 
to be found four or five feet 
long by three broad. Hence 
the shade was highly valued. 
(1 Kings iv. 25. 2Kins;s xviii. 
31, lsa. xxxvi. 16. Mic. iv. 4. 
Zech. iii. 10. John i. 48.) 



One of the most striking 
peculiarities of the fig tree is, 
that the fruit shoots forth with- 
out the appearance of any blos- 
som, and even before the 
leaves. Hence a fig tree with 
leaves, but without fruit, may 
be known to be barren for the 
present season. (Matt. xxi. 19.) 
The fruit which the tree bears 
254 



FIG 

during ten months of the year 
»s of three sorts : 

1. The early Jig. (Sol.So.ii. 
13. Hos. ix. 1U.) These are ripe 
towards the end of June. This 
early fig is the most beautiful 
and delicious. (Jer. xxiv. 2.) 

2. The summer Jig, which 
appears in June, about the 
time that the early fig is ripe, 
and comes to maturity in Au- 
gust. These last a long time, 
and may be kept. 

3. The winter Jig appears in 
August, and is ripe towards the 
latter part of autumn, when 
the tree has lost its foliage. If 
the winter is not severe", it is 
plucked in the spring as a 
dainty. It is larger than the 
former, of an oblong shape, 
and a dark colour. 

These various kinds of figs 
are eaten as they come from 
the tree, and are also dried in 
masses or cakes. (1 Sam. xxv. 
18.) They seem to have been 
an ordinary article of food, and 
to have possessed medicinal 
properties. (2 Kings xx. 7. 
I Chron. xii. 40.) 

The putting forth of the fig 
tree was one of the earliest in- 
dications of summer, (Sol. Song 
ii. 13. Matt. xxiv. 32. Luke 
xxi. 29 ;) and a failure of its 
fruit was a great calamity. 
(Jer.v. 17; viii. 13. Joel i. 7. 12. 
Hab. iii. 17, 18.) 

The cursing of the fig tree, 
by our Saviour, (Mark xi. 13. 
21,) has perplexed some per- 
eons, because it is said that the 
time of figs had not come, and 
of course they were not to be 
expected. The passage rather 
means that it was "not the 
time to gather figs, and there- 
fore it was reasonable to ex- 
pect to find some on the tree ; 
but it had none, (ripe or un- 
ripe,) though it had leaves, 
which, in a bearing fig tree, 
are not found until after the 
fruit appears. It was therefore 
cursed for its unfruitfulness. 
The object undoubtedly was 



FIK 

to inculcate some great moral 
truth on the minds of the dis- 
ciples. 

FIR TREE. (Hos.xiv.8.) A 
well known evergreen, which 
grew luxuriantly upon mount 
Lebanon and "in other parts of 
Palestine, and was a very va- 
luable tree. It was used for 
ship building, (Ezek. xxvii. 5>) 
musical instruments, (2 Sam. 
vi. 5,) and in the frame and 
ornamental work of costly edi- 
fices. (1 Kings v. 8. 10; vi. 15. 
34; ix. 11. 2 Chron. ii. 8; iii. 5. 
Sol. Song i. 17.) The fir is still 
used in the manufacture of 
harps, lutes, guitars, &c. It 
was a tall, straight tree, of 
fine appearance, in the tops of 
which the storks built their 
nests. (Ps. civ. 17.) Hence it 
is used to illustrate power or 
grandeur. (2Kingsxix.23. Isa. 
xiv. 8; xxxvii. 24;) and in 
Nah. ii. 3, the brandishing of 
weapons of war is compared 
to the shaking of the tops of 
fir trees by a violent wind. 
The springing up of the fir is 
emblematical of verdure and 
plenty. (Isa. xli. 19; lv. 13: 
lx. 13.) 

FIRKIN. (See Measures.) 

FIRMAMENT. (Gen. i. 17.) 
The word expansion would 
more perfectly convey the 
meaning of the original word. 
A similar idea is suggested, Ps. 
civ. 2. Isa. xl. 22; and the 
same word is used to denote a 
covering, (Num. xvi. 38, 39,) or 
a spreading over, (Isa. xl. 19,) 
or spread forth. (Isa. xlii. 5.) 
The Jews probably understood 
the word firmament to denote 
an immense arch sprung from 
one side of the horizon to the 
other, studded with stars, and 
forming a sort of separating 
wall between the upper and 
lower waters. (See rs. xix. 1. 
Dan. xii. 3.) 

FIRST-BORN. (Gen.xxviL 

19.) The first-born male of 

every Jewish family, though 

by a succession of wives, and 

255 



FIR 

of all beasts also, was conse- 
crated in a solemn manner 
to the service of God, in com- 
memoration of the judgment 
which God brought upon the 
first-born of Egypt in the night 
of Israel's deliverance. Seve- 
ral provisions of the Jewish 
law relate to the Jirst-bom. 
He received a double portion 
of the estate, (Deut. xxi. 17,) 
and officiated as priest of the 
family, in the father's absence 
or death. The privileges of 
the first-born were obviously 
great, in the cases of Esau 
and Reuben, (Gen. xxvii. 29. 
1 Chron. v. 1, 2;) and there 
is reason to believe that they 
extended to the Jewish fami- 
lies generally; and that the re- 
ligious pre-eminence was far 
more desirable than the world- 
ly. It is supposed, however, 
that the former ceased when 
the priesthood was committed 
exclusively to the tribe of 
Levi. (Num. iii. 12—18.) On 
that occasion it was designed 
that a Levite should be substi- 
tuted for every first-born male; 
but the number of the latter 
exceeded that of the former by 
two hundred and seventy- three 
persons. It was then required 
that a certain piece of money 
(about $2.50) should be paid 
for the redemption of these, 
and of all the first-born of suc- 
ceeding generations ; and this 
redemption money became 
part of the sacred revenue. 
(Num. iii. 12, 13. 40—51 ; xviii. 
15.) The first-born of all beasts 
used in sacrifice were devoted 
to the Lord, and could not be 
redeemed; but the first-born 
of beasts not lawful for sacri- 
fice might be redeemed if the 
owner chose to redeem them ; 
otherwise, they were sold, ex- 
changed, or destroyed. (Ex. 
xiii. 13. Lev. xxvii. 27.) It is 
supposed that dogs were never 
redeemed. (Deut. xxiii. 18.) 

Several figurative expres- 
sions of the sacred writers are 



FIS 

derived from the relation of 
the first-born; and by all of 
them some extreme or superla- 
tive quality or circumstance is 
denoted. The first-barn of the 
poor (Isa. xiv. 30) implies ex- 
treme poverty ; the first-born 
of every creature (Col. i. 15) 
denotes the beginning and 
head of creation ;lhe first-born 
of God (Heb. i. 6) expresses 
the dignity and superior glory 
of Christ. 

FIRST-FRUITS. (Num.xviii. 
12.) The first-fruits of harvest, 
of the vintage, the threshing 
floor, the wine-press, the oil 
press, the first baked bread of 
the new crop, and the first 
fleeces of the flock were re 
quired by God to be given for 
the use of his ministers, the 
priests. (Ex. xxiii. 19. Num. 
xv. 19 — 21; xviii. 11—13.) 
These offerings were brought 
to the temple. No particular 
quantity was designated, but 
it is supposed a sixtieth part 
of the whole was the least 
measure. 

The manner of offering the 
first-fruits is prescribed. (Lev. 
xxiii. 10—14.) A sheaf of the 
first ripe barley was brought 
on the second day of the pass- 
over, and waved by the priest 
before the Lord ; and, after be- 
ing threshed in a court of the 
temple, a handful of it was 
cleansed and roasted, and 
pounded in a mortar; oil was 
mingled with it, and it was 
then offered to the Lord in the 
name and behalf of the nation 
as an acknowledgment of de 
pendence and gratitude. Until 
this was done," the harvest re- 
mained untouched. 

The first-fruits are thus em 
blematical of abundance and 
■ excellence, (Rom. viii. 23,> and 
also the earnest or sample of 
a full harvest at hand. (1 Cor. 
xv. 20.) 

FISH-HOOKS. (Amos v. 2 
Comp. Jer. xvi. 16.) The mo 
dern method of taking; fish 
?56 



FLO 

with hooks was doubtless ! 
known in the early ages of 
the world. (Job xli. 1, 2.) The 
spear was also used. (Job xli. 
2. 7.) 

The fish-pools of Heshbon 
are used to illustrate clear- 
ness, brightness, and serenity. 
{Sol. Song vii. 4.) They were 
prAably situated near a public 
gate of the town, and well 
known for their qualities. (See 
Heshbon.) 

FITCHES. (Isa. xxviii. 25.) 
A. vegetable resembling the 
fcommon pea. The word ren- 
dered jitches inEzek. iv. 9, is 
rendered rye in Ex. ix. 32. 

FLAX. (Ex. ix.31.) A well 
known plant, which furnishes 
the material of linen stuffs of 
every variety. It was pro- 
duced of the best quality in 
Egypt, (Isa. xix. 9,) and was 
an article of extensive com- 
merce. 

The spinning of flax was 
anciently the labour of the 
most noble ladies. (Prov. xxxi. 
13. 19. 24. See Linen.) 

FLINT. (Ps.cxiv.8.) A 
hard stone, the uses of which 
are well known. The figura- 
tive use of the word in Deut. 
xxxii. 13, represents the great 
abundance of oil ; and in Isa. 1. 
7, and Ezek. iii. 9, it is used 
to denote firmness and con- 
stancy. 

FLOATS. (1 Kings v. 9.) 
Probably like the rafts of mo- 
dern days ; by which the tim- 
bers already fitted for the 
building might be floated 
coastwise to Joppa, and then 
carried over land to Jerusa- 
lem. (2 Chron. ii. 16.) 

FLOCK. (See Sheep.) 

FLOOD. (Gen. vi. 17.) One 
of the most remarkable events 
in the history of our world, and 
of course one of the principal 
epochs in chronology. It oc- 
curred in the year 1656, or 
23-13 years before the birth of 
Christ. It was a judgment 
upon the world for the great 
22* 



FLU 

wickedness of its inhabitants, 
only eight of whom were savedl 
These eight composed the fa- 
mily of Noah, a righteous man, 
who was divinely instructed to 
prepare a vessel large enough 
to contain his family and so 
many animals as were neces- 
sary to preserve each species. 
(See Ark.) Having faith in 
God, he obeyed the divine 
command, and furnished the 
vessel,and was securely lodged 
in it with his family before the 
judgment came. It was in the 
six hundredth year of Noah's 
life, and between the middle 
of October and the middle of 
November, that the waters be- 
gan to fall. The clouds from 
above descended in over- 
whelming torrents, and the 
fountains of the great deep 
were broken up; so that, at 
the end of forty days, the 
highest elevation upon the 
face of the earth was fifteen 
cubits, or twenty-two and a 
half feet, under water, and "all 
flesh died that moved upon 
the earth," and Noah only re- 
mained alive and they that 
were with him in the ark ; and 
the waters prevailed upon the 
earth, or increased continual- 
ly, for one hundred and fifty 
days. The several dates men- 
tioned, the account of the de- 
luge, and the items of evidence 
from observation, history, and 
tradition, that such an event 
as the deluge happened,will be 
found arranged in the Teach- 
er's Assistant, vol. iii. pp. 
45—50, and also in Evening 
RECREATioNSjjDart i. pp. 17— 
28, both by Am. S. S. Union. 
FLOOR. (See Threshing.) 
FLUTE. (Dan. iii. 5. 7,) A 
wind instrument of music, 
made of reed, horn, bone, or 
wood, and used on mournful as 
well as on festive occasions. 
It was played like the clario- 
net, though there were pro- 
bably various modes both of 
making and using it. 
257 



FOO 

The mashrokitha or pipe 
was, according to eminent 
writers, a kind of pandean 
pipe,which was furnished with 
bellows, and thus was in its 

f)rinciple an organ. It is trans- 
ated Jiute in Dan. iii. 5. 

FLY. (Isa. vii. 18.) The 
name of a large tribe of insects, 



FOO 

some of which are exceeding 
ly annoying and destructive. 
They abounded in Egypt and 
Judea ; and one species, which 
is found by modern travellers 
in the vicinity of the Nile, and 
called the Abyssinian fly, (see 
cut,) is as large as a bee, and i* 
so terrible an annoyance to cat 




tie and other large animals, as 
to oblige them to forsake their 
pastures and ranges, and flee 
to some place where they can 
roll themselves in the mud or 
sand. Hence we may judge of 
the terrible nature of the judg- 
ments mentioned in Ex. viii. 
24. Isa. vii. 18; in which last 
passage, we are informed that 
the fly shall be found in the 
very places to which the cattle 
resort to rid themselves of their 
presence. 
FOLD. (See Sheep.) 
FOOD. (Gen. iii. 6.) We 
may form some judgment of 
the ancient diet from what we 
know of the modern orientals. 
Vegetable food is much more 
common than animal. Instead 
of butter, lard, and suet, they 
use olive oil. A soup, or rather 
pottage, of beans and lentiles, 
seasoned with garlic and oil, 
is still, as it was of old, a fa- 
vourite dish. The " red pottage 
of lentiles," for which Esau 
sold his birthright, was some- 
thing of this kind. Eggs,honey, 
milk, especially sour milk,and 
garden productions of every 



kind, afford the principal mate 
rials of eastern diet. The most 
common dish at this day in the 
east is the pilau; which con- 
sists of rice cooked with meat, 
so as to make a sort of broth, 
seasoned variously, and colour- 
ed blue, red, or yellow. 

We do not find animal food 
often occurring, except upon 
the occasion of entertainments, 
or the exhibition of hospitality 
to a friend. (Gen. xviii.7. Luke 
xv. 23.) 

Though, as above stated, the 

oriental's make far less use of 

animal food than we do, yet 

we find it, in every successive 

age, upon the tables of the 

rich ; and the animals used for 

this purpose, especially neat 

■ cattle, were often stalled a»id 

! fattened. (ISam. xvi.20; xxviii. 

I 24. 1 Kings iv. 23. Neh. v. 18. 

I Isa. i. 11; xi. G. Jer. xlvi. 21. 

I Ezek. xxxix. 18. Amos vi. 4. 

Mai. iv. 2.) 

Wild game, lambs, and kids 

j may be considered as the fa- 

J vourite viands in the east. At 

! this day beef is not much used. 

1 though from some texts above 



FOO 

and other similar authorities, 
we learn that the flesh of 
young bollocks and stall-fed 
oxen was highly prized. (Prov. 
xv. 17. Matt. xxii. 4.) 

In very ancient times it was 
always the master of the house, 
whether he were rich or poor, 
who slew the animal. Grecian 
and Roman writers mention 
a like custom of later times. 
(Judg. vi. 19.) The preparation 
of the food by cooking was the 
business of the mistress. The 
shoulder was probably the 
choicest part. (1 Sam. ix. 
2-1.) 

It is customary for the Arabs 
to serve up at one meal the 
whole of any animal which 
they have killed. This is 
occasioned in some measure 
by the difficulty of preserv- 
ing fresh meat in that cli- 
mate. (Gen. xviii.7. Lukexv. 
23.) 

The people of the east are 
particularly fond of fish, and 
in Egypt they constitute a very 
important part of their subsist- 
ence. (Num. xi. 5.) 

Melons, cucumbers, and on- 
ions are the common food of 
the Egyptians in summer. It 
is said that the Egyptian onions 
are the sweetest in the world. 
Endive, or succory is a common 
food of the poor. Purslane is al- 
so common. Radishes, carrots, 
and the leaves of the vine are 
also eaten. Leeks and garlic 
—the latter of which is import- 
ed from the Archipelago— are 
a common repast. Goats' milk 
makes a great part of the diet 
of the east, from the beginning 
of April till September, and 
cows' milk the rest of the 
year. The food of the common 
people of Aleppo, in winter, 
\s very plain, and consists of 
Dread, the juice of grapes thick- 
ened to the consistence of ho- 
ney or coagulated sour milk, 
butter, rice, and a very little 
mutton. Ave are told, con 



FOO 

cerning the Arabs, that roasted 
meat is almost peculiar to the 
tables of their emirs, or princes, 
and also lambs stewed whole, 
and stuffed with bread, flour, 
mutton-fat, raisins, salt, and 
aromatic herbs. (See Bedouin 
Arabs, by Am. S.S.U., ch. vii. 

FOOL, (Prov. xv. 5.) FOOI^ 
ISH, (Job ii. 10,) FOOLISH- 
NESS. (2 Sam. xv. 31.) These 
terms are used by the sacred 
writers, sometimes to denote 
weakness or defect of under- 
standing, as in their modern 
use, (I Cor. i. 27 ; iv. 10-;) but 
generally they denote sin or 
wickedness. (2 Sam. xiii. 13. 
Ps. xiv. 1. Prov. xix. I.) Fool- 
ish talking, jesting, foolish and 
unlearned questions, &c, (2 
Tim. ii. 23,) are such as are 
vain, frivolous, or have no use- 
ful tendency. 

The phrase, thou fool, 
(Matt. v. 22,) implies not only 
an angry temper, by which 
such severe language is 
prompted, but a scornful, con- 
temptuous feeling, utterly in- 
consistent with the love and 
meekness which characterize 
the disciples of Christ, ar d of 
course exposing the individual 
who is under their influence to 
eternal punishment. 

FOOT, (Deut xi. 10,) FEET. 
(Gen. xlix. 33.) In thd first 
of these passages; the phrase 
wateredst with thy foot is sup- 
posed to refer to some process 
by which the fool was employ- 
ed in irrigating the soil ; and 
very learned commentators 
trace the allusion to a machine 
for raising and distributing 
water, which modern travel- 
lers tell us is stiil used for this 
purpose in eastern countries, 
and a representation of which 
is given in the following cut. 
(But see Water.) Nakedness 
of the feet was a sign of 
mourning, (Ezek. xxiv. 17,) 
and of respect or reverence, 
MEx. iw. 5. See Feet.) 
259 ' 



FOR 



FOR 




FOOTSTOOL. (2Chron.ix. 
18.") Kings and other rulers, 
fitting in state, required a stool 
tmon which to rest their feet. 
The divineglory which resided 
symbolically in the holy place, 
Detween the cherubim above 
the ark, is supposed to use the 
ark as a footstool. (1 Chron. 
xxviii. 2. Ps. xcix. 5.) So the 
earth is called God's footstool 
by the same expressive figure 
, which represents heaven as 
his throne. 

FOREIGNER. (Ex. xii. 45.) 
Any one not of the genuine He- 
Drew stock. (Com p. Eph. ii. 
12.) 

FOREKNOWLEDGE. (Acts 
ii. 23) A peculiar and essential 
attribute of the Supreme Be- 
ing. (Acts xv. 18. Comp. Prov. 
xix. 21 ; xxvii. 1. Isa. xiv. 24. 
James iv. 14.) It implies the 
absence of any succession of 
time, as past, present, and 
future. (2 Pet. iii. 8.) 

FORERUNNER. (Heb.vi. 
20.) One who not only goes be- 
fore to a particular place, to 
make arrangements for his suc- 
cessor, but who leads or pre- 
pa res the way. The Athenians 
call the figs that are ripe be- 
fore the rest by the same word 
which, in the above passage, 
is translat £(\ forerunner ; that 
Is, \hs first-fruits. (Comp. 1 Cor. 



xv. 20. 23.) There is also sup- 
posed to be a beautiful meta- 
phorical allusion to the person 
or boat that carries the anchor 
within the pier-head, and 
makes the ship fast, although 
the tide will not yet admit her 
to come up. Swinging at her 
cable's length, the ship rides 
out the gale ; for her anchor is 
sure and steadfast. (Heb. vi. 
19.) 

FOREST. (1 Kings vii. 2.) 
Several tracts of country were 
designated in this way ; as, the 
forest of Ephraim, &c. The 
house of the forest of Lebanon, 
which was built by Solomon, 
and which was magnificent in 
size and style, (1 Kings vi.) 
was so called probably from 
the great quantity of cedar 
which was used in the con- 
struction of it. 

FORGIVENESS. (Acts v. 
31.) Forgiveness of sin is the 
great blessing of the gospel. 
To forgive sin is the exclu- 
sive prerogative of Jehovah, of 
whose iaw sin is the trans- 
gression. (Ps.cxxx.4. Isa.xliii, 
25. Mark ii. 7.) And the gos- 
pel makes known, not only 
that there is forgweness with 
God, but also how he can for- 
give sin and still maintain 
nsullied the infinite purity, 
nd holiness, and perfection 
260 



FOR 

©f his nature, government, and 
law. and even clothe them all 
with new glory. 

The consciousness of guilt is 
universal. Hence, in all parts 
of the world, Christian and 
pagan, savage and civilized, 
ihere are found institutions 
or customs which have a di- 
rect reference— more or less 
clearly defined— to expiation 
and forgiveness ; but the Chris- 
tian scheme alone makes 
known a way of mercy, (Acts 
xiii. 38, 39,) safe to man and ho- 
nourable to God, and, through 
Christ, offers forgiveness— full, 
free, and everlasting— to all 
who will believe and obey the 
gospel. (Acts v. 31; xiii. 38, 39. 
1 John ii. 12.) The duty of 
mutual forgiveness is urged 
upon man with the most so- 
lemn sanctions. (Matt. vi. 14, 
15; xviii. 15 — 35. Luke xvii. 
3,4.) 

FORKS. (1 Sam. xiii. 21.) 
The oriental manner of par- 
taking of food is, like their fur- 
niture,very simple.They make 
use of no plates, spoons,knives, 
nor forks ; nor are these im-, 
plemcnts necessary. Instead 
of plates, they use their round 
pieces of bread, upon which 
they lay such things a3 we 
should put on a plate. (See 
Eat, Eating.) Their bread is 
broken with the Hands, and 
their meat is usually cut into 
small morsels before it is serv- 
ed up. When this is not the 
case, as in the instance of 
boiled fowls, they tear it to 
pieces with their fingers, and 
carry it to the mouth in this 
way; as they also do in helping 
, themselves to rice, pulse, and 
other articles of diet. The 
dishes are of wood or tinned 
copper ; in the Persian palaces, 
of silver and gold. Even broth 
and milk are laded out in the 
hollow of the hand, or the 
Dread is dipped into them. 

The forks mentioned in the 



FOX 

above passage were used, not 
in eating, but in taking meal 
out of the vessels in which it 
was cooked. 

FORNICATION. (Matt. v. 
32.) This word, as used by the 
sacred writers, denotes various 
acts of lewdness and inconti- 
nency; and it is also figura- 
tively applied to idolatry, or 
the mingling of the pure wor- 
ship of God with the impure 
rites of heathenism. 

FORSWEAR. (See Oath.) 

FOUNTAINS. (Gen. xvi.7.) 
Springs or sources of water are 
oiten mentioned by the sacred 
writers. In the dry and thirsty 
land of Judea they were of pe- 
culiar value; and hence the 
figurative use of the word, when 
applied to the hopes, blessings, 
and consolations of religion, 
must have been very forcioie 
to the Jews. Perpetual foun- 
tains, or springs of living wa- 
ter, were greatly valued. (Ps. 
xxxvi. 7—9. Isa. xlix. 10. Jer. 
ii. 13. Joel iii. 18. Zech. xiii. 1. 
John iv. 10. Rev. vii. 17.) The 
word fountains is figuratively 
used to denote children or pos- 
terity. (Deut. xxxiii. 28. Prov. 
v. 16.) 

FOX. (Neh. iv.3.) A well 
known animal, remarkable 
for its cunning and voracity. 
Foxes, or jackals, abounded in 
some districts of Judea. They 
live on birds and small quadra 
peds, and follow armies that 
they may feed on bodies that 
may be left on the march 
Hence the allusion, Ps. lxiii.10 
The method adopted by Sam 
son (Judg. xv. 4, 5) to destroy 
the corn, vineyards, and olive* 
yards of the Philistines, showa 
that this animal must have 
been very common ; and that 
there is nothing incredible in 
the account itself appears from 
the fact, that in an ancient 
Roman festival it was custom- 
ary to couple foxes in a similar 
way, with a brand between 
261 



FRI 

them. The crafty, artful nature 
of the fox is proverbial. (Ezek. 
xiii. 4. Luke xiii. 32 ) 

Volney says that jackals are 
concealed by hundreds in Sy- 
ria, in the gardens and among 
ruins and tombs. Hence the 
allusion, Lam. v. 18. (For cut 
and description, see Youth's 
Friend, for Feb. 1826, by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

FRANKINCENSE. (Ex.xxx. 
34.) A dry, resinous, aromatic 
substance, of a yellow tinge, 
titter and acrid to the taste, 
but exceedingly odoriferous. 
The tree, whence the gum is 
obtained by incision of the 
bark, grows in Arabia, and re- 
sembles our sumach. It is also 
found in India, but of an in- 
ferior quality; and, as some 
suppose, it was found in the 
mountainous districts of Judea. 
Et is sometimes called incense. 
(Isa. lx. 6. Jer.vi.20. Luke i. 9.) 
It is called frank, because of 
the freeness with which it 
burns and gives forth its odours; 
and the Dure incense is that 
which is 'first obtained, and is 
freest from foreign admixture. 

Stceet incense, (Ex. xxx. 7,). 
might as well be rendered in- 
tense of spices, and is the com- 
position mentioned Ex. xxx. 

The substance which is ge- 
nerally used in modern times 
as frankincense is the produc- 
tion of the Norway pine. 

The use of incense in the 
Jewish worship may be learn- 
ed from Ex. xxx. 7, and Lev. 
xvi. 12, 13, and it is figuratively 
employed to represent lovely 
and agreeable qualities., (Sol. 
Songili.6; iv. 6. 14,) and devo- 
tional fervour. (Ps. cxli. 2. 
Mai. i. 11. Rev. viii.3.) 

FRIEND. (Ex. xxxiii. 11.) 
There are several passages in 
which this word is used where 
no actual friendship or affec- 
tion is i ntended, (Matt, xxi i . 12: 
xxvi. 50;) and in these it is 
perhaps employed as a com- 



FRI 

mon term of salutatipn, as the 
word neighbour is often used 
in modern times. 

FRINGES (Deut. xxii. 12) 
were the hem or border of 
a particular Jewish garment, 
(Matt. ix. 20 ; xiv. 36.) 

At the time when the Sab- 
bath-breaker was stoned to 
death, (Num. xv. 32.41,) Moses 
w r as commanded to speak t© 
the children of Israel, and 
"bid them make fringes in 
the borders of their garments, 
throughout their generations," 
and that they should "put up- 
on the fringe of the borders a 
riband of blue," as a constant 
remembrancer of God's com- 
mandments, and a visible 
warning against forbidden in- 
dulgence. These fringes were 
principally upon the corners 
of the dress. Perhaps the hem 
was of lace ; for the original 
word denotes that which wa-s 
twisted like a rope, and hung 
like hair. (Ex. xxxix. 31.) It 
was evidently a badge of dis- 
tinction. (See Clothes, and 
cut.) 

In some parts of Europe and 
Asia a Jew is instantly known 
by his apparel. In all syna- 
gogues, however, there is worn 
a kind of scarf, from three to 
five feet long, and one foot 
wide, *vhich is furnished with 
fringes at the corners. Let us 
hear the account which they 
give of it themselves :— " When 
we put on that garment on 
which the fringes ordained by 
the law are fixed, (Num. xv. 
37. Deut. xxii. 12,) we pro- 
nounce likewise the following 
prayer of thanks : ' Praised 
[be God] who hast sanctified * 
us through thy command- 
ments, and commanded us the 
precept of the fringes.' But 
when we cover ourselves with 
the prayer-cloak, we say, in 
place of the concluding words 
of the foregoing, 'sanctified and 
commanded us to envelope our- 
selves with the garment of 
262 



FUE 

fringes? These fringes are to 
be considered as marks of re- 
membrance, and tokens, by 
which we are Always remind- 
ed of the commandments of 
God ; as it is written, (Num. 
xv. 39,) ' These fringes shall 
serve you for the purpose that 
you may see them, and re- 
member all the command- 
ments of the Eternal, and 
do them; but not follow the 
bent of your heart and of your 
eyes, by which you are led to 
sin ; ye will thereby remember 
all my precepts, and obey 
them, that ycu may be holy to 
your God." 

A Jewish commentator on 
Num. xv. says, that any man 
clothed with this fringe is safe, 
and shall be delivered from 
all hurt and destruction. 

FROG S. (Ex. viii. 2.) A 
well known,amphibious,loath- 
some reptile, found generally 
on the margin of brooks and 
ponds, and "living on insects, 
worms, &c. They were sent 
upon the Egyptians in such 
numbers as to fill their beds, 
ovens, and knead ing-troughs; 
and when they died, as they did 
in immense masses, they fill- 
ed the land with an offensive 
and pestilential effluvia. (See 
Youth's Friend, for August, 
1823, and Life of Moses, p. 69, 
both by Am. S. S, Union.) 

FRONTLETS. (See Phy- 
lacteries.) 

FRUIT. Lev. xix. 23. is the 
only passage in which this 
term is used in a doubtful 
sense ; and it here means, that 
the fruit of a tree newly plant- 
ed shall be regarded as unfit to 
\»e offered to the Lord, until the 
fourth year r f its growth. 

FUEL (Tsa. ix. 5) was so 
scarce in the east that the peo- 
ple resorted to almost every 
Kind of combustible matter; 
even the withered stalks of 
herbs and flowers, (Matt. vi. 28 
-30,) thorns, (Ps.lviii. 9. Eccl. 
tii.6) and even excrements. 



FUL 

(Ezek. i v. 12—16. See Dung. ) 
It is supposed that by the word 
brand (Amos iv. 11) is meant a 
dry vine, twig, or other brush 
wood, which is so light and 
combustible as to be consumed 
at once, if not instantly pluck- 
ed out; thus rendering the 
striking figure of the prophet 
still more expressive. 

FULFILLED. (Matt. ii. 17.) 
This word is generally used in 
reference to the accomplish- 
ment of prophecy. It is to be 
observed, however, concerning 
the expression, that it might 
be fulfilled, — which is ire 
quently used, (Matt, ii.15. 23} 
viii. 17 ; xii. 17, &c. &c.,)— the 
event does not happen merely 
for the purpose of making 
good the prediction. When 
it is said, for example, that 
they parted Christ's garments 
among them, casting lots, — 
that it might be fulfilled which 
Was spoken by the prophet, 
&c.,— it is not intended that 
this was done in order to se- 
cure the accomplishment of 
the prediction; but rather that, 
in or by this was fulfilled the 
prophecy, &c. ; or thus it came 
to pass, in fulfilment of the pro- 
phecy, &c. Those concerned 
had no knowledge generally 
of the fact that they were 
fulfilling a prophecy. Oui 
Saviour of course knew it ; 
and hence the peculiar ex 
pression, John xix. 28. (See 
Prophecy.) The meaning, 
in most of the above and 
parallel passages, would be 
more accurately expressed by 
the word verified. In this 
event was verified tchat teas 
said by, &c. 

FULLER'S FIELD. (See 
Conduit.) 

FULNESS. (Gal. iv. 4.) 
This expression has a peculiar 
meaning in some passages of 
the sacred writings. The ful 
ness of time, in relation to the 
Messiah, means the actual 
presence of the very time ap 
263 



FUR 

pointed for his advent. So, 
when the day of Pentecost was 
fully come. (Acts ii. 1.) The 
same word is used (John i. 16, 
and Col. i. 19) to signify the 
perfect and complete suffi- 
ciency of spiritual blessings 
in Christ Jesus, to meet all 
the wants of our guilty, ruined, 
helpless race. 

Th e fulness of the Godhead 
(Col. ii. 9) denotes all the attri- 
butes of the divine nature, 
in their entire and complete 
perfection. 

FUNERAL. (See Bury.) 

FURLONG. (See Mea- 
sures.) 

FURNACE. (Gen. xv. 17.) 
Furnaces were used for melt- 
ing the precious metals. (Prov. 
xvii. 3.) They were also used 
to punish criminals. The fur- 
nace into which Nebuchadnez- 
zar cast the young Hebrews 
who refused to worship his 
image was probably an open 
furnace, or place of fire, suffi- 
ciently confined to concentrate 



FUR 

the heat to the last extreme, 
and yet so open that what took 
place in the midst of it might 
be easily seen. Such places 
are now found in Syria, and 
were evidently used by idola- 
ters as temples for the fires 
which represented their gods, 
and in which they offered sa- 
crifices 
FURNITURE.(See Camel.) 
FURROW. (Ps.lxv. 10.) 
The phrase, they shall bind 
themselves in their two fur- 
rows, (Hos. x. 10,) is explained 
by the context, especially 
verses 4, and 11—13. 

FURY (Jer. x. 25) is attri- 
buted to God like anger, meta- 
phorically, or speaking after 
the manner of men ; that is, 
God's providential actions are 
such as would be performed by 
a man in a state of anger ; so 
that, when he is said to pour 
out his fury on a person, or on 
a people, it is a figurative ex- 
pression for dispensing afflic- 
tive judgments. 



GAB 

GAAL (Judg. ix. 26) was the 
son of Ebed, and the lead- 
er of a revolt against Abime- 
lech, king of the Shechemites. 
He was, however, defeated, and 
put to flight, and his partisans 
were scattered and destroyed. 

GAASH. (Judg.ii.9.) A hill 
in the territory of Ephraim, in 
the vicinity of which was Tim- 
nath-serah, where Joshua lived 
and died. (Josh. xxiv. 29, 30.) 
The brooks (or valleys) of 
Gaash (2 Sam. xxiii. 30. 1 
Chron. xi. 32) were probably 
in the same neighbourhood. 

GABBATHA. (Johnxix.13.) 
A Hebrew word, denoting an 
elevated place; like the bench 
of the judges in modern court 
rooms. The floor of this plat- 
form, and perhaps the whole 
area of the apartment, was pro- 
bably paved with stone, — a 



GAD 

common practice in palaces 
and public offices. Hence it 
is called in Greek, by a word, 
signifying the pavement. 

GABRIEL. (Luke i. 19.) One 
of the ministering spirits o r 
God,who was speciallychargea 
with the message to Zachanas, 
respecting the birth of John, 
and to Mary, respecting the 
birth of Christ. At an earlier 
period he was sent to Daniel to 
unfold a vision. (Dan. viii. 16; 
ix. 21.) The name signifies 
the strength of God. 

GAD. (Gen. xxx. 9— 11.) 1. 
Tribe of. (Num. i. 25.) The 

Josterity of Gad, the son of 
acob. by Zilpah, Leah's hand- 
maid. 

It was predicted of Gad by 

his father, (Gen. xlix. 19,) that 

a troop should overcome him, 

but he should overcome at the 

264 



GAD 

last. And in Deut. xxxiii. 20, 
21, Moses predicts still more 
particularly the events which 
distinguish the history of this 
tribe. 

After the defeat of the kings 
of 'Bashan, the tribes of Gad 
and Reuben petitioned Moses 
to assign them their portion in 
that district of the country, as 
it was favourable to their pas- 
toral pursuits. Their request 
was granted, and Gad's tribe 
was located south of Reuben, 
between the mountains of Gi- 
lead and the river Jordan. 

In this position they were 
subject to frequent incursions 
from the neighbouring hordes ; 
but they were valorous, (1 Chr. 
v. 19, 20. 22 ; xii. 8,) and, under 
David, subdued all their ene- 
mies. 

In the song of Moses, (Deut. 
xxxiii. 20, 21.) allusion is made 
to the enlargementand courage 
of the Gadites ; to the provision 
made by Moses the lawgiver 
for that tribe before the rest, on 
the east of Jordan, and to the 
fidelity with which the tribe 
fulfilled their agreement to go 
up with the other tribes to the 
conquest of the promised land, 
just as if no portion had been 
assigned them in Bashan. 

2. (lSam.xxii.5.) A prophet 
and a particular friend of Da- 
vid. He was on more than one 
occasion God's messenger to 
David, (1 Sam. xxii. 5. 2 Sam. 
xxiv. 13-19. 1 Chron. xxi. 9— 
11,)' and was also one of his 
biographers. (1 Chron. xxix. 
29.) 

GADARENES, country op. 
(Mark v. 1.) Gadara was one 
of the ten cities called Deca- 
polis. (SeeDECAPOLis.) It was 
on the east. of Jordan, in the 
vicinity of the lake of Genne- 
saret, beyond the brook Jar- 
muk, about eight miles above 
its junction with the Jordan. 
It gave its name to the district 
or canton of which it was the 
chief town. Gergesa or Ge- 
23 



GA1 

res a was another city in the 
same neighbourhood, which 
gave to another district the 
name of the country of the 
Gergesenes. Gergesa was si- 
tuated about twenty miles east 
of the Jordan, and ten or twelve 
south-east of Gadara ; so that 
the region generally might be 
designated by either name, 
(Matt. viii. 28. Mark v. 1 ;) and 
the discrepancy rather con- 
firms than invalidates the 
sacred history, as it might so 
easily have been avoided. 

Dr. Seetzen discovered, ia 
the year 1816, what he sup- 
poses to be the ruins of Gerge- 
sa, now called Djerash, where 
three temples, two superb 
amphitheatres of marble, and 
hundreds of columns still re- 
main, among other monuments 
of Roman power. 

It was in this vicinity that 
Christ wrought a wonderful 
miracle on two demoniacs. 
(Luke viii. 26—36.) Gadara, in 
the time of Josephus, was an 
important city, and the metro- 
polis of Perea, or the country 
beyond Jordan. It now lies in 
ruins, being wholly deserted 
on account of the scarcity of 
water, though the foundations 
of its spacious streets are visi- 
ble. In the vicinity are famous 
medicinal springs ; and we are 
told by modern travellers, that 
the rocks by which the coast 
is bound contain the remains 
of tombs, cut out by the early 
inhabitants of Galilee, which 
even now seem a fit resort for 
the wretched outcasts of soci- 
ety who had their dwelling 
among them two thousand 
years ago. (Luke viii. 27.) 

GAIUS. (Acts xix. 29.) A 
Macedonian, resident in Co- 
rinth, at whose house PauJ 
stayed while labouring as a 
missionary in that city. (Rom. 
xvi.23.) He was probably con- 
verted under Paul's ministry 
(I Cor. i. 14,) and accompanied 
him to Ephesus, and, with 
265 



GAL 

Anstarchus, another of Paul's 
adherents, was seized by the 
mob, during the uproar occa- 
sioned by the apostle's preach- 
ing. Probably reference is 
made to this individual, Acts 
xx. 4, and 3 John 1 ; though 
some have supposed two indi- 
viduals to be intended. 

GALATIA. (Actsxvi.6.) A 
province of Asia Minor, lying 
east of Phrygia, and called 
Galatia by the Gauls, who 
were the original settlers of it. 

Christianity was introduced 
into this province by the apos- 
tle Paul, who was there once 
with Silas and Timothy, (Acts 
xvi. 6,) about the year 53, and 
again, four or five years after- 
wards, on his return from Co- 
rinth. (Acts xviii. 23.) 

GALATIANS, epistle to, 
is the ninth in the order of the 
books of the New Testament, 
and was written by Paul about 
the year 53-54. Its design evi- 
dently is, to correct some erro- 
neous opinions they had been 
taught, particularly respecti ng 
the doctrine of justification 
by faith ; and to instruct them 
as to the true scope and intent 
of the gospel. This epistle is 
peculiarly interesting, as it 
contains a record of the evi- 
dences of Paul's apostleship, a 
sketch of his life after his con- 
version, and a masterly eluci- 
dation and defence of the great 
but simple plan of salvation 
through faith in the Lord Jesus 
Christ. (SeeUNiONQuESTioNS, 
vol. viii., by Am. S. S. Union, 
for a complete analysis of this 
interesting epistle.) 

GALBANUM. (Ex. xxx. 34.) 
A resinous gum, produced in 
Syria and its'vicinity, from the 
sap or milk of a plant of the 
same name, which grows eight 
or ten feet high. It was an in- 
gredient of the sacred incense, 
and is still valuable for its 
medicinal properties. 

GALILEANS. (Lukexiii.l.) 
A sect jr party of ihe Jews 



GAL 

who took their name from 
their leader, Judas, a Gaulan- 
ite, or Galilean. It is supposed 
that the party originated in 
opposition to a tax imposed 
by the Roman government on 
the Jews, a. d. 10—12. Judas 
and his party resisted the go- 
vernment, (Acts v. 37,) and 
maintained their opposition 
until the destruction of Jerusa* 
lem and the temple. Jewish 
historians tell us that the Gali- 
leans agreed with the Phari 
sees, but were distinguished 
by an unconquerable love of 
liberty, contending, on the 
strength of Deut. xvii. 15, that 
God only was their sovereign. 
and that all exactions of earth- 
ly princes were oppressive and 
unlawful. 

The Galileans who are men- 
tioned as having been offer- 
ing sacrifices at Jerusalem, 
when they were suddenly as- 
saulted, and put to death by 
order of Pilate,— so that their 
blood flowed out and actually 
mingled with the very sacri- 
fices they were offering. (Luke 
xiii.1,2,) — were probably the 
subjects of Herod, between 
whom and Pilate there was a 
deep-rooted hostility. (Luke 
xxiii. 12.) Their sudden and 
violent death, in the very act 
cf worship, seems to have 
marked them, in the view of 
some, as the special objects of 
divine indignation. 

GALILEE. (Matt. iv. 12, 
Mark i. 9. Luke ii. 39.) In the 
time of Christ, Palestine was 
divided into three parts: of 
which the northern was Gali- 
lee, bounded on the north by 
Anti-Li banus ; east, by Jor- 
dan and the sea of Galilee; 
south, by Samaria; and west 
by Phoenicia, which occupied 
the coast north from Carmel to 
Tyre. It was distinguished 
into Upper and Lower; the for 
mer lying on the north, and 
inhabited partly by Syrians, 
Phenicians, and Arabians ; 
266 



GAL 

whence it was called Galilee 
qf the Gentiles, (Isa. ix. 1 ,) or 
Nations, (Matt. iv. 15;) the 
latter, especially the valley 
along the sea of "Tiberias, was 
fertile and populous. 

Within the limits of Galilee 
were comprehended Issachar, 
Zebulon, Naphtali, and Asher. 
Christ is called Jesus qf Gali- 
lee, (Matt. xxvi. 69,) because 
he was brought up in that pro- 
vince, and there lived, taught, 
and called his first disciples, 
(Matt. iv. 13—23; xiii. 55. Mark 
i.39. Luke iv. 44; viii. 1 ; xxiii. 
5. John vii. 1 ;) and it became a 
name of contempt, (John i. 46 ; 
vii. 52. Acts ii. 7,) both among 
Jews and Gentiles, because 
they were a mongrel race, and 
ased a corrupted dialect, which 
originated in the amalgama- 
tion of the Jews, who settled 
there after the captivity, with 
the Gentile foreigners. (Matt, 
xxvi. 69. 73. Mark xiv. 70.) 

Galilee, says a modern tra- 
veller, would be a paradise, 
were it inhabited by an indus- 
trious people, under an en- 
lightened government. Vine 
stocks are to be seen here a 
foot and a half in diameter, 
forming, by their twining 
branches, vast arches and ex- 
tensive ceilings of verdure. A 
cluster of grapes, two or three 
feet in length, will give an 
abundant supper to a whole 
family. The plains of Esdrae- 
lon are occupied by tribes, 
around whose brown tents 
the sheep and lambs gambol 
to the sound of the reed, which 
at nightfall "calls them home. 

Sea of Galilee. (See Chin- 

NERETH.) 

GALL. (Ps. lxix. 21.) An 
animal fluid, of exceedingly 
bitter taste, secreted by the 
liver. Allusion is made to it 
in Jobxvi. 13; xx. 14.25. Lam. 
ii. 11, and elsewhere. But by 
the same word in Ps. lxix. 21, 
reference is made to the ex- 
traction of a very bitter herb, 



GAL 

(Deut. xxix. 13; xxxii. 32.> 

{jerhaps hemlock. (Hos. x. 4.) 
t was so bitter as to be used as 
a generic term for bitter sub- 
stances ; as sour wine, sour 
cider, &c. is called vinegar. 
(Comp. Matt, xxvii. 34. Mark 
xv.23.Acts.viii.23. SeeMYRRH.) 
GALLERIES. (See Dwell- 
ings.) 
GALLEY. (See Ship.) 
GALL 10 (Acts xviii. 12) 
was the brother of Seneca, 
the famous philosopher, who 
describes him as a man of 
uncommon mildness and sim- 
plicity. He was appointed 
proconsul of Achaia by the 
Roman emperor Claudius,A.D. 
53. He resided chiefly at Co- 
rinth ; and when Paul was 
E reaching in that city, and 
ad excited the jealousy of 
the Jews by the success of his 
mission, they took him by 
violence before Gallio, and 
charged him with persuading 
men to worship God contrary 
to the law. Gallio was disin- 
clined to interfere with con- 
troversies of that kind, which 
were not cognizable by the 
law which hewas appointed to 
administer; and so ne dismiss- 
ed the parties. As they were 
leaving the place, a tumult 
occurred, in which Sosthenes, 
an officer of the Jewish church, 
was severely treated by a 
party of Greeks. It does not 
appear but Gallio had left the 
bench before this event occur- 
red ; and even if he were pre- 
sent, the expression, that he 
cared for none qf these things, 
may imply nothing more than 
that he did not concern himself 
with the controversies of the 
various sects and parties into 
which the community around 
him was divided. This course, 
so far from evincing hostility 
or indifference to Paul, or ta 
religion generally, was cer- 
tainly wise and prudent for a 
commissioner of the Roman 
government, appointed, as he 
267 



GAM 

was, to a temporary office in a 
foreign province. 

GAMALIEL. (Acts v. 34.) A 
distinguished Jewish rabbi, a 
doctor or teacher of the law, 
and possessed of a large share 
of public confidence. It is 
said he was for thirty-two years 

E resident of the Jewish san- 
edrim. He is first introduced 
to our notice in connexion 
with the attempt made at 
Jerusalem, a. d. 33, by the op- 
posers of the gospel, to stop the 
mouths of Peter and the other 
apostles. The faithful mis- 
sionaries were brought before 
the Jewish council, and there 
boldly proclaimed their in- 
flexible purpose. This excited 
their enemies to madness ; and 
they had already made up their 
minds to put them, to death, 
when Gamaliel, by a plain 
and seasonable exhibition of 
the folly of such a step, 
changed' their counsel ; and, 
after having scourged the apos- 
tles, they discharged them. _ So 
distinguished was this rabbi for 
his wisdom and learning, that 



GAR 

Paul went up to Jerusalem to 
receive instruction from him, 
and afterwards mentions this 
fact in his oration to the peo- 
ple of Jerusalem, (a. d. 60,) as 
evidence that he had the best 
opportunity to know the na- 
ture and requisitions of the 
law. (Acts xxii. 3.) 

GAMMADIMS. (Ezek.xxvii. 
11.) The prevailing opinion 
respecting this term is, that it 
is rather descriptive of the 
character of a people ; as, the 
brave, the warlike, the invin- 
cibles, than the name of any 
particular nation or tribe. 

GARDEN. (Isa. i. 8.) The 
gardens of the Hebrews were 
doubtless very rude and sim- 
ple. Allusions to them are 
made, Gen. xxi. 33. Num. xxiv. 
6. Job viii. 16; and there is 
reason to suppose that they 
were chiefly devoted to fruit 
and shade trees, and aromatic 
plants and herbs. (1 Kings xxi. 
2. Sol. Song iv. 12—16.) A re- 
servoir of water was considered 
an indispensable appendage 
either in the form of a foun- 




GAR 
tain, well, or stream, passing 
through it. (Gen.ii.lO; xiii. 10.) 
The gardens around Damascus 
are cl escribed as abundantly- 
watered by little currents 
which are made to flow through 
every part of thera. Beau- 
tiful allusions to this are 
made Pro v. xxi. 1. Isa. iviii. 11. 
Eccl. ii. 5, 6. The gardens of 
Persia, at tha present day, are 
well laid out, and cultivated 
with much care. Gardens were 
used to some extent as burying 
places, (John xix. 41,— see Bu- 
rial,) and also as places of 
religious worship and retire- 
ment. (Isa. i. 29; lxv.3.) Gar- 
dens were probably often 
unfenced, and formerly, as 
now, esculent vegetables were 
planted on some fertile spot in 
the open field. A custom pre- 
vails in Hindostan, as travel- 
lers inform us, of planting, 
at the commencement of the 
rainy season* in the extensive 
plains, an abundance of me- 
lons, cucumbers, gourds, &c. 
In the centre of the field is an 
artificial mound, with a hut on 
the top just large enough to 
shelter a single person "from 
the storm and heat. Here a 
solitary being is posted, night 
and day, in the midst of tem- 
pests and storms, for two or 



months, to protect the 
and if any depredation 



three 
crop: 

is attempted, the "alarm is 
given to some adjacent vil- 
lage. This custom fully ex- 
plains the allusion in Isa. i.8. 
At this season, Niebuhr re- 
lates that he observed in Ye- 
men, that men were placed 
in trees, or upon some such 
elevation, to watch the fields, 
and keep off birds, beasts, and 
thieves. So also among the 
Hebrews, watchmen were Sta- 
tioned to guard the harvest, 
who relieved one another. 
As the keepers of a field are 
they against Jerusalem round 
about : watchers come from a 
far country, and give out their 
23* 



GAT 

voices against the cities of 
Judah. (Jer. iv. 16, 17.) He 
(the wicked) buildeth his 
house as a moth, and as a 
booth that the keeper maketh, 
(Job xxvii. 18.) These keepers 
were not allowed to prevent 
one from taking from the field 
enough for the supply of his 
immediate wants. (Deut. xxiiu 
25.) 

GARLANDS. (Acts xiv. 13.) 
The heathen adorned the vic- 
tims of their sacrifices in a 
variety of ways. Probably the 
garlands mentioned in this 
passage were to decorate the 
head of the ox which they de- 
signed to sacrifice to the sup- 
posed gods. 

GARLICK. (Num.xi.5.) A 
well known bulbous root or 
vegetable, which w 7 as in com- 
mon use in Egypt, and much 
esteemed by the Jews. 

GARMENTS. (See 
Clothes.) 

GARRISON. (See War.) 

GATE. (lSam.iv.18.) The 
entrances to walled cities are 
secured by gates, either of 
wood, iron, or brass. (Acts 
xii. 10.) Houses also were 
protected in the same way, 
and we may suppose that 
sometimes a door or passage 
was made in the gate, (as Is 
common in many parts of our 
own country,) so as to save the 
necessity of opening the whole 
gate every time a single per- 
son would pass. (Acts xii. 13.) 
In many Asiatic cities, there 
are broad streets covered over 
wholly or in part, and appro- 
priated to merchants or trades- 
men in particular branches of 
business ; and there were also 
open squares in which the 
booths and stalls of venders 
were erected. These were fre- 
quently at the gates of the city, 
which were of course places of 
the greatest concourse. (2Sam. 
xv. 2. 2 Kings vii. 1. Neh. viii. 
1. Job xxix. 7. Prov. xxii. 22; 
xxxi. 23.) The gates were often 
269 



GAT 

also the places of judicial pro- 
ceedings, (Deut. xvii. 5 ; xxv. 
7. Amos v. 10. 12. 15*,) the mode 
of conducting which may be 
learned, Ruth iv. 1—12; and 
of general resort, (Gen. xix. 1,) 
and of course frequented by- 
idlers and loungers. (Ps. lxix. 
12.) In Arabia, the gate of the 
city is still the place of judg- 
ment. The king or governor 
passes certain hours of the 
day there, and not only hears 
and decides controversies, but 
transacts business with the 
people who are passing in and 
out. As the possession of the 
gates of the city was a posses- 
sion of the city itself, the word 
is sometimes used to signify 
power. (Gen xxii. 17. " Isa. 
xxiv. 12.) We are told, that it 
is common in many parts of 
Asia, to build the gate or door 
of the house of iron, very 
strong, and so low as to pre- 
vent the incursion of the Arabs, 
who often ride on horseback 
into the houses of those whom 
they wish to harass and rob. 
Sometimes the gate is not more 
than three feet high ; and to 
elevate or exalt it, was only to 
court the notice of the destroy- 
er, or to admit a friend. (Ps. 
xxiv. 7. 9.) There are other 
figurative uses of the word 
which are sufficiently obvious 
in themselves. (See Hell, 
Jerusalem, Lazarus, Tem- 
ple.) 

GATH. (Josh. xi. 22.) An 
ancient city in the territory of 
Dan, celebrated as the birth- 
place of Goliath. (1 Sam. xvii. 
4.) It was situated about thirty- 
two miles west from Jerusalem. 
In the days of David, it was in 
the possession of the Philis- 
tines, and Achish w r as its king. 
(1 Sam. xxi. 10—15 ; xxvii. 1— 
7.) David afterwards captured 
it. (2 Sam. xv. 18. 1 Chron. 
xviii. I.) It was afterwards 
subject to frequent revolutions. 
1 Kings ii. 39. 2 Kings xii. 17; 



GAZ 

xiii. 25. 2 Chron. xi. 8; xxvi. 
6.) The inhabitants of Gath 
are called Gittites, (Josh. xiii. 
3,) and the place GUtah-he~ 
pher. (Josh xix. 13.) 

GATH-HEPHER. (2Kinsa 
xiv. 25.) A city in the tribe of 
Zebulon, and probably in the 
land of Hepher. (1 Kings iv. 
10.) It is noted as the birth- 
place of the prophet Jonah. 

GATH-RIMJYION.(Josh.xix. 
45.) It would seem there were 
at least three cities of this 
name: one in the tribe of Dan, 
(Josh. xxi. 24 ;) a second in the 
half tribe of Manasseh, (Josh, 
xxi. 25 ;) and a third in the 
tribe of Ephraim. (1 Chron. 
vi. 69.) " 

GAZA. (Gen. x. 19.) A city, 
and one of the five principali- 
ties of the Philistines, was 
situated on the coast of the 
Mediterranean, at the southern 
extremity of Canaan, within 
the tribe of Judah, (Judg. i. 
IS. 1 Sam. vi. 17,) and about 
sixty miles south- vvest'of Jeru- 
salem. In the reigns of Jotham 
and Ahaz, it recovered its in- 
dependence, but was again 
subdued by Hezekiah. (2Kings 
xviii. 8.) It was afterwards 
subject to the Persians and 
Chaldeans, and was captured 
by Alexander the Great about 
b. c. 300. In the time of Euse- 
bius, it was a flourishing city, 
but has been often reduced 
since that day, and now con- 
sists of three sma 1 villages, 
with from 3,000 to 5,000 "in- 
habitants. Messrs. King and 
Fisk, American missionaries, 
spent a Sabbath there in 1823. 
They tell us that the city 
stands on an elevation; the 
houses are built of stone, but 
make a very mean appear- 
ance. The scenery around ia 
beautiful. They found several 
Greeks there, and a Greek 
priest, who said the church 
there had been buUt twelv* 
centuries. They sold twenty 
270 



GEB 

tve copies of the Scriptures, 
in Greek, and gave away thir- 
teen. 

The place once abounded 
in monuments of the power, 
opulence, and greatness of the 
city. Many traditions are held 
by the inhabitants respecting 
Samson and his feats; and 
they formerly showed the 
sunken arches of the temple 
which Samson pulled down 
upon himself and the people 
around him, and also the hill 
to whose summit he bore the 
gates of the city. 

Mr. Thompson, an American 
missionary, was at Gaza in the 
spring of 1834, and speaks of 
the number of Christians in 
the place as exceeding his ex- 
pectations, and also mentions 
a flourishing school there. 

GEB A, (2 Kings xxiii. 8,) 
called also Geba of Benjamin, 
(Josh, xxi. 17. 1 Kings xv. 22,) 
probably to distinguish it from 
another town of the same 
name, was one of the most 
northerly towns of Judea. 
Hence the expressions, 2Kings 
xxiii. 8, and Zech. xiv. 10, de- 
note the length of the land. 
It was in the vicinity of this 
place that the Philistines were 
defeated by David's army. 
(2 Sam. v. 25.) 

GEBAL. (Ezek. xxvii. 9.) A 
city of Phenicia, north of Bey- 
root, called Byblos by the 
Greeks and Romans, and lat- 
terly Jiblah, or Jibail. It now 
exhibits little else than ruins, 
which are sufficiently magni- 
ficent to indicate its former 
greatness. In the days of 
Tyre's glory, it was famous for 
ship-building. (Ezek. xxvii. 9.) 
The land of the Gibiites (Josh, 
xiii. 5) was the extensive plain 
which stretches around this 
city. In Ps. lxxxiii. 7, Gebal 
most probably refers to a dis- 
trict in Idumea, east of the 
El-Ghor,known to the Romans 
as Gebalene, and at present 
Qjebal. 



GEN 

GEDALIAH (Jer. xl. 5) wag 
appointed by Nebuchadnezzar 
to take charge of the govern- 
ment of Palestine, after he 
had subdued it, and destroyed 
the temple and capital of the 
nation. (2 Kings xxv. 22.) He 
was assassinated by a party of 
the royal family of Judah, 
headed by Ishmael ; of which 
event, we have the particulars 
in Jer. xli. Several other per- 
sons ofthe same name are mere- 
ly mentioned in the Bible. 

GEDEON. (See Gideon.) 

GEHAZI. (2 Kings iv. 12.) 
The servant and constant at- 
tendant ofthe prophet Elisha. 
When the prophet had accom- 
plished, by divine power, the 
wonderful cure of Naaman, the 
latter offered him a munificent 
present, as a token of his grat- 
itude; which the prophet de- 
clined. Gehazi coveted what 
his master refused, and by a 
deliberate falsehood obtained 
a portion of Naaman's gift. 
As a punishment for his of- 
fence, the very disease of 
which Naaman had just been 
cnred was visited upon him 
and his family. (2 Kings v. 15 
-27!) 

GEMAR1AH. (Jer. xxix. 3, 
Zedekiah's ambassador to 
the king of Babylon, by whom 
Jeremiah sent a letter to his 
countrymen in captivity,warn- 
ing them against the indul- 
gence of any false hopes' of 
redemption. There was also 
a minister of Jehoiachim ofthe 
same name. (Jer. xxxvi. 12.) 

GENEALOGY. (IChron.v. 
1.) The lineage of a family, or 
list of ancestors, was preserved 
with extraordinary care (Ezra 
ii. 62. Heb. vii. 3) by the Jew- 
ish nation, (1 Chron. v. 17; ix. 
1. 2 Chron. xii. 15,) not only 
because it was through Abra- 
ham that the privileges of the 
Jewish church were transmit, 
ted, but chiefly because of the 
deep interest which was felt in 
the predictions concerning the 
271 



GEN 

Messiah,and the tribe orfamily 
from which he was to spring. 
(Heb. vii. 14.) The variance 
which seems to exist in many 
of the genealogical tables, or 
statements of the sacred wri- 
ters, has been in a great mea- 
sure reconciled by "those who 
have diligently investigated 
and compared them. It is a 
matter of astonishment that 
records of such high antiquity 
— and concerned "principally 
with names of families and 
individuals, which are very 
liable to many inaccuracies- 
are preserved so perfectly. 
These public tables, or genea- 
logical records, were in exist- 
ence as lately as the time of 
Josephus ; for he undertakes to 
show his descent by them. 

The genealogies against 
which the apostolic admoni- 
tions are directed, (1 Tim. i. 4. 
Tit. iii. 9,) were probably spe- 
culations on the subject of 
genealogy, when the reason 
for regarding it so particularly 
was done away by the appear- 
ance of the Messiah, and the 
introduction of a new dispen- 
sation by him. 

GENERATION. (Gen. v. I.) 
This word is used to denote a 
particular class of people. (Ps. 
xxiv. 6. 1 Pet. ii. 9.) It signi- 
fies the history as well as the 
lineage of a man,— as in the 
passage first cited, and Matt.i. 
1,— and also the history of other 
things. (Gen. ii. 4.) It is em- 
ployed to denote a period of 
time, (Matt. xxiv. 34. Acts ii. 
40,) and sometimes posterity 
or future ages. (Isa. xxxiv. 10.) 
When used to mark the lapse 
of time, its import is very un- 
certain. Perhaps it may gene- 
rally mean, as it does in our 
day, the period which one 
generation or race of men 
spend on earth. 

GENESIS. This is the name 
of the first book of the Bible, 
and in the original it denotes 
Ihe contents of the book; viz. 



GEN 

an account of the generation of 
production of all things. Moses 
is universally regarded as its 
author, and its authenticity is 
settled by the most indisputa- 
ble evidence. It has been 
remarked that passages of this 
book are cited in Ihe New 
Testament twenty-seven times 
litarally,and thirty-eight times 
substantially. The history it 
contains embraces a period of 
at least 2370 years, and pre- 
sents to us an account of the 
creation and fall of man, the 
religion, arts, settlements, ge» 
nealogies, corruption and de- 
struction of the antediluvian 
world, excepting eight souls, 
— the re-peopling and division 
of the earth, the dispersion of 
its inhabitants, and the inte- 
resting biographies of Abra- 
ham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. 

It is well observed, that 
without this history the world 
would be in comparative dark- 
ness ; but that, in the first 
page of Genesis, a child may 
learn more in an hour, than 
all the philosophers in the 
world learned without it in 
thousands of years. (For an 
analysis of the contents of this 
book, and explanatory and 
illustrative notes, &c, see 
Union Questions, vol. iii., 
and Teacher's Assistant 
in the use of the same work, 
both by the Am. S. S. Union.) 

GENNESARET. (See Chin 

NERETH.) 

GENTILE. (Rom. ii. 9.; 
This was the name by which 
the Jews distinguished all the 
rest of the world from them- 
selves. All who were not Jews 
and circumcised,they regarded 
as Gentiles, or heathen ; and, 
as such, they were excluded 
from the religious privileges 
and relations by which the 
Jews were so greatly exalted. 
Hence they became accustom- 
ed to look on the Gentiles as 
outcasts from the favour of 
God : and, mistaking the end 
272 



GER 

of their peculiar dispensation, 
and supposing it to be perpe- 
tual, we cannot wonder at the 
strong prejudices they enter- 
tained against a Saviour and a 
gospel which placed Jews and 
Gentiles on the same footing, 
(Acts x. 1—48. Rom. ix. 30— 
33 ; xi. 1—36 ;) thus displaying 
the riches of that grace and 
mercy through which all that 
call on the name of the Lord 
are saved. And now, in the 
wonderful order and economy 
of the divine government, the 
Gentiles compose the great 
body of God's people, and the 
Jews, who reject the Messiah, 
have become a reproach and 
by- word in the earth. Those 
who embraced Judaism, but 
were not Jews, were called 
proselytes. The word Greeks, 
in the writings of Paul, usually 
denotes the Gentiles ; and, in 
the New Testament generally, 
those are called Gentiles who 
were subject to the Greek go- 
vernment, either in the east 
or west. 

Court of the Gentiles. 
(See Temple.) 

Isles of the Gentiles 
(Gen. x. 5) are supposed to de- 
note Asia Minor and the whole 
cf Europe, which were peopled 
by the children of Japheth. 

GERAH. (See Measures.) 

GERAR, (Gen. x. 19.) a 
capital city of ihe Philistines, 
was situated south-west of Ga- 
za, between Kadesh and Shur. 
(Gen. xx. 1.) It is remarkable 
that both Abraham and Isaac 
retired to this place during 
the prevalence of a famine, 
and were both guilty of de- 
ceiving Abimelech, the king 
of the place, respecting their 
wives. (Gen. xx. 1 ; xxvi.l.) 

Valley of, (Gen. xxvi. 17,) 
was the residence of Isaac, and 
probably in the vicinity of the 
city above described. 

GERGESENES,GERGESA. 
(See Gadarenes.) 

GLRIZIM. (SeeEBAL.) 



GET 

GESHUR. (2 Sam xiii. 3S.) 
A district of Syria, (2 Sam. xv. 
8,) lying on the east of Jordan, 
north of Bashan, and near 
mount Hermon. (Josh. xiii. 11. 
13.) The Geshurites are also 
spoken of as inhabiting an- 
other territory south of Judea. 
(1 Sam. xxvii. 8.) The district 
above mentioned retained its 
independence in the time of 
David. (2 Sam. xiii. 37.) Tra- 
vellers tell us of a bridge over 
the Jordan, between the sea of 
Tiberias and mount Hermon, 
called the Geshur, (Jisr, or 
Jisser, Beni-Jahub,) the brid/ge 
of the sons of Jacob. 

GETHSEMANE. (Matt, 
xxvi. 36.) A retired place, con- 
taining about half an acre of 
land on the western side of 
mount Olivet, commanding a 
full view of the city of Jerusa- 
lem. The name indicates the 
fertility of the spot, especially 
in olives. It was called a 
garden, though it was proba- 
bly a grove, laid out in walks, 
and furnished with fountains, 
affording shade and seclusion 
to those who resorted thither 
from the noise and distraction 
of the adjacent city. Messrs. 
Fisk and King, American 
missionaries, were there in 
1823. They tell us that the 
garden is about a stone's cast 
from the brook Cedron ; that 
it now contains eight large 
and venerable looking olives, 
whose trunks show their great 
antiquity. The spot is sandy 
I and barren, and appears like a 
j forsaken place. A low broken 
1 wall surrounds it. Mr. K. sat 
! down beneath one of the trees, 
', and read Isa. liii., and also the 
gospel history of our Redeem 
; er's sorrow during that memo- 
[ rable night in which he was 
there betrayed ; and the inte- 
rest of the association was 
! heightened by the passing 
through the place of a party 
\ of Bedouins, armed with spears 
i and swords. It is said thattb* 
273 



GIB 

monks, to whom this ground 
now belongs, preserve the ker- 
nels of the olives that grow 
there, to use as heads for rosa- 
ries. (See Views of Pales- 
tine, p. 14, and Selumiel, ch. 
vii., both by Am. S. S. Union.) 

GEZER. (Josh. xvi. 3.) A 
town of Ephraim on the border 
of Benjamin, north-west of Je- 
rusalem. It remained in the 
possession of the Canaanites 
(Josh. x. 33; xvi. 10. Judg.i. 
29) tiSL the king of Egypt sub- 
dued it, and gave it to his 
daughter, the wife of Solomon. 
(1 Kings ix. 16.) Solomon re- 
built it. (1 Kings ix. 17.) 

GHOST. (Gen. xxv. 8.) To 
give up the ghost is a common 
term, with the sacred writers, 
to express death. It is the 
yielding up pfthe spirit or soul 
to God who gave it. When 
used to express the death of 
Christ, a different word is em- 
ployed in the original, which 
implies the voluntary charac- 
ter of the act, or the power to 
give life up, or retain it at 
pleasure. 

Holt Ghost. (See God, 
Spirit.) 

GIANT. (IChron. xx.6.) Some- 
times this word is employed to 
denote men of great violence, 
cruelty, and crime; and at 
others, it denotes men of ex- 
traordinary size or height. The 
sons of Anak were the most 
noted of the latter class which 
the sacred writers mention. 
They dwelt in Hebron, and 
were such mighty men that 
the Israelites thought of them- 
selves as mere grasshoppers 
in comparison ; an expression, 
however, by no means indica- 
tive of exact relative size, but 
simply denoting a fearful odds 
in strength and stature. The 
king of Bashan (Deut. iii. 11) 
and Goliah (1 Sam. xvii. 4) 
were men of extraordinary 
size. (See Rephaim.) 

GIBBETHON. (Josh. xxi. 
23.) A city of the Philistines, 



GIB 

within the tribe of Dan, where 
Baasha killed Nadab, son of 
Jeroboam. (1 Kings xv.27.) 

G1BEAH. (1 Sam. xiii. 2.) A 
city a few miles north of Jeru- 
salem, called Gibeah of (the 
children of) Benjamin, (2 Sam. 
xxiii. 29,) in distinction from 
one in Judah. (Josh. xv. 57.) 
It was also called Gibeah of t 
Saul, (2 Sam. xxi. 6,) because 
it was his birth-place and resi- 
dence. (1 Sam. x. 26. Isa. x. 
29.) Its inhabitants were emi- 
nently wicked, as they evinced 
by their conduct, recorded 
Judg. xix. 30, to which Hosea 
refers as proverbial. (Hos. ix. 
9 ; x. 9.) The city was terribly 
destroyed. (Judg. xx. 46.) 

GIBE ON. (Josh. x. 2. 
1 Chron. xvi. 89.) A great city 
in Benjamin, five to seven 
miles northerly of Jerusalem, 
inhabited by Hivites, who se- 
cured the protection and alli- 
ance of Joshua by stratagem, 
(Josh. ix. 4—15 ;) and were con- 
sequently attacked by the five 
Canaanitish kings, but deli- 
vered by the aid of the Israel- 
ites. (Josh. x. 10. Isa. xxviii. 
21.) In the close of David's, 
and beginning of Solomon's 
reign, the sanctuary was there, 
(1 Chron. xvi. 39, 40 ; xxi. 29.) 
Near to it was a pool ; probably 
the " great waters" referred to 
by Jer. xli. 12, where Abner 
was defeated by Joab ; and also 
a "great stone" or monument- 
al pillar, perhaps to the twen- 
ty-four men of David and Ish- 
bosheth who fell there. (2 Sam. 
ii. 13 ; xx. 8. See Servant.) 

The wilderness of Gibeom 
(2 Sam. ii. 24) was doubtless in 
the vicinity of the city of the 
same name ; as was also the 
valley of Gibeon, famous for 
the victory over the five allied 
kings above described, and for 
the wonderful miracle per- 
formed there. (Josh. x. 12.) 

It is supposed that the four 
cities named, Josh. ix. 17, en- 
joyed a sort of democratic 
274 



GIF 

fovernment. (Comp. Josh. x. 
.and ix. 11.) 

GIDEON. (Judg.vi.ll.) The 
eon of Joash the Abi-ezrite, 
and the same with Jerubbaal 
the seventh jud^e of Israel, 
a mighty man of valour, and 
peculiarly favoured with the 
presence of the Lord. He was 
a very humble man; and when 
the angel proposed to him to 
go in the strength of the Lord 
to save Israel from the hands 
of the Midianites, he replied, 
"Behold, my family is poor in 
Manasseh, and I am the least 
of my father's house." The 
Lord was pleased to favour 
Gideon with most remarkable 
tokens of his power and grace, 
which are particularly men- 
tioned in Judg, vi., vii., and 
viii. He is honourably men- 
tioned, Heb. xi. 32. 

GIER-EAGLE. (See Eagle.) 

GIFT, (Ex. xxiii. 8 5 ) GIFTS. 
(Rom. xii. 6.) The practice of 
making presents as a token of 
honour, respect, or affection, 
prevailed very extensively in 
eastern countries in early 
ages, and is still maintained. 
Hence to refuse making pre- 
sents to a king was esteemed 
a mark of contempt. (1 Sam. 
x. 27.) Kings and princes 
often made splendid gifts of 
garments to their favourite of- 
ficers, and to others whom they 
were disposed to honour. (Gen. 
xlv. 22, 23.) 

The peculiar offerings under 
the law are spoken of as gifts. 
(Deut. xvi. 17. Matt. v. 23, 24.) 
And it is with singular force 
that the blessings of the gos- 
pel, and especially the great 
blessing of eternal life, through 
Jesus Christ our Lord, are call- 
ed gifts ; inasmuch as they 
never could be purchased, and 
nothing can be given in return 
for them. The word gifts is 
also employed to describe those 
graces or qualities with which 
Dhrist only can endue his dis- 
ciples. (Eph. iv. 8. 11, 12.) 



GIL 

Some of these, which were be- 
stowed on the early apostles* 
were miraculous, and designed 
to confirm their claims to apos- 
tolic authority; such as the 
gift of tongues, of prophecy, 
&c, and when the end of con- 
ferring them was answered, 
they ceased. 

GIHON. 1. (Gen. ii. 13.) 
One of the rivers of Eden, sup- 
Ijosed by some to be the Araxes 
which empties into the Caspian 
Sea. Gihon signifies impetu- 
ous; and this is the course of 
the Araxes. Others suppose 
that the river known to mo- 
dern geographers as the Oxics, 
which the Arabs at this day 
call Jihon, is the same with the 
Gihon. 

2. (1 Kings i. 33.) A fountain 
or stream near the city of Je- 
rusalem, (2 Chron. xxxii. 30.) 
beside which Solomon was 
anointed. (1 Kings i. 38, 39.) 

GILBOA. (I Sam. xxviii.4.> 
A ridge of mountains west of 
the plain of Jordan, which the 
Arabs of this day call Djebel 
Gilbo. It is memorable as the 
field of battle on which Saul 
and his three sons fell. (1 Sam. 
xxxi. 8, 2 Sam. i. 21. See Omar, 
by Am. S.S. Union, pp.118,119.) 

GILEAD,!. A PLACE,(2Kings 
x. 33,) or GALEED, (Gen. xxxi. 
47, 48,) so called because of the 
monument which was erected 
by Laban and Jacob to perpe- 
tuate the remembrance of their 
covenant, was a mountainous 
region, embracing Trachonitis, 
east of the Jordan. The term 
is used rather indefinitely by 
the sacred writers. The pos- 
sessions of the tribe of Gad are 
described as all the cities of 
Gilead, and half the land of 
the children of Amman. (Josn. 
xiii. 25.) And the half tribe 
of Manasseh are said to have 
received, as part of their inhe- 
ritance, all Bashan and half 
Gilead, (Josh. xiii. 30, 3; ;) and 
in Deut. iii. 12, 13. 16, half 
mount Gilead is said to have 
275 



GIL 

oeen given to Reuben and 
Gad. and the rest of Gilead to 
Maiiasseh ; while, in verse 15, 
we are told that Gilead was 
given to Machir. 

It would seem that the pos- 
sessions of Manasseh lay north 
of the Jabbok, and were di- 
vided between his two sons, 
Jair and Machir; the former 
taking the land of Argob, and 
the latter the land of Gilead, 
or the northern part of it ; and 
that the Reubenites and Gad- 
ites took the tract between 
the Jabbok and the Arnon, in- 
cluding the southern section 
of Gilead. 

The land of Gilead, (Deut. 
xxxiv. 1,) as used in this pas- 
sage, probably denotes the 
whole country east of the Jor- 
dan to Arabia, including the 
modern Belka. 

Mount Gilead, properly 
speaking, is the ridge or sum- 
mit which rises six miles south 
of the Jabbok, and extends 
five or six miles from east to 
west. It is now called Dje- 
laad. It was at this point that 
a part of Gideon's army desert- 
ed him. (Judg. vii. 3.) 

There was a tree in Gilead, 
the gum of which (hence called 
the balm of Gilead) possessed 
medicinal properties, (Jer.viii. 
22; xlvi. 11; li. 8,) and was 
an important article of com- 
merce. (Gen. xxxvii. 25.) 

Strabo, the prince of ancient 
geographers, speaks of a field 
near 'Jericho, in Palestine, 
which was full of these bal- 
sam trees. The sap is like 
viscid and tenacious milk, and 
coagulates rapidly. It was va- 
luable for inflammations ; and, 
in the time of Alexander, was 
estimated at twice its weight 
in silver. (See Balm.) 

2. A person. (Num. xxvi. 
29. 30, and Judg. xi. 1, 2;) in 
both which cases the name is 
probably derived from the fact 
that the individuals resided. 



GIT 

or had their inheritance, in 
Gilead. 

GILGAL (Josh. iv. 20.) The 
origin of this name is given us 
in Josh. v. 9 It was a village 
in the plains of Jericho, east 
of that city, and north-east of 
Jerusalem; it was from three 
to five miles west of the river 
Jordan, and was the first place 
of encampment of the army of 
the Israelites after passing that 
river. There the twelve slones 
were set up as a memorial of 
the miracle. It was the rest 
ing-place of the tabernacle 
until it was taken to Shiloh, 
whence it was again returned 
to Gilgal, (1 Sarn^x. 8 ; xv. 33,) 
and also the seat of govern- 
ment, or place of rendezvous, 
during Joshua's wars with the 
Canaanites. In Samuel's day, 
it was one of the places for 
holding a circuit court, (1 Sam. 
vii. 16,) but afterwards became 
devoted to idolatry. (Hos. xii. 
11. Amos iv. 4.) 

The word quarries, in Judg. 
iii. 19, is rendered graven 
images in the margin, and, 
if correctly rendered, shows 
the prevalence of idol worship 
there. Other interesting in- 
cidents connected with this 
place are recorded, ISam. xi. 
14, 15; xiii. xv. 

There was another Gilgal 
"beside the plains of Moren," 
not far from Shechem. (Deut. 
xi.30. Josh. xii. 23. See Omar, 
p. 137, and Selumiel, p. 157, 
both by Am. S. S. Union.) 

GIRD, GIRDLE. (See 

GIRGASITE, (Gen. x. 16,) or 
GIRGASHITES. (Gen.xv.21.) 
A tribe of the Canaanites, who 
are supposed to have inhabited 
a section of the country east 
of the sea of Galilee ; whence 
the name of the city of Ger» 
gesa. 

" GITTAH-HEPHER. (See 
Gath-hepher.) 

GITTITES. (SeeGATH.) 
276 



GLO 

GITTITH.Psalms viii.lxxxi. 
and lxxxi v. are inscribed to the 
chief musician upon Gittith. 
Ihe word may refer to a parti- 
cular instrument of music, or 
to a particular tune, or it may 
have relation to some circum- 
stance in the time or occasion 
of its composition, which the 
word Gittith denotes, but which 
has not been preserved. 

GLASS. (1 Cor.xiii.12.) The 
substance which we call glass 
was invented in the twelfth 
century ; but the ancients pro- 
bably used some semi-transpa- 
rent substance, through which 
a degree of light was admitted, 
and external objects very in- 
distinctly seen. Specimens 
of such substances are often 
found among Roman anti- 
quities. Looking glasses (Ex. 
xxxviii.8. Jobxxxvii. 18) were 
doubtless made of polished me- 
tal. One of the latter is sup- 
posed to be meant in James i. 
23, and one of the former in 

1 Cor. xiii. 12. 

GLEAN. (Ruthii.2.) In 
the joyful season of harvest, 
the Jewish farmer was not al- 
lowed to forget the poor and 
the stranger. A special com- 
mand was given (Lev. xix. 9, 
10) that he should leave some 
of the fruits for them to gather. 

GLEDE. (Deut. xiv. 13.) A 
rapacious bird of the hawk or 
vulture species. The original 
word is rendered vulture, in 
Lev. xi. 14. 

GLORY, GLORIFY. (Ps. 
xlix. 16. lea. xxiv. 15.) These 
terms are of frequent occur- 
rence throughout the Bible; 
and are so common that many 
fail to see how very significant 
they are. 

To glorify is to render glori- 
ous. (Dan. v. 23. Acts iii. 13. 

2 Pet. i. 17.) Hence the com- 
prehensive precept of the apos- 
tle, (i Cor. vi. 19, 20,) requiring 
the devotion of our whole pow- 
ers and faculties to this one 

24 



GOA 

great end, the glory of &od, 
(I Cor. x. 31,) or making God 
glorious. The glory of God ifl 
displayed to his creatures in 
the works of creation, provi- 
dence, and grace ; so that they 
are without excuse who see 
only the things that are made, 
and the evidence they furnish 
of his eternal power and God- 
head, and yet neglect or refuse 
to glorify him as God. (Rom, 
i. 20—32.) 

Under the Mosaic economy, 
the glory of God often appear 
ed in some visible emblem, but 
dwelt especially within the 
vail, between the cherubim* 
(1 Kings viii. 11. Ps. lxxx. I 
Zech. Ti. 5.) 

It is, however, in the plan of 
redemption that we have exhW 
bited to us at once a complete; 
consistent, and perfect display 
of the glory of the divine cha- 
racter, to which every other 
manifestation of it, whether in 
creation or providence, or in 
the former dispensations of his 
grace,were and are subservient. 
The wisdom, power, and good- 
ness of God, as well as his holi- 
ness, faithfulness, and justice, 
areheremagnified tothe highest 
degree ; so that the expressions 
of the apostle have great force, 

THE LIGHT OF THE KNOWLEDGE 
OF THE GLORY OF GOD, IN THE 

face of Jesus Christ. (John 
i.14. 2Cor.iv.6. Heb. i.3.) 

GNASH, GNASHING. (Ps. 
cxii. 10. Matt. viii. 12.) A 
striking or grinding of the 
teeth in the paroxysms of an- 
guish or despair. 

GNAT. (Matt.xxiii.24.) A 
very small but troublesome in- 
sect, common in hot countries. 
In the passage cited, the word3 
strain at should rather be 
strain out; the phrase will 
then better express the gross 
inconsistencies which our Sa- 
viour reproved. 

GOAD. (Judg. iii. 31.) This 
was a rod or pole, about eight 
feet long, armed at the largest 
277 



GOA 

end with a piece of iron, with 
which the ploughshare was 
freed from clods and earth, and 
at the smallest wnth a small 
spike, by which the oxen were 
urged on in their labour. 

A modern traveller in the 
east says: " The country people 
were now everywhere at work 
ploughing in the fields, in order 
to sow cotton. It was observa- 
ble, that in ploughing they 
used goads of an extraordinary 
size. Upon the measuring of 
several, I found them about 
eight feet long, and at the big- 
ger end six inches in circum- 
ference. They were armed at 
the lesser end with a sharp 
prickle for driving the oxen, 
and at the other end with a 
small spade or paddle of iron, 
strong and massy, for cleansing 
the plough from the clay that 
encumbers it in working. May 
we not from hence conjecture, 
that it was with such a goad as 
one of these, that Shamgar 
made that prodigious slaughter 
related of him? (Judg. lit. 31.) 
I am confident that whoever 
should see one of these instru- 
ments, would judge it to be a 
weapon not less fit, perhaps 
fitter, than a sword for such an 
execution. Goads of this sort 
I saw always used hereabouts, 
and also in Syria ; and the rea- 
son is, because the same single 
person both drives the oxen 
and also holds and manages 
the plough, which makes" it 
necessary to use such a goad 
as is above described, to avoid 
the encumbrance of two in- 
struments." 

GOAT. (Lev. iii. 12.) Goats 
were among the chief posses- 
sions of the wealthy in the 
early ages of the world. (Gen. 
xxvii.9. lSam.xxv.2. 2Chron. 
xvii.ll.) Resembling the sheep 
in its general structure and 
appearance, it is covered with 
hair instead of wool, and is 
much more active, bold, and 
wandering in its habits. It 



GOA 

feeds on bark and tendei 
twigs, and its feet are formed 
for leaping and climbing 
among rocks and mountains. 
Its milk is valuable for food, 
(Prov. xxvii. 27,) the hair for 
manufactures of various kinds, 
(Ex. xxv. 4. Num. xxxi. 20. 
Heb. xi. 37,) and the skin for 
vessels or bottles, (Josh, ix.4 
Ps. cxix. 83. Matt. ix. 17,) and 
in modern times for leather 
(inorocco.) 

It was a clean animal by thf 
Jewish law, (Deut. xiv. 4,) anj 
was much used in sacrifice* 
(Lev. iii. 12. Num. xv. 27. Ezp 
vi. 17.) 

The peculiar qualities of 
goats occasion frequent figu 
rative allusions to them. Hm 
boldness and strength of th< 
leaders of the flocks are al 
luded to, Prov. xxx. 31. Zech 
x. 3 ; and they are made to re 
present oppressors and wicker" 
men generally. (Ezek. xxxiv 
17; xxxix. 18. Matt. xxv. 33.). 

Wild Goats, (Deut. xiv. 5^ 
now called the ibex, or mown, 
tain goat, were of the same 
species; but being confined u 
the high and almost inacces- 
sible summits of mountains, 
were seldom taken, and were 
of little domestic use. 

The mountain goat is still 
found in many parts of Syria, 
and the flesh is nearly of the 
flavour of venison. The Be- 
douins make bags or bottles of 
their skins, and rings of theii 
horns. When they are found 
among the rocks, they usually 
elude the pursuit of the hun 
ter, sometimes leaping twen- 
ty feet,— but in the snlains they 
are often taken. Their habits 
are alluded to, 1 Sam. xxiv. 2, 
Job xxxix. 1. Ps. civ. 18. (See 
Youth's Friend, by Am. S. S. 
Union, vol. ii. No. 6 ; iii. No. 7 j 
and iv. No. 10.) 

Scape-goat. (Lev. xvi. 26.) 
In this chapter we have an in- 
teresting account of the man* 
ner in which goats were em» 
278 



GOD 

ployed under the Jewish law 
to prefigure the atoning sacri- 
fice of Christ. It was on the 
great day of atonement. Two 
goats were taken; one to be 
presented as a sin-offering, and 
the other to stand while the 
priest laid his hands upon its 
head, and confessed over it the 
sins of the people; after which 
it was led or sent away into 
the wilderness; thus repre- 
senting the taking or hearing 
away of guilt. (See the cere- 
mony and its meaning fully 
illustrated in Biblical Anti- 
quities, vol. ii. ch. vi. § 5, and 
Elisama, pp. 169—172, both by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

GOB. (2 Sam. xxi. 18, 19.) A 
place or plain where the Isra- 
elites fought two battles with 
the Philistines. It is supposed 
to be the same with Gezer. 
(1 Chron. xx. 4. See Gezer.) 
GOBLET. (See Cup.) 
GOD. (Gen. i. 1.) The name 
of the uncreated Creator of 
all things. He is revealed 
to us in an endless variety 
of ways in his works and pro- 
vidential government, (Rom. 
i. 20,) but more fully in the 
Holy Scriptures, as a Spirit 
infinitely wise, holy, just, 
and benevolent; and though 
he is truly and essentially one 
in his being, nature, and at- 
tributes, and the only proper 
object of religious worship, 
(Deut. vi. 4. Isa. xliv. 8 ; xlv. 5. 
6. 14. 18. 21, 22,) yet he is clear- 
ly revealed to us as the Father, 
the Son, and the Holy Spirit, 
(Isa. xlviii. 16, 17. Matt, xxviii. 
19,20. John 1.1—3; v. 23; x. 
30; xiv.23. Phil. ii. 6. 1 Tim. 
iii. 16,) to each of whom are as- 
cribed the essential attributes 
of the supreme God, while they 
are distinguished from each 
other in the sacred writings by 
all the acts and all the forms 
of speech by which men are 
accustomed to designate differ- 
ent persons. Among a multi- 
tude of passages, the following 



GOG 

may be cited: Gen. i. 26; iii. 
22; xi.6,7. Acts v. 3, 4. 2 Cor 
xiii. 14. Col. ii. 9. As every 
thing concerning the mode or 
manner of the divine existence 
must be necessarily and en- 
tirely a matter of divine reve- 
lation, it is to be received as 
such, with the most profound 
and humble reverence. The 
student of the Bible, howevei, 
and especially the teacher, 
would do well to settle in his 
mind distinctly and definitely 
what are the facts or trutt 
which the Bible makes knowa 
to us respecting this grea 
mystery of our holy religion; 
and so to arrange and classify 
them, that they shall exhibit 
at one view, to his mind, and to 
the minds of those he teaches, 
<exactly what is revealed, and 
no more : and in doing this, es- 
pecially when the matter is of 
.sucn great solemnity and im 
portance, it is safest to abide 
as closely as possible by the 
language of inspiration. 

The words God and Gods 
are frequently used to express 
the office, power, or excellence 
of some created being; as, an- 
gels, (Ps. xcvii. 7,) magistrates, 
(Ex. xxii. 23,) the devil. (2Cor. 
iv. 4. See Jehovah, Christ 
Jesus ^ 

GODHEAD. (Col. ii. 9.) The 
nature or essential being of 
God. (Actsxvii.29. Rom. i. 20.) 

GODLINESS. (2 Pet. iii. 11.) 
Piety, resulting from the know 
ledge and love of God, and 
leading to the cheerful and 
constant obedience of his com 
mands. In 1 Tim. iii. 16, it 
imports the substance of re- 
vealed religion. 

GOG AND MAGOG. (Ezek. 
xxxviii. 2.) Magog was the 
name of one of Japheth's sons. 
(Gen. x. 2.) It was also a ge- 
neral name of a country north 
of the Caucasus or moult Tau- 
rus, or for the people of that 
district. Gog was the king of 
the country. Probably they 
279 



GOL 

were remarkable for tlieir in- 
vasive and predatory habits ; 
and perhaps the phrase was 
descriptive of barbarians and 
spoilers generally. (Rev.xx.8.) 

GOLAN. (Deut. iv. 43.) A 
considerable city belonging to 
the half tribe of Manasseh, and 
situated in the north-western 
part of the old kingdom of Ba- 
shan ; whence the district, of 
which it was the capital, is 
called Gaulonitis. It was east 
of the sea of Tiberias, and still 
bears the name ofJolan. Golan 
was one of the cities of refuge. 
(Josh. xx. 8.) 

GOLD. (Gen. ii.ll.) The 
heaviest and most malleable 
of metals, is found at the pre- 
sent day chiefly in Africa and 
South America. Several places 
are mentioned by the sacred 
writers as abounding in gold ; 
such as Ophir, (Job xxviii. 16,) 
Parvaim, or Ceylon, as some 
suppose, (2Chron. iii. 6,) and 
Sheba and Raamah. (Ezek. 
xxvii. 22.) The use of gold was 
very common among the He- 
brews. Several parts of the 
temple, its furniture and uten- 
sils, were overlaid with this 
precious metal, (Ex. xxxvi. 34 
— 38. 1 Kings vii. 48—50;) and 
many of the vessels of the 
wealthy, as well as their per- 
sonal ornaments and insignia 
of office, were of gold. (Gen. 
xli.42. 1 Kings x. 17— 22. Esth. 
i. 6, 7. Dan. v. 29. Luke xv. 22. 
James ii.2.) 

GOLDEN CANDLESTICK. 
(See Candlestick.) 

GOLGOTHA. (See Cal- 
vary.) 

GOLIATH. (ISam. xvii.4.) 
A renowned champion of the 
Philistines. His native place 
was Gath. He was more than 
nine feet in height, and his 
armour corresponded with his 
stature and strength. The par- 
ticulars of his defeat in single 
combat with David are given, 
1 Sam. xvii. (See Life of Da- 
vid, ch. iii., by Am.S J§. Union.) 



GOP 

In 2 Sam. xxi. 16—22, is an 
account of several contests, in 
one of which Eihanan, a Beth- 
lehemite,is spoken of as having 
slain Goliath the Gittite. In 
another, which occurred in 
Gath, a man of stature, with 
twelve finders and twelve toes, 
is represented as having been 
slain by Jonathan, David's ne- 
phew. In a third a giant named 
Saph was slain by Sibbechal, 
the Hushathite; and a fouith 
w r as between Ishbi-benob and 
Abishai, in which the former 
was slain. These four, it is 
said, were born to the giant in 
Gath. 

The probability is, that soms 
other giant than Goliath is in- 
tended in this verse, as one of 
the four persons named was his 
brother, and not his son, and 
that the true reading of 2 Sam 
xxi. 19 is given in 1 Chron. xx.5 

GOMER. (Ezek. xxxviii. 6.) 
The eldest son of Japheth, 
whoseposterity peopled a large 
district of Asia Minor, embrac 
ingPhrygia. From them came 
the natives of northernEurope. 
Hence, too the Gauls and Celts, 
and the bands ofGomer, and in 
later times, the people of Ger- 
many, France, and Britain. 

GOMORRAH. (See Sodom.) 

GOPHER WOOD. (Gen.vi. 
14.) The ark was constructed 
of gopher wood._ It has been 
supposed that this may mean, 
(1.) The wood of those trees 
which shoot out horizontal 
branches, such as the fir, ce- 
dar, &c. ; (2.) Squared timber; 
(3.) Smooth or planed timber; 
(4.) Any light, floating wood ; 
(5.) Any wood that does not 
readily corrupt; (6.) Pitched 
wood; (7.) Wicker or basket 
work, made of osier or other 
pliable material of the same 
species; (8.) Or any of the 
kinds of wood that abound 
with resinous, inflammable 
juices. The weight of author* 
ity, or rather conjecture, is 
180 



GOS 

between the cypress and ce- 
dar. The Greek name of cy- 
press bears a resemblance to 
the Hebrew of gopher. It was 
considered by the ancients as 
the most durable wood, least 
exposed to worms and natural 
decay; it abounded in Assyria, 
was used very commonly for 
ship-building, and was almost 
the only wood which could 
furnish suitable timber for so 
large a vessel. The cedar is 
light, incorruptible, and resin- 
ous. It was used by the Egyp- 
tians and Assyrians in the 
construction of ships ; and 
some of the oldest rabbins 
suppose it was used for the 
ark. 

GOSHEN. 1. (Gen.xlv.10.) 
A fertile section of pasture 
land in the north-eastern divi- 
sion of Egypt, between the Red 
Sea and~the river Nile, upon 
the southern border of Canaan, 
allotted by Joseph to his father 
and his brethren ; where they 
dwelt for upwards of two hun- 
dred years. It was, for grazing 
purposes, the best of the land. 
(Gen. xlvii. 6.11.) 

Mr. Smith, an American 
missionary, passed, with a ca- 
ravan, through the northern 
district of ancient Goshen in 
1827; and he describes it as 
an immense sandy desert, 
drifted with sand-banks ; and 
presenting here and there, in 
small patches, a few shrubs 
of evergreen, like our whortle- 
berry bushes, on which the 
Bedouins pasture their flocks. 
Rameses and Pithon are men- 
tioned as cities of Goshen, and 
tke supposed ruins of them 
are described by modern tra- 
vellers. The pacha of Egypt 
has lately established a colony 
of five hundred Syrians in the 
ancient land of Goshen, for the 
purpose of cultivating the mul- 
berry and rearing silkworms. 

2. (Josh. xv. 51.) A city in 
tfie territory of Judah, which 
gave the name <tf the land of 
24* 



GOS 

Goshen to the country around 
it. 

GOSPEL. (Mark i. 1.) The 
word which is rendered gospel 
in this passage is elsewhere 
rendered good or glad tidings^ 
(Luke ii. 10. Acts xiii. 32 ;) and 
in both cases it describes the 
books written by the four evan- 
gelists. Hence, when we say 
the gospel according to Mat- 
thew, we mean, the history of 
Jesus Christ the Son of God, 
and an account of the salvation 
offered by and through him, as 
the same was prepared under 
the guidance of the Holy Ghost 
by Matthew, one of our Sa- 
viour's disciples. A harmony 
of the gospels i3 an arrange- 
ment of these four histories in 
such a manner as to show their 
harmony with each other, and 
to present them in connected 
chronological order. One of 
these harmonies may be found 
in The Help' to the Gos- 
pels, published by the Am. S. 
S. Union. 

The gospel of Mattheio was 
undoubtedly written first, and, 
as it is generally supposed, 
about the year 65. It is not 
certain whether it was origi- 
nally written in Greek or 
Hebrew. 

The gospel by Mark was 
probably written under the 
influence and direction of the 
apostle Peter ; and tradition 
says it was written at Rome, 
and published after the death 
of Peter and Paul. 

The gospel of Luke is su^v 
posed to have been written by 
the beloved physician,the com- 
panion of Paul in his travels, 
and under the direction or 
oversight of the apostle, and 
after the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem. 

The gospel of John is to be 
regarded as supplementary 
and it was written last of all 
Some have fixed the period at 
the year 96, when John was 
eighty years old,and after Mat 
281 



GOU 

thew's gospel had been publish- 
ed thirty years. 

It is termed the gospel of 
peace, (Rom. x. 15,) and the 
word of reconciliation, (2 Cor. 
v. 19,) because it shows the 
only way in which man can 
be at peace with God through 
Jesus Christ; and hence it is 
also called the gospel of the 
grace of God, (Acts xx. 24,) as 
it is a declaration of God's free 
favour and good will towards 
those who are utterly worthless 
and undeserving. 

The four gospels were writ- 
ten by different men, each of 
whom was under the immedi- 
ate inspiration of God, and 
was led lo adopt a style and 
arrangement suited u» the pur- 
pose he had in view. When it 
is considered what an endless 
variety of places, persons, and 
incidents are introduced into 
the sacred narratives, and what 
a variety of expressions are 
reported, on the accuracy of 
which, and the circumstances 
under which they were spoken, 
so much of their force depends ; 
when we consider, moreover, 
the character and education of 
the writers, and the peculiar 
disadvantages of their situa- 
tion ; we shall be ready to ad- 
mit the extraordinary claims 
of these books, and to allow 
that the immaterial discrepan- 
cies which they present con- 
firm rather than invalidate 
those claims. 

GOURD. (Jonah iv. 6.) A 
climbing vine of quick growth, 
allied to the family of the cu- 
cumber, melon, squash, &c. 
its fruit is found in a hard 
ligneous shell, of which drink- 
ing cups and other household 
utensils are formed. It was cul- 
tivated from the earliest times 
in Asia and Africa. The pulp is 
eatable ; and the lower classes 
in Egypt and Arabia boil it in 
vinegar, or make it into a sort 
of pudding by filling the shell 
with rice and meat. In a wild 



GRA 

state, they were probably poi- 
sonous, as the wild parsnip is 



pro- 
vince of the Roman empire, 
governors or procurators w r ere 
appointed and sent thither 
from Rome. This was the 
office held by Pontius Pilate 
at the time of our Saviour's 
crucifixion. Sometimes the 
word governor is used as a 
general title for ruler. (Gen. 
xlii. 6. See Feast.) 

GOZAN. (1 Chron. v. 26.) A 
river, which probably rises in 
Media, to the vicinity of which 
the captive Israelites were 
transported. (2 Kings xvii. 6.) 
This river is now known as 
the Kizzil Ozan, and empties 
into the Caspian Sea. Thece 
was also a province, and per- 
haps a city, of the same name, 
(Isa. xxxvii. 12,) now called 
Gausania, lying between the 
Caspian Sea and the moun- 
tains which separate Media 
from Assyria. Through this 
province the river Gozan or 
Kizzil Ozan runs. 

GKACi^. (lTim.i.2.) The 
theological use of this word 
denotes, the free favour of God, 
bestowed upon men without 
any merit or claim on their 
part. Hence the New Testa 
ment, which reveals the plan 
by which this grace is bestow 
i ed consistently with the divine 
! attributes, (viz. the atonement, 
mediation, and intercession of 
the Lord Jesus Christ, in and 
through whom alone the free* 
rich, and eternal fulness of 
God's favour is dispensed,) is 
called the gospel of the grace 
of God. (Acts xx. 24.) 

GRAFF. (Rom. xi. 17.) To 
graff or graft is to insert a shoo! 
or bud of one tree into the 
branch of another; the stock 
of the latter is usually infe- 
rior, the graft valuable. The 
sap of the natural tree being 
conveyed into the graft i* b> 



GRA 

a peculiar process, changed 
into the natural sap of the 
graft; and hence the fruit of 
the graft will be of its own 
kind, and the fruit of the natu- 
ral tree of another kind . The 
force and beauty of the apos- 
tle's figure in the passage above 
cited are sufficiently obvious. 

GRAIN. (See Corn.) 

GRAPES. (Gen. xlix. 11.) 
The fruit of the vine. When 
fully ripe and dried, they are 
called raisins. (1 Sam. xxv. 
18; xxx. 12. 2 Sam. xvi. 1. 
1 Chron. xii. 40.) 

The soil and climate of Judea 
were well suited to the growth 
of the vine; and it was among 
the principal productions of 
the country. 

Particular districts of Judea 
were famed for the excellency 
of their grapes; as Engedi, 
and the vales of Eshcol and 
Sorek. The word Sorek is not 
only the name of a region in 
the tribe of Judah, but also 
signifies the noblest variety of 
ttie vine and its clustere, which 
there abounded. This- grape 
was white, with del icious juice, 
and with seeds so small and soft 
as to be almost imperceptible. 
In Persia, the best raisins are 
made of this grape. It is of 
this that the celebrated Kish- 
mish wine of Shiraz is made. 
Very fine grapes were in old 
times, as at present, produced 
on mount Lebanon, and Hel- 
bon, or Aleppo. Travellers 
agree in relating that Pales- 
tine, even in its present state 
of subjugation to the Mussul- 
mans, who are forbidden to 
use wine, produces clusters of 
twelve pounds weight each, 
the single grapes of which are 
as large as plums. They tell 
us that the clusters of Judea, a 
few miles westward from Jeru- 
salem, are larger than any in 
Europe; and that they have 
often seen them of such size 
that it was impossible for a 
single man to carry one of 



GRA 
them uninjured for any dis- 
tance It is pleasing to find 
this corroboration of the scrip- 
tural account. (Num. xiii. 23. 
See Eshcol.) Brocard informs 
us in his travels, that the best 
vines grow in the environs ot 
Bethlehem, in the vale of Re« 
phaim, (between Bethlehem 
and Jerusalem,) and in the 
vale of Eshcol. 

The grapes of the Holy Land, 
with the exception of the So- 
rek, above mentioned, are 
mostly red or black. Hence the 
juice is called the blood of the 
grape; translated, in ourver- 
sion, red wine. (Isa. xxvii. 2.) 

The vines of the east attain 
a very great size, reaching the 
tops of the highest trees, and 
are sometimes much thicker 
in the trunk than a man's 
body. (SeeWiNE,WiNE-PRESs, 
Vines, Vineyards.) 

The Jews were expressly re 
quired by their law not to 
gather the grapes until the 
vine was three years old, (Lev 
xix. 23,) and to leave some on 
the vines and on the ground, 
(Lev. xix. 10 ;) and it was the 
privilege of the poor and de- 
pendent to gather these for 
their own use, provided they 
were eaten on the ground. 
They were not allowed to take 
any away. (Deut. xxiii. 24; 
xxiv..21.) The grapes thus left 
were called the gleanings, 
and, as they hung, here and 
there one, on the vines, or 
scattered on the ground, they 
were strikingly emblematical 
of the depopulation of a city or 
country. (Isa. xvii. 6; xxiv. 13. 
Jer. vi.9; xlix. 9. Obad.5.) 

The proverb to which refer- 
ence is made in Jer. xxxi. 29, 
is explained in the whole of 
Ezek. xviii. The Jews com- 
plained that they suffered be- 
cause of the iniquity of their 
fathers. The prophet shows 
them their error and delusion, 
and triumphantly vindicates 
the divine proceedings. 
283 



GRA 

So in Isa. v. 2, before cited, 
the Jewish nation is repre- 
sented to us under the figure 
of a vineyard favourably plant- 
ed, and cultivated with the 
Utmost skill and labour, and 
every preparation made for 
the vintage, and yet the hus- 
bandman's hopes are all blast- 
ed ; for instead of a full crop 
of genuine fruit, he finds upon 
the vines a bitter, poisonous, 
wild fruit, entirely unfit for 
use. A more striking illustra- 
tion of the perverseness and 
ingratitude of the Israelites, 
cannot be conceived. 

GRASS. (Isa. li. 12.) This 
word is frequently applied in 
the Scriptures to herbage gene- 
rally, (Isa. xv. 6,) though some- 
times a distinction is made 
between such herbs as are used 
Dy man, as grain and vegeta- 
oles, and such as are used 
chiefly by cattle. (Ps. civ. 14.) 

The quick growth and ten- 
derness of this species of vege- 
tation furnish several of the 
most striking illustrations of 
the Scriptures. (Ps. xc. 5, 6; 
xcii. 7; ciii. 15, 16. Isa. xl. 6 
— 8 ; li. 12. James i. 10. IPet. 
i. 24.) 

The passage in Prov. xxvii. 
25, would be more accurately 
rendered thus: "Thegra.89(hay) 
appeareth, and the green herb 
{tender grass) showeth itself, 
and the plants (herbs) of the 
mountains are gathered." So 
in Isa. xv. 6: " The grass (hay) 
withereth, the green herb 
(grass) faileth, there is no 
green thing." 

Nothing can exceed in beau- 
ty and appropriateness the 
gradation of images employed 
by the prophet, 2 Kings xix. 26; 
the weakness and tenderness 
of the first shoots of any green 
herb ; the frailty of the few 
spires of grass that sometimes 
spring up in the vegetable 
mould or shallow earth upon 
the housetop, or the withered 



GRE 

and wilted blade of corn, blast* 
ed before it rises into a stalk. 

The dry stalks of herbs were 
often used, as faggots are now 
for the purpose of heating 
ovens. (Matt. vi. 30 ; xiii. 30. 
Luke xii. 28.) 

GRASSHOPPER. (Eccl.xii. 
5.) An insect of the locust spe- 
cies, often mentioned in tht 
sacred writings. The word ren 
tiered grasshopper in the abovi 
cited passage is rendered locus 
in 2 Chron. vii. 13. 

The grasshopper was al 
lowable food under the Jewisl 
law. (Lev.xi.22.) Their timi- 
dity is proverbial. (Job xxxix. 
20.) They are often found in 
great multitudes, (hence th« 
figurative language, Judg.vi. 5, 
and vii. 12. Jer. xlvi. 23,) and 
prove destructive to vegetation, 
especially in its early stages. 
(Amos vii. 1.) 

The allusion in Nah. iii. 15 
—17, is to a common habit of 
this insect. When benumbed 
with the cold, they assemble 
in vast numbers upon the 
hedges \>r other shrubbery; 
and such is their multitude, 
that the places they occupy 
are darkened, and resemble 
the encamping ground of a 
great army. As soon, how- 
ever, as they are revived by the 
warmth of the sun, they fly 
away no one knows whither. 

The grasshopper is used to 
illustrate comparative insigni- 
ficance, (Num. xiii. 33. Isa. 
xl. 22;) and in the passage 
from Ecclesiastes, first cited, 
reference is probably made to 
that degree of weakness and 
infirmity in old age which 
makes the weight, or even the 
chirping, of a grasshopper bur- 
densome. 

GRATE, brazen. (See Al- 
tar.) 

GRAVE. (SeeBuRiAL,EN 
grave, Hell.) 

GREAT SEA (Num. xxxiv. 
6) is the same with the Medi- 
284 



GRE 

terranean, and constitutes that 
large mass of waters between 
Europe, Asia, and Africa,which 
receives its name {midland) 
from its position, and has its 
only communication with the 
ocean by the straits of Gibral- 
tar. It is also called the utmost 
sea, (Joel ii. 20,) the hinder sea, 
(Zech. xiv. 8,') and was the 
western boundary of the pro- 
mised land. 
GREAVES. (See Armour.) 
GREECE, (3e§h. ix. 13,) or 
GRECIA, (Dan.viii. 21,) was 
known to the Hebrews by the 
name ofJavan. (lsa. lxvi. 19. 
Ezek. xxvii. 13. 19.) As used in 
the New Testament, it more 
generally comprehends Greece 
proper, Ionia, and Asia Minor. 
In the time of Alexander, the 
Greeks were masters of Egypt, 
Syria, and the countries and 
provinces beyond the. Eu- 
phrates, and hence the name 
Greek became somewhat in- 
definite, and was applied by 
the Jews to all Gentiles who 
were subject to Grecian power. 
Indeed, as some hold, the word 
Greek was to the Jews syno- 
nymous with Gentile, (Mark 
vii. 26;) that the world was di- 
vided by them between Jews 
and Greeks. All that were not 
Jews were Greeks. (Acts xx. 
21. Rom. i. 16. 1 Cor. i. 22. 24.) 
The New Testament was writ- 
ten originally (with the excep- 
tion, perhaps, of Matthew) in 
Greek. The invasion and con- 
Quest of the eastern nations by 
Alexander the Great, which 
took place about three centu- 
ries before the Christian era, 
led to a general use of the 
Greek language. And it is pro- 
bable that a book designed for 
the world, as it then was, and 
was likely to be, would find 
more readers in that language 
than in any other. The pre- 
vailing language of our Saviour 
and his apostles, and probably 
of the people of Judea, was 
Syriac, though the commercial 



GRO 

intercourse of the Jews made 
them familiar with the Greek ; 
and a version of the New Tes- 
tament in the Syriac language 
was extant, as is generally be- 
lieved, during the apostolic 
age, which all admit to have- 
been made as early as the se- 
cond century. When Greeks 
are opposed to barbarians, as 
in Rom. i. 14, the former term 
implies the learned, and the 
latter the illiterate class, or 
such as do not speak the lan- 
guage of the country where 
they reside. (See Barbarian.) 

GREYHOUND. (Prov.xxx 
31.) The motion of the animal 
known in modern times by 
this name, is both graceful and 
fleet. It is by many supposed 
that the original word refers to 
some entirely different animal; 
but there appears to be no satis- 
factory reason for the opinion. 

GRIND. (Job xxxi. 10.) This 
expression here denotes not 
only the lowest menial service, 
but also that the person of the 
patriarch's wife may be at the 
disposal of another, as female 
slaves in the east are at the 
present day. (See Mills.) 

GRINDERS. (Eccl. xii. 3.) 
The grinders ceasing because 
they are few, in Solomon's 
allegorical exhibition of the 
decline of life, is supposed to 
represent the loss of the teeth, 
or their failure to perform their 
office in masticating or grind, 
ing one's food. 

GRIZZLED. (Gen. xxxi. ia 
Zech.vi.3.6.) Black and white 
intermingled in small spots. 

GROVE. (Judg. iii.7.) The 
idolatrous heathen worshipped 
their gods on the tops of hills 
and mountains, and in groves 
of trees. (Deut. xii. 2, 3. Hos. 
iv. 13.) The use of groves as 
places for religious worship 
seems to have been very early, 
(Gen. xxi. 33 and the selec- 
tion of such i ia.ces originated 
probably eitfc «f in. a desire to 
make thesei'-nou more agree 
285 ° 



GRO 

able to the worshippers, or 
more inviting to the gods ; or 
oecause the gloom of the forest 
is calculated to excite awe; 
or because the concealment of 
these odious rites and impuri- 
ties was more effectual ; or pro- 
bably because it was supposed 
that the spirits of the departed 
eften hovered over the place 
where their bodies are buried ; 
and, as it was very common to 
bury under trees, (Gen. xxxv. 8. 
1 Sam. xxxi. 13,) the erection 
of altars or places of devotion 
to their spirits, or to other spi- 



GUE 

rits, good or evil, in or neai 
such trees, was very natural. 
Hence it became common to 
plant groves (Deut. xvi. 21) 
with a view to idolatrous 
worship; and as these were 
constantly furnished with the 
images of the gods, the terms 
grove and idol, became con- 
vertible. (2 Kings xxiii. 6.) 

GUARD CHAMBER.(1 Kings 
xiv. 28.) The apartment occu- 
pied by the king's guard. 
GUEST. (See Feast.) 
GUEST-OHAMBER. (See 
Chamber.) 



HAB 

HABAKKUK. One of the 
twelve minor prophets, of 
whose birth we know neither 
the time nor place. He lived 
in the reign of Jehoiakim, and 
was of course contemporary 
with Jeremiah ; and it is gene- 
rally supposed he remained in 
'udea, and died there. 

Profhecy of, is the thirty- 
fifth in the order of the books 
of the Old Testament. It was 
uttered about six hundred years 
before Christ, and relates chief- 
ly to the invasion of Judea by 
the Chaldeans, the overthrow 
of the Babylonish empire, and 
the final deliverance of God's 
faithful people. Some passages 
cf this prophecy are not sur- 
passed m sublimity and sim- 
plicity of style, nor in the 
strength and fervour of piety 
which they express. 

The dedication with which 
the prophecy closes has refer- 
ence probably to the ode or 
prayer which constitutes the 
third chapter. The word ne- 
ginoth (stringed instruments) 
signifies an instrument which 
was played by friction or pul- 
sation, (as violins, harps, &c.,) 
in contradistinction from wind 
instruments; and the compo- 
sition was directed, as several 
of the psalms are, (Ps. iv. vi. 



HAD 

liv. lxi. lxvii. lxxvi. title,) to 
the leader of some particular 
department of the temple 
music. 

HABERGEON. (See Ar- 
mour.) 

HABOR. (2 Kings xvii. 6.) 
A city or country of Media, on 
the river Gozan, and one of the 
places to which Tiglath-Pile- 
ser first transported a part, and 
Salmanezer, afterwards, the 
whole of the ten tribes of Israel. 
Habor, or Chabor, is thought 
by some to be the mountain- 
ous region called Chaboras 
by Ptolemy. But others, with 
greater precision, fix upon the 
modern town of Abhar, near 
the river Kizzil Ozan, or Go- 
zan, as the more probable site 
of ancient Habor. 

HACHILAH,hill 0F.(lSam. 
xxiii. 19.) A stronghold at the 
southern extremity of the wil- 
derness of Judea, where David 
concealed himself from his 
persecutors. 

HADAD. (1 Kings xi. 14.) A 
descendant of the royal family 
of Edom. When David con- 
quered that country, (2 Sam. 
viii. 14,) and cut off its male 
population, certain of the 
king's household escaped the 
general massacre, and fled, 
taking with them Hadad, then 
286 



HAD 

& little child. After a time, 
they went into Egypt, and 
youns* Hadad was presented to 
the king, and probably his roy- 
al descent was made known. 
The king received him with 
great favour, and in process of 
time he married the queen's 
sister, and the families were 
afterwards on terms of the 
closest intimacy. After David's 
death, Hadad requested Pha- 
raoh to let him return to Edom. 
And this he probably did, as 
we find him mentioned as 
Hadad the Edomite, and the 
adversary of Solomon, 1 Kinss 
xi. 14—22. 

HADADEZER, (2Sam.viii. 
3,) or HADAREZER. (2 Sam. 
x. 16. 1 Chron. xviii. 3.) A Sy- 
rian king, with whom David 
had several contests. In one 
of them he took twenty 
thousand footmen and seven 
hundred horsemen of Hada- 
dezer's army prisoners, be- 
sides chariots of war. On 
another occasion, when Hada- 
dezer had formed an alliance 
with a neighbouring province, 
David again defeated him, and 
took twenty-two thousand of 
his army prisoners. Among 
the spoils were gold shields, 
and a great quantity of brass 
or copper. 

Some years afterwards, Ha- 
dadezer and three other Syrian 
princes formed an alliance to 
assist the Ammonites against 
David; but the whole Syrian 
army was defeated on the east 
ank of the Jordan, by the 
sraelites, under the command 
of Joab. Between forty and 
fifty thousand of the enemy 
were killed, including their 
principal general; and they 
thenceforth became tributary 
to David. (1 Chron. xix.) 

HADAD-RIMMON. (Zech. 
xii. 11.) From comparing this 
passage with 2 Chron. xxxv. 
22—25, we infer that Hadad- 
rimmon wis a city or village 
in the valley of Megiddo; and 



HAG 

that such was the lamentation 
of the people for Josiah, thai 
the expression used by the 
prophet had become proverbi- 
al, to denote general conster- 
nation and mourning. 
HADASSAH. (See Es- 

THER ^ 

HADRACH, land of. (Zech, 
ix. 1.) A district in the vicinity 
of Damascus. 

HAGAR. (Gen.xvi. 1.) An 
Egyptian woman who lived in 
the family of Abraham as a 
servant or bond-woman. Sarah 
being childless, she proposed 
to Abraham that he should re- 
ceive Hagar as his wife : and 
when Hagar found herself 
about to receive the blessing 
which was denied to her mis- 
tress, she was very much 
elated, and treated Sarah dis» 
dainfully. Provoked by this 
conduct in her handmaid, 
Sarah used her with great 
severity ; so that she was com, 

§elled to flee from the house, 
he made her way towards 
Egypt, her native country, as 
far as the wilderness of Shur, 
and while resting herself near 
a fountain by the wayside, she 
was informed by an angel that 
the child which she was to 
have should be a son, and his 
name should be Ishmael ; that 
he should be a wild man, tha* 
he should be hostile to every 
body and every body hostile to 
him, and yet that he should 
dwell in the presence of his 
brethren, and that his posterity 
should be innumerable. The 
angel at the same time direct- 
ed her to return home, and 
submit herself to her mistress. 
This extraordinary interview 
happened at a watering place 
south of Judea; which was 
hence called Beer-lahai-roi, 
(meaning the well of him that 
liveth and seeth me.) 

When Ishmael was four 
years old, God re-assured Abra- 
ham that the divine blessing 
should rest on the lad, and 
287 



HAG 

that he should be the founder 
of a great nation. 

In process of time Isaac was 
born, Ishmael being then four- 
teen years of age. At the age 
of two or three years, the child 
was weaned, and Abraham ce- 
lebrated the event by a great 
feast, (which is still the custom 
in Persia when a male child is 
weaned,) and on that occasion 
Sarah saw Ishmael mocking 
or making sport of her child, 
and perhaps ill treating him. 
She immediately requested 
Abraham to banish Ishmael 
and his mother from their 
home. Abraham, who seems 
to have been a stranger to the 
proud and revengeful feelings 
»f his wife, was grieved at her 
request ; but, being divinely 
admonished to comply, he rose 
up early in the morning, and, 
supplying Hagar with bread 
and a bottle of water, sent her 
and her child away. She found 
her way to the wilderness of 
Beersheba; but her supply of 
water was exhausted, and she 
saw nothing before her and 
her orphan boy but famine and 
death. The lad, fatigued and 
hungry, lay down under a 
shrub, and his mother with- 
drew from him a little way,and 
lifted up her voice and wept. 
The cries of the lad also, in 
this hour of his suffering and 
distress, came up before God. 
A fountain of water was dis- 
closed to Hagar, at which she 
supplied her wants and those 
of her son, and there also re- 
ceived from God a promise that 
lie would make of Ishmael a 
great nation. 

^'The lad grew up in the wil- 
derness, became an archer, 
ftnd married an Egyptian wo- 
man. (See Abraham, Ish- 
mael.) 

HAGARENES. (Ps. Ixxxiii. 
6.) or HAGARITES, (I Chron. 
v. 10. 20,) are the descendants 
of Hagar, and are of course the 
game with the Ishmaelites or 



HAI 

Arabians. They are sometimes 
joined with the Moabites, as 
in the first passage above cited 

HAGGAI. Haggai was a He- 
brew prophet, and supposed to 
have been born during the 
captivity, and to have returned 
with Zerubbabel. (Hag. ii. 2.) 

Prophecy op, is the thirty- 
seventh in the order of the 
books of the Old Testament. 
It was uttered five hundred 
and twenty years before Christ, 
and of course after the return 
of the Jews to their own land. 
It is principally composed of 
keen reproof, and of affecting 
exhortations respecting the 
building of the second temple, 
which they had abandoned for 
fourteen or fifteen years, be- 
cause of the opposition and 
intrigue of their enemies ; and 
it also contains predictions of 
Christ and the universal esta- 
blishment of his kingdom. 

It is supposed that the glory 
of the temple, which is pre- 
dicted with great clearness, 
(Hag. ii. 7—9,) was to be occa- 
sioned by the coming of Christ; 
and, though Herod made im- 
portant alterations in it, still 
the temple of Zerubbabel was 
always regarded as the second 
temple, and Christ, the desire 
of all nations, did appear and 
teach in it. It is known, more- 
over, that the Jews expected 
the true Messiah would ap- 
pear in this temple, even until 
it was destroyed by Vespasian; 
and, to make their rejection 
of Jesus Chri3t consistent, they 
forced themselves to believe 
that a third temple is to be 
erected, of which their expect- 
ed deliverer is to be the dory. 

HAIL. 1. (Luke i. 280 This 
word was used by way of salu- 
tation, and imported a wish 
for the health and universal 
prosperity of the individual 
addressed. 

2. (Rev. viii. 7.) A storm 
of hailstones was one of the 
plagues of Egypt, and is de* 
288 



RAI 

scribed, Ex. ix. 23—32. Ps. 
lxxviii. 47 ; cv. 32, 33. It was 
employed for the destruction 
of Joshua's enemies. (Josh. x. 
11.) Hence it is figuratively 
used to represent terrible judg- 
ments. (Isa. xxviii. 2. Rev. 
xvi. 2i.) 

HAIR. (Num. vi. 5.) The 
Hebrews were accustomed to 
cut the hair very much as we 
do, except that they used a 
razor or knife, and not scissors, 
(Isa. vii. 20. Ezek. v. 1 ;) and 
excepting also in the case of a 
vow or religious obligation to 
let it grow, as in the case of 
the Nazarites. (Judg. xiii. 5. 
See Nazarites.) The" precept 
(Ezek. xliv. 20) requires an 
avoidance of extremes ; so that 
the Israelites should neither 
resemble the priests of the hea- 
then gods, who shaved their 
hair close, nor yet the Naza- 
rites, who did not cut the hair 
at all. It was prohibited (Lev. 
xix. 27) to round the corners 
of the head; that is, as it is 
generally understood, to shave 
MT the hair about the temples. 
The hair (especially black or 
dark hair) was doubtless con- 



HAI 

sidered an ornament, and it 
was anointed with aromatic 
oil, particularly on festivals 
and other joyous occasions, 
(Ps. xxiii. 5; xcii. 10. Eccl. ix. 
8,) and perhaps daily, (Ruth 
iii. 3 ;) and decorated withjew- - 
els and precious stones. (ITim. 
ii.9. 1 Pet. iii. 3.) Some eastern 
travellers of modern days tell 
us, that for men to wear long 
hair is regarded as effeminate,! 
and even infamous. (1 Cor. xi. 
14. See Baldness.) f 

The hair is spoken of by the I 
apostle as a natural veil or co* i 
vering to women, which it is a 
shame to put off. (1 Cor. xi. 1 
15.) It was plaited or braided, 
as is the custom at this day 
among the Asiatic women. In 
India the hair is never cut off 
by the women, except as a 
sign of widowhood. 

The practice of shaving the 
head,in token of great affliction 
"and humiliation for sin, was 
common among the Hebrews 
even as early as Job's day. 
(Job i. 20.) So that the exhor- 
tation to cut off the hair is 
equivalent to an exhortation 
to begin a course of deep 





HAM 

mourning and sorrow. (Jer. 
vii. 29.) 

Two of the eastern modes 
©f dressing the hair appear in 
the foregoing cuts; the one 
being plaited, and the other 
hanging loosely upon the neck. 

A change in the colour of the 
hair was one of the earliest in- 
dications of the leprosy ; and 
hence the removal of the hair, 
as the seat of disease, was par- 
ticularly enjoined. (Lev. xiii. 
4.10.31,32; xiv. 8, 9.) 

HALAH. (2 Kings xvii. 6; 
xviii. 11.) A province of As- 
syria, supposed by some to be 
the same with Calab, (Gen. x. 
12,) and with Hoi wan or Choi- 
wan of the modern Arabs. 

HAM. (Gen. ix. 22.) The 
youngest son of Noah. He had 
four sons, one of whom was the 
ancestor of the Canaanites. 
The empires of Assyria and 
Egypt were founded by the 
descendants of Ham. and the 
republics of Tyre, Zidon, and 
Carthage were for ages the 
monuments of their commer- 
cial enterprise and prosperity. 
(See Canaan.) Africa in gen- 
eral, and Egypt in particular, 
are called the land of Ham. 
(Ps. lxxviii.51 ; cv. 23 ; cvi. 22.) 
A place east of the Jordan, 
called Ham, is mentioned, 
(Gen. xiv. 5,) which may be 
the same with Hamath ; and 
the descendants of Ham are 
mentioned as having once oc- 
cupied the southern border of 
the province of Canaan, as- 
signed to the tribe of Simeon. 
(1 Chron. iv. 40.) 

HAMAN. (Esth. iii. 1.) A 
wicked and ambitious courtier, 
who became prime minister of 
Ahasuerus, a Persian monarch. 
Because Mordecai, a Jew, in 
an humble station at court, re- 
fused to pay him the homage 
which his pride and vain-glory 
craved, Haman resolved on his 
destruction; and to accomplish 
it, was willing to sacrifice the 
whole body of Jews who were 



HAM 

then scattered throughout the 
Persian dominions. He suc- 
ceeded, by falsehood and in- 
trigue, in obtaining a decree 
for this cruel purpose ; ^ut the 
queen, through the influence 
of Mordecai, was prompted to 
interpose for their deliverance, 
which she accomplished ; and 
Haman ended his career on 
the very gibbet which he had 
caused to be prepared for the 
execution of Mordecai. (See 
Hammedatha. For an inte- 
resting history of Hainan's life 
and character, with illustra- 
tive engravings, reflections, 
&c, see Hadassah, by the 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

HAMATH, (Num. xiii. 21,) 
(called Hamath the Great, 
Amos vi. 2,) was a province of 
Syria, having a capital city of 
the same name on the Orontes. 
It was originally the residence 
of Canaanites, (Gen. x. 18,) 
and is frequently mentioned 
as the extreme limit of the 
Holy Land towards the north. 
(Num. xxxiv. 8. Judg. iii. 3.) 
Toi was its king in the days of 
David, (2 Sam. viii. 9,) but in 
Hezekiah's reign (b.c 753) it 
fell into the hands of th3 Assy- 
rians. (2 Kings xvii. 24; xviiL 
34. Isa. x. 9.) It was called 
Eplphania for some time, but 
has long since. resumed, and 
now retains, its ancient name. 
It was the residence of the ce- 
lebrated Abulfeda, an Arabian 
prince and geographer. It is 
built on both sides of the river. 
and contains a population of 
about 30,000. The principal 
trade of Hamath is with the 
Arabs, who buy here their tent 
furniture and clothes. The 
government of Hamath com- 
prises about one hundred and 
twenty inhabited villages, and 
seventy or eighty which have 
been abandoned. The western 
part of its territory is the gra- 
nary of northern Syria ; though 
the harvest never yields more 
than ten for one, chiefly in 
290 



HAN 

consequence of the immense 
numbers of mice, which some* 
times wholly destroy the crops. 

By the phrase, the entering 
in of Hamath, (Judg. iii. 3. 
2 Kings xiv. 25,) is meant the 
narrow pass leading from the 
land of Canaan into Syria, 
which constitutes the northern 
boundary of Palestine. It is 
supposed to be the same with 
Hammath-dor, (Josh. xxi. 32 ;) 
and some have supposed they 
are both the same with Tibe- 
rias. 

HAMMEDATHA. (Esth. iii. 
1.) Haman's father. He is 
called the Agagite ; and Jose- 
phus says he was a descendant 
From Amalek, and probably of 
the family or stock of Agag. 
If Agag was the common name 
of their kings, it is not im- 
probable that an Amalekite 
would be called an Agagite, 
as one of the people of Asag. 

HAMOR. (See Dinah.) 

HANANIAH. (See Abed- 

NEGO.) 

HANDS, LAYING ON OF. 

(Heb. vi.2.) Both the hands 
of the high-priest were laid on 
the head of the scape-goat 
when the sins of the people 
were publicly confessed. . It 
was also a ceremony by which 
persons were inducted into 
sacred office, or were made the 
recipients of divine gifts. (Num. 
viii. 10; xxvii. 18. Acts vi. 6; 
viii. 14—19; xiii. 3; xix. 1— 
6. 1 Tim. iv. 14.) The various 
figurative uses of the word 
hand, by the sacred writers, 
are too obvious to require ex- 
planation. 

HANDBREADTH. (See 
Measures.) 

HANDKERCHIEF. (See 
Clothes.) 

HANDSTAVES. (Ezek. 
xxxix. 9.) These were wea- 
pons of war, resembling jave- 
lins. They were cast with the 
hand. 

HANES. (Isa.xxx. 4.) Sup- 
posed to be a royal city south 



HAR 

i of Memphis, upon an island of 
I the Nile, a few remains of 
I which are still to be seen. 
j HANG. (Deut. xxi. 22.) 
| Hanging on a tree or gibbet 
j seems to have been a mark of 
' infamy, inflicted on the dead 
| bodies of criminals, rather 
! than a punishment, as modern 
| nations employ it. It implies 
i that the offender is accursed of 
I God, and an abomination in his 
! sight. (Deut. xxi. 23.) Yet such 
: a curse, deserved by us as 
i transgressors of the divine law, 
I Christ bore for us in his own 
! body. (Acts v. 30. Gal. iii. 13. 
1 Pet. ii. 24.) 

HANNAH. (lSam.i.2.) 
One of the wives of Elkanah, 
and the mother of the prophet 
Samuel. 

HANUN. (2 Sam. x. 2.) A 

king of the Ammonites. We 

are informed that David had 

received tokens of kindness 

from Nahash, the father and 

predecessor of Hanun. After 

the death of Nahash, David 

sent messengers to Hanun to 

j comfort him, and to express 

| his respect for the memory of 

! the deceased king. But Hanun 

! thought, or pretended to think, 

j that David sent them as spies ; 

\ so he took them and shaved off 

| one half their beards, and cut 

; off' their garments in the mid- 

j die, and in this condition sent 

! them home. David heard of 

j their situation, and sent to 

I meet them, with directions to 

j stay at Jericho until their 

I beards were grown. This un- 

I generous conduct of Hanun 

I was the occasion of a long 

! war, in which multitudes of 

i the Ammonites and their al- 

I lies, Syrians and others, were 

slain. 

HARAN. 1. A person. (Gen. 
xi. 26.) The brother of Abra- 
ham and the father of Lot. 

2. A place. (Gen. xi. 31.) 

Situated in the north-east of 

Mesopotamia, and between the 

Euphrates and the Chebar 

291 



HAR 
Where -Terah died, and was 
juried, (Actsvii.4;) in which 

fiassage it is called Charran. 
t was also the residence of 
Laban, Rebecca's brother. 
(Gen. xxvii. 43; xxviii. 10.) It 
had commercial intercourse 
with Tyre, (Ezek. xxvii. 23,) 
and was subdued by the Assy- 
rian army. (2 Kings xix. 12. 
Isa. xxxvii. 12.) It is still 
known by its ancient name, 
and is inhabited principally 
"by wandering Arabs. 

HARE. (Deut. xiv. 7.) The 
hare, known in this country as 
the rabbit, is also a common 
animal in Syria, and was de- 
clared unclean by the Jewish 
law, (Lev. xi. 6,) because it di- 
vides not the hoof, though it 
ehews the cud. This last is 
probably the fact respecting 



HAR 

some species of the animal, 
though it is said not to be so 
generally. 

~ HARLOT. (Prov. xxix. 3.) 
This term, though generally 
applied to an abandoned wo- 
man, is used figuratively by 
the sacred writers to denote 
the wicked and unchaste con- 
duct of the Israelites, in for- 
saking their covenant with 
God, and giving themselves up 
to idolatry and impurity. (Isa. 
i. 21.) 

HARNESS. (1 Kings xx. 11.) 
In this passage and some others 
the word denotes armour. It 
might be supposed that the 
convenience of modern trav- 
elling, known as harness, was 
of very rude construction in 
the time of Solomon; but it 
seems from the following cut, 




copied from an Egyptian tomb, 
supposed to be upwards of 
3000 years old, that in general 
•construction and use very little 
change has been made. The 
phrase made ready his chariot 
(Ex. xiv. 6) literally means, in 
modern phraseology, tackled, 
e? put to, his horses. 

That bridles with bits were 
very early known as part of 
the harness of a horse is obvi- 
ous from Isa. xxxvii. 29, and 
James iii.3. The word harness- 
id (Ex. xiii.lS ,) probably means 



eS^ 




furnished, arranged, and gov- 
erned according to the esta- 
blished usages and customs 
of caravans or travelling com- 
panies. 

HAROD, well op. (Judg. 
vii. 1.) Afountain or watering 
place in Jezreel, near the foot 
of mount Gilboa, (1 Sam. xxix. 
1.) and probably the native 
village of two of David's va- 
liant men. (2 Sam. xxiii. 25.) 

HAROSHETH. (Judg.iv.2. 
13. 16.) The city of Sisera, the 
captain of Jabin's host, who 
292 



HAR 

was defeated by Deborah and 
Barak. It was in Naphtali, 
afterwards Galilee of the Gen- 
tiles,, not far from Hazor. 

HARP. (Gen. iv. 21.) A 
musical instrument, invented 
by Juoal, and used by the Jews 
when mirth and joy were ex- 
pressed. (Gen. xxxi. 27. Ps. 
Ixxxi. 2; cxxxvii. 1, 2. lsa. 
xxiv. 8.) David was particu- 
larly skilful in the use of it. 
(1 Sam. xvi. 16. 23. See Psal- 
tery.) The simplest form of 
the harp or lyre is given in the 
following cut; the bones of 



HAR 




animals forming the two sides 
and the upper connecting 
oiece, and a tortoise shell be- 
ing used for the foot. 

Another harp (perhaps the 
same with the psaltery and 
instrument with ten strings, 
Ps. xcii. 3) was made in the 
form of the human ear, and is 
represented in the following 
cut, which is copied from a 
tomb at Thebes. It closely 
resembles, in every respect, 
the Burmese harp of the pre- 
sent day. 

The strings of the ancient 
harp were stretched over an 
oval sounding board, and play- 
ed with a key. Sometimes it 
had only eight strings, and, as 
some suppose, was then called 
sheminith. (l.Chron. xv. 21.) 
Ps. vi. xii. title.) It was light 
and portable, or it could not be 
25* 




used, as it doubtless often was, 
in the act of dancing. (Ex. xv. 
20. 1 Sam. xviii. 6.) The in- 
strument used by David was 
more properly a lyre, and 
might have been played with 
the hand or with a key. (1 Sam. 
xvi. 23. See Musical Instru- 
ments.) 

HARROW. (1 Chron. xx. 3.) 
The harrow was a rude imple- 
ment of Jewish husbandry ; 
being, as is generally supposed, 
a mere plank or log of wood, 
upon which stones were heap- 
ed and the labourer sat, and 
which was drawn over the 
ground by oxen, to break in 
pieces the clods and level the 
surface, (lsa. xxviii. 24, 25 ;) or 
perhaps one or more branches 
of trees might be used in the 
same way. We know, how- 
ever, that an implement of the 
kind was used for some pur- 
poses, which was wholly or in 
part of iron. (2 Sam. xii. 31.) 

HART. (Ps. xlii. 1.) Deer 
is a general name of a class 
of quadrupeds, as the stag, fal- 
low-deer, rein-deer, elk, &c.j 
but the animal is never men-, 
tioned by this generic name in 
the Bible. 

The fallow-deer (1 Kings iv. 
23) was a clean animal by the 
Levitical law. (Deut. xiv. 5.) 
293 



HAR 

It is supposed to have resem- 
bled our red deer, or hart, in 
size and colour; whence the 
the name of fallow, (pale red 
or pale yellow.) Some have 
supposed the buffalo of modern 
times is intended in the above 
passages. 

The hart is the male stag, 
and is one of the most graceful 
and beautiful of all animals. 
It was clean by the Levitical 
law, (Deut. xii. 15 ; xiv. 5 ;) and 
the grace and agility of i*ts 
motions are alluded to in Sol. 
Song ii. 9. Isa. xxxv. 6. The 
stag lolls, or pants, like the 
dog, and is soon exhausted by 



HAR 

hunger. (Jer. xiv. 5. Lam. i. 
6.) 

The roe, or roe-buck, is an 
other name for the hart ; and 
its swiftness of foot and ele- 
gant form are often alluded to 
in the Bible. (2 Sam. ii. 18.) 

The roe of the Scriptures is 
generally supposed to be the 
gazelle of later times, which is 
still found chiefly in Asia and 
Africa. It was a clean animal 
by the Levitical law, (Deut. 
xii. 15,) and a favourite of the 
chase. (Prov. vi. 5. Isa. xiii. 
14.) The following is a cut 
of the roe or gazelle of the 
Bible: 




The hind is the female stag. 
She is smaller and weaker 
than her mate, the hart, and 
has no horns. She is sure and 
swift of foot, and leaps fearless- 
ly among the rocks and pre- 
cipices. (2 Sam. xxii. 34. Ps. 
xviii. 33. Hab. iii. 19.) The 
instinctive affection of the 
hart and hind are alluded to. 



Prov. v. 18, 19, and Sol. Song 
ii. 7; iii. 5. 

The figurative prediction of 
Jacob, respecting Naphtali, 
(Gen. xlix. 21,) would be more 
appropriately rendered, 'Naph. 
tali is a deer roaming ai large, 
he shooteth forth noble ant 
lers.' The antlers or horns in 
dicate the strength and health 
294 



H^T 



HAV 




of the stag, and the whole me- 
taphor expresses the increase 
of the tribe, and the fertility 
of their portion in Judea! The 
above cut represents the hart. 
(See Youth's Friend, by Am. 
S. S. Union, vol. v. Nos. 11 and 
12, for cuts and descriptive ar- 
tides. ) 
HARVEST. (See Seasons.) 
HATE, (Gen. xxiv. 60,) HA- 
TRED, (Eccl. ix. 1,) HATE- 
FUL. (Ps. xxxvi. 2.) To hate 
is to abhor, to abominate, or to 
regard with a passion contrary 
to love. (Jer. xliv. 4.) God's 
hatred is towards all sinful 
thoughts and ways. It is a 
feeling of which all holy be- 
ings are conscious in view of 
sin, and is wholly unlike the 
hatred which is mentioned in 
the Scripture among the works 
of the flesh. (Gal. v. 20.) To 
hate sometimes means to love 
in a less degree. When our 
Saviour says that he who would 
follow him must liate father 
and mother, he means that 
even these dearest earthly 
friends must be loved in a sub- 
ordinate degree; and in the 
same sense the follower of 
Christ is to hate his own life, 



or be willing to sacrifice it for 
the love and service of the 
Redeemer. A careful exami- 
nation of the passages and con- 
nexion in which these words 
occur, will best show their true 
force and meaning. 

HAVILAH, land of. (Gen. 
ii. 11; where the sacred his- 
torian uses the name which 
was afterwards applied to this 
land, and which was probably 
derived from Havilah the son 
of Cush, (Gen. x. 7,) whose 
descendants peopled it. It is 
supposed to be the same with 
Colchis, between the Black 
Sea and the Caspian. Another 
country of this name lay be- 
tween the Euphrates and Ti- 
gris, towards the Persian gulf, 
where Chavelaei (or Chavilah) 
of later times is found. One of 
these provinces may have been 
settled by Havilah, the de- 
scendant of Joktan. (Gen. x. 
29.) 

A third Havilah is supposed 
to be intended in Gen. xxv.18, 
though that passage may also 
describe the vast region last 
mentioned, between "the Per. 
sian Gulf on the east, and Shut 
by the Red Sea on the west. 
295 



HAY 

The phrase from Havilah 
unto Shur, in Gen. xxv. 18, 
and 1 Sam. xv. 7, and many 
other passages, seems to be 
used to designate the opposite 
extremes of Arabia; in which 
sense, Havilah may be regard- 
ed as the eastern border of the 
country inhabited by the Ish- 
maelites and Amalekites. 

HAVOTH-JAIR. (Num. 
xxxii. 41.) The general name 
of thirty villages in the land 
of Giiead, owned by the thirty 
sons of Jair. one of the judges 
of Israel. Judg. x. 2— 4.) 

HAURAN, (Ezek. xlvii. 16. 
18,) (in the Greek, Auranitis.) 
A district of country east of 
the Jordan, supposed by some 
to be the same with Iturea, 
and to have reached from a 
point opposite the sea of Tibe- 
rias, as far north as Damascus. 
In modern times its limits 
have been extended as far 
south as Bozrah, and the whole 
tract is represented as volcanic 
and porousjwith here and there 
a spot of vegetation for the 
Arab's pasturage. 

HAWK. (Job xxxix. 26.) A 
fierce and rapacious bird of 
the falcon tribe, unclean by 
the Levitical law, (Lev. xi. 16. 
Deut. xiv. 15,) but so sacred 
among the Greeks and Egyp- 
tians, that to kill one, even 
unintentionally, was a capital 
crime. The allusion, in the 
passage first cited, is to God's 
providential care of birds of 
passage ; providing them with 
instinct to determine the time 
and course of their flight, to 
reach a warmer climate. (See 
Youth's Friend, vol. vi. No. 
10, by Am. S. S. Union, for de- 
scription and cut.) 

HAY. (Prov. xxvii. 25.) We 
are not to suppose that this 
word, as used in the Bible, de- 
notes dried grass, as it does 
with us. The management of 
grass by the Hebrews, as food 
for cattle, was entirely differ- 
ent from our's. It was cut 



HAZ 

green, as it was wanted ; ana 
the phrase mown grass (Ps. 
lxxii. 6) would be more pro- 
perly rendered grass that has 
just been fed off. So in Prov. 
xxvii. 25, the word translated 
hay means the first shoots ol 
the grass ; and the whole pas- 
sage might better be rendered, 
'The grass appeareth, and the 
green herb showeth itself, and 
the plants of the mountains 
are gathered.' And in Jsa. 
xv. 6, hay is put for grass, and 
grass is put for the green herb. 
The tenderness of grass, the 
rapidity of its growth, and the 
early period at'which it is cut 
down and consumed, afford the 
sacred writers some striking 
and beautiful illustrations. (Ps. 
ciii. 15. Isa. xl. 6. James i. 11. 
See Mowings.) 

HAZAEL. (1 Kings xix 15.) 
An officer in the court of Syria, 
whom Elijah was commanded 
to anoint as successor to Ben- 
hadad, and at the same time 
to anoint Jehu to be king of 
Israel. The latter commission 
he did not execute, (2 Kings 
ix. 1—10.) nor are we informed 
whether he executed the first. 
It is, however, supposed that 
the word anoint, in this con- 
nexion, may denote only a spe- 
cial designation to the office. 
About eleven years after this, 
Benhadad, residing at Damas- 
cus, and being taken sick, 
instructed Hazael to take a 
princely present to the prophet 
Elisha, (who happened to be 
at Damascus,) and consult him 
as to the issue of his sickness 
The prophet informed Hazael 
that his royal master's disease 
would not prove mortal, but 
still that he would not live; 
and he proceeded to predict 
the elevation of Hazael to the 
throne of Syria, and a series of 
the most horrible cruelties of 
which he would be guilty to- 
wards the children of Israel. 
Hazael expressed the utmost 
abhorrence of such conduct 
296 



HEA 

but the very next day he stifled 
Benhadad to death, took the 
throne, and in process of time 
perpetrated all the barbarities 
that the prophet had described. 
(2 Kings x. 32, 33; xii. 17, 18; 
xiii. 3. 7. 22. 2Chron. xxiv. 23.) 

HAZAZAN-TAMAR. (See 
Engedi.) 

HAZEL. (Gen. xxx. 37.) It 
is generally supposed that the 
almond tree is intended in this 
passage. The original word is 
susceptible of this rendering. 

HAZOR. (Josh. xi. 10.) A 
capital city of the Canaanites, 
where Jabin dwelt, and which 
was subdued and burnt by 
Joshua. (Josh. xi. 1—13.) It 
was, however, rebuilt and go- 
verned by a king of the same 
name, whose army was routed 
by Barak. (Judg. iv..2— 16.) 
It was fortified by Solomon, 
(1 Kings ix. 15,) and in the 
general invasion of the country 
by Tiglath-Pileser, fell intohis 
hands, (2 Kings xv. 29,) and its 
inhabitants were carried into 
Assyria. 

There is a remarkable pro- 
phecy respecting Hazor in Jer. 
xlix. 28—33. The connexion 
shows it to have been in Ara- 
bia, and the whole scope of 
the prophecy denotes a place 
of great importance. It is, 
however, completely blotted 
out, though some have con- 
jectured that it is'anothername 
for Petra. 

HEAL, (Eccl. iii. 3,) HEAL- 
ING, (Mai. iv. 2,) HEALTH. 
(Gen. xliii. 28.) To heal all 
manner of sickness and dis- 
eases by the word of his own 
power was the divine prero- 
gative of our Redeemer, (Matt, 
iv. 23,) and the power to heal 
was among the gifts conferred 
on his early apostles. (1 Cor. 
xii. 28 ) The various figurative 
uses of these words are suffi- 
ciently explained by their 
connexion. 

HEAP. (See Stones.) 

HEART. (Acts xvi. 14.) The 



HEA 

seat of the affections, desires, 
and motives; though, as it is 
often employed by the sacred 
writers, it embraces all the 
powers and faculties of man, 
as a moral, intellectual, and 
accountable being. (Matt. xv. 
19.) Thus, when God is said to 
shine into the hearts of men to 
give the light oi the knowledge 
of his glory in the face of Jesus 
Christ, (2 Cor. iv. 6,) the term 
is used in an enlarged sense, 
and the whole passage teaches 
us that God causes the under- 
standings of men to be enlight- 
ened or" informed by the Holy 
Spirit in the knowledge of his 
glory as it is made known in 
Jesus Christ ; and that the will 
and affections thus- come un- 
der the influence of spiritual 
knowledge, and the soul is 
transformed into the divine 
image. 

The prophet says, the heart 
is deceitful above all things, 
and desperately wicked; who 
can know it? (Jer. xvii. 9.) 
And, as if in reply to this em- 
phatic question, God immedi- 
ately declares his prerogative : 
J the Lord search the heart ; 1 
try the reins, (ver. 10.) 

HEATH. (Jer. xvii. 6.) A 
plant peculiar to wild and 
barren wastes. It is used in 
some countries as fuel, and 
also to stuff beds and thatch 
houses. Its place in the desert, 
in parched and uncultivated 
ground, is alluded to in the 
above passage, and makes but 
a part of the beautiful figure 
by which the opposite condi- 
tions of the righteous and 
wicked are illustrated. (Jer. 
xvii. 5—8.) The same word ia 
used, Jer. xlviii. 6 ; and whe- 
ther it denotes in this passage 
the plant, or some blasted 
naked tree, or an animal of 
the desert, the idea conveyed 
is the same, viz. that the Mo- 
abites should seek the solitude 
of the desert, to elude the pur- 
suit of their enemies. 
297 



HEA 

HEATHEN. (Pa ii. I.) This 
*erm is applied by the sacred 
writers, sometimes to those 
Who were infidels or unbe- 
lievers, (Jer. x. 25,) but gene- 
rally in the same senseVith 
Gentiles. (See Gentile.) In 
modern times it denotes all 
those who are without the 
knowledge of the gospel, and 
embraces upwards of three- 
• fourths of the human race. 

HEAVEN. (Gen. xlix. 25.) 
The Jews considered the region 
of the air, dew, clouds, and 
wind, as the first heaven, (Job 
xxxv, 11;) the place which 
the heavenly bodies occupied, 
as the second heaven; and the 
place where God, and Christ, 
and angels dwell, as the third 
heaven, and invisible to mortal 
eyes. (2 Or. xii. 2, 4.) 

The opinion has always pre- 
vailed among Jews and Chris- 
tians, Greeks'and Romans, and 
seems to be fully confirmed by 
the Scriptures,(Luke i.19,) that 
there is a place in the universe 
where God's presence is made 
manifest by some visible dis- 
play of his transcendent glory 
in the presence of the holy 
company that are admitted to 
dwell there. To such a place 
Paul was admitted, (2 Cor. xii. 
2 ;) and thither Jesus ascended, 
(Luke xxiv. 51. Eph. iv. 10. 
Heb. viii. 1.) and there he now 
Bits upon his throne (Heb. x. 
12) as King of Zion, and there 
he continually officiates as 
our advocate and intercessor, 
(Heb. ix. 15. 24—28 ;) there is 
his father's house, in which 
are many mansions prepared 
for Christ's friends and follow- 
ers to inhabit, when the earthly 
house of this tabernacle shall 
be dissolved ; and there will be 
gathered together, in one bless- 
ed indissoluble society, all the 
redeemed of the Lord, out of 
every kingdom, and people, 
and tongue, and nation, whose 
endless 'and rapturous employ- 
ment it will be to admire and 



HEB 

J adore the riches of the divine 
i grace and glory. 

The heaven of heavens 
(2 Chron. vi. 18) is 'the highest 
heaven; as the song of songs 
is the most excellent song; 
the God of gods, or the Lord of 
lords, the greatest of gods, or 
the supreme of lcrds. 

The third heaven (2 Cor. xii. 
2) is the same as the highest 
heaven ; and both are used to 
express the idea of the highest 
exaltation and glory, (Luke 
ii. 15 ;) that is, God dwells not 
only in heaven, but above the 
heavens, in the third or very 
highest heaven. So the rab- 
bins and the v Mohammedans 
make, in the same way, seven 
heavens. (Comp. 2 Cor. xii. 2. 
Eph. iv.10. Heb.vii.26.) 

Kingdom of Heaven. (See 
Kingdom.) ■ 

HEAVE-OFFERING. (See 
Offerings.) 

H E B E R (Judg. iv. 17—21* 
was of the family of Jethro, 
and was distinguished as the 
husband of Jael, who killed 
Sisera. (See Hebrews.) 

HEBREWS. (Gen.xiv.13.) 
This term is used to denote 
the people who descended from 
Abraham. The derivation of 
it is either from Heber, one of 
the ancestors of Abraham, or 
from the Hebrew word Eber, 
which signifies from the other 
side. The people who are 
known by the name Hebrews, 
came "from the other side," as 
we say of a foreigner, that he is 
from beyond sea ; and hence 
the Canaanites might very 
naturally call them Hebrews, 
or people from the other side. 
They were not called Jews 
until a much later period of 
their history ; and this name 
was derived from Judah. 

In the present article, we 
can give but a very general 
outline of the history of this 
extraordinary people. 

1. Their origin. A man of 
wealth, wisdom, and integrity 
298 



HEB 

was selected by God to be the 
father and founder of the 
Hebrew nation; and was fa- 
voured with many visions and 
revelations, promises and co- 
venants, all tending to show 
him the greatness and glory 
of his posterity. (See Abra- 
ham.) Among other things, he 
was told that his descendants 
should subdue and possess a 
uftost fertile and beautiful 
country. 

2. Their government. About 
two hundred years after Abra- 
ham was appointed to this dis- 
tinction, we find Joseph, his 
great-grandson, holding one 
of the principal offices in the 
government of Egypt; and, by 
a train of remarkable provi- 
dences, his father Jacob, to- 
gether with his eleven bre- 
thren, also became inhabitants 
of that country. (See Joseph.) 

The great increase of their 
number^ and wealth soon pro- 
voked the jealousy of the go- 
vernment, and led to a royal 
decree that all their male 
children should be destroyed 
at the birth. While this decree 
was in force, (b. c. 1571,) Moses 
was born ; and, being conceal- 
ed by his mother, he escaped 
the general slaughter of male 
infants, and was preserved to 
be the leader and deliverer of 
the people. Being instructed 
particularly in the religion and 
expectation of his forefathers, 
he early became interested in 
their oppressed condition; and, 
happening to see an Egyptian 
ill-treat an Israelite, he took 
part with the latter, and slew 
the former, fearing the ven- 
geance of the king, he escaped 
to a distant land, where he 
remained forty years. He 
was there divinely directed to 
return to Egypt ; and God was 
pleased to accomplish, by his 
instrumentality, the deliver- 
ance of Israel from their bond- 
age, and to lead them, J>y a 
journey of forty years through 



HEB 

the wilderness, into the rica 
and fertile l?nd of Canaan. 
(See Moses.) 

Up to this period they had 
lived under a patriarchal form 
of government, some traces oi 
which remained through suc- 
ceeding ages, (see Patri- 
archs,) but in the progress of 
this eventful journey, God es- 
tablished a government for 
them,— the elements or grand 
principles of which are found 
in the law of the ten com- 
mandments, promulgated from 
mount Sinai. This"most per- 
fect and admirable constitu- 
tion or code, embracing as it 
did all that pertains to the 
civil as well as the religious 
rights and obligations of the 
people, was formed by God 
himself, and by him adminis- 
tered, as emphatically law- 
giver, and judge, and king of 
Israel ; and hence it is called 
a theocracy. This theocratic 
form of government, under 
various modifications, existed 
even to the coming of the 
Messiah. The Jewish kings 
were mere viceroys, bound to 
govern by certain laws, and 
fearfully punished for disobe- 
dience. They were raised up 
and displaced by the imme- 
diate and frequently visible 
direction of God, (Hos. xiii. 11 ;) 
they were subject to his autho- 
rity, (Deut. xvii. 14—20 ;) and 
the prophets, in their long and 
glorious succession, were ap. 
pointed to maintain the inter- 
course between God and his 
peculiar people, and to reprove 
and rebuke the kings of Jutlan 
and Israel for all their rebel- 
lion against Him. Hence it is 
justly inferred that the shocks 
and revolutions in the Jewish 
government, however it might 
interrupt or modify, never de- 
stroyed the theocratic relation 
subsisting between God and 
the a^ed of Abraham, until the 
light of -Is giorious gospel 
arose, afii .salvation *o*- 'L 
299 



HEB 

Jews and Gentiles, was pro- 
claimed through the blood of 
Christ. 

In due time they entered the 
land of Canaan, and, after a 
series of severe contests, in 
which God displayed his power 
in their behalf, they expelled 
the original possessors of the 
soil, and under a long suc- 
cession of judges and kings, 
occupied the country as their 
promised inheritance. 

3. Their religion. It was 
evidently the design of God, 
that the Hebrews should be 
entirely separated and distin- 
guished from all other na- 
tions; and to this end their 
religion and laws were most 
wisely adapted: and, besides 
this, the rites and ceremonies 
which they were required to 
observe were of the most sig- 
nificant import, and perfectly 
fitted to engage the attention 
of such a people. There was 
a body of men set apart, to 
whom was committed all mat- 
ters relating to religion and 
law, (which, under this singu- 
lar government, were one and 
the same thing.) To these per- 
sons, who officiated as priests, 
judges, advocates, &c, was 
allowed one-tenth of all the 
produce of the land. The 
Levites, which were a sub- 
division of the first, had a 
portion of the lands assign- 
ed them ; and thus formed a 
connecting link between the 
priests and the cultivators of 
the soil. Commerce was ne- 
cessarily very limited ; as, by 
the very nature of their insti- 
tutions, all connexion with 
other nations and societies was 
in a great measure made im- 
practicable. And yet the feasts 
and festivals, which were peri- 
odically celebrated,— and upon 
the most important of which 
the whole nation was required 
to attend in a body,— effectu- 
ally preserved their social 
character and habits. ■ (See 



HEB 

Feasts.) This constitution 
and these laws were given 
chiefly at or near mount Sinai. 
And thus, in the wastes of Ara- 
bia, and long before any law- 
giver arose, of which the world 
has now any knowledge, a 
system of laws and a form of 
government were prescribed 
for the children of Israel, 
which has been the wonder of 
succeeding ages, and has ex- 
erted a boundless influence 
on the minds and institutions 
of all succeeding generations 
of mankind. 

4. Their 'political history. 
After forty years' continuance 
in the wilderness,during whicfe 
time every individual but two 
of the race that left Egypt had 
died, and given place to their 
children, they were brought 
into the land of Canaan. 

After the death of Joshua, 
the administration of the go- 
vernment was committed to a 
body of men called judges. 
This was a species of aristo- 
cracy ; but it would seem that 
these judges were appointed 
only for extraordinary occa- 
sions and for specific purposes. 
(Judg. iii.8— 10. 14,15; vi. 33, 
36.) Their power was very 
great, however. (Judg. viii.) 
Of these judges there were in 
all fifteen, from Othniel to 
Samuel, in whose time the go- 
vernment was changed. When 
the Hebrews had fallen into 
idolatrous practices, God suf- 
fered their enemies to prevail 
against them and as they 
came to be involved in wars 
with the neighbouring nations, 
they felt the necessity of a 
military leader, or some more 
efficient government; and they 
asked for a king. Saul was 
given to them in this relation, 
but, though victorious in many 
battles, he displeased God, and 
David, the son of Jesse, was 
appointed to the throne in his 
place. Under his reign, Jeru- 
salem was adorned and fo*- 
300 



SEB 
lifted, and' made the seat of 
government; the empire was 
greatly extended, and the pros- 
pects of the nation were never 
more glorious. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Solomon, 
whose reign forms the most 
splendid period of the Jewish 
history, and was distinguished 
by the erection of the tem- 
ple at Jerusalem. His cost- 
ly palace and magnificent 
court could not be main- 
tained without having contri- 
butions from the people; and 
upon his death, and the suc- 
cession of his son Rehoboam, 
they demanded some relief 
from these heavy burdens. 
This being refused in a very 
offensive manner, ten of the 
twelve tribes revolted under 
Jeroboam, and were called the 
kingdom of Israel. Judah 
and Benjamin adhered to Re- 
hoboam, and were called the 
kingdom of Judah. The sub- 
jects of the kingdom of Judah 
were probably called Jews from 
this time till the kingdom of 
Israel, as such, was destroyed ; 
and then the word Jews be- 
came the corflmon name for 
all the descendants of Jacob. 
After a series of wars between 
Judah and Israel, and be- 
tween them and other nations, 
for a period of two hundred 
and fifty years, the kingdom 
of Israel was at length sub- 
verted, the territory fell into 
the hands of strangers, and 
the people of the ten revolted 
tribes which composed it were 
carried captive into Assyria, 
never to return. (2 Kings xvii.) 
The kingdom of Judah, too, 
soon after met a similar fate, 
her people being carried into 
Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar. 
Seventy long years of bond- 
age passed away before any 
relief came to them; but then 
Cyrus, king of Persia, subdued 
Babylon, and permitted the 
Jews, then in captivity, to re- 
turn to their country; but they 



HEB 

went back with the foreign 
and idolatrous customs and 
endless dogmas with which 
they had become familiar in 
the time of their exile. The 
lofty aspiration, the simple 
piety and pure morality of 
their better days, were not 
with them; the subtle and 
self-righteous Pharisee, and 
worldly-minded Sadducee,and 
a variety of other sects, sprang 
up; and error, corruption, and 
superstition prevailed in every 
form. For three hundred years 
after their return from Baby- 
lon, the Jews were favoured 
with almost uninterrupted 
tranquillity; but, at the end 
of that period, the Romans, 
seizing a favourable occasion, . 
reduced Judea to the condition 
of a province of that empire ; 
and Antipater was appointed 
by Julius Cesar, the emperor, 
to its government. Soon after 
Antipater's death, the kingdom 
fell into the hands of Herod, 
who, after a cruel reign which 
terminated in the first year of 
our Saviour's life, divided it 
by will between his three 
sons, Archelaus, Antipas, and 
Philip. In a little more than 
forty years, however, this dy- 
nasty came to an end, Judea 
sunk to a minor province, 
and thenceforward governors 
were sent from Rome until 
the destruction of their once 
holy and beautiful city, Jeru- 
salem. After this mournful 
event, the Jews remained sub- 
ject to the Roman government 
until Adrian became emperor 
of Rome, a. d. 76, when they 
rebelled, and were entirely 
dispersed, and so remain to 
this day. 

It has been well said, that 
to the eye of mere philoso- 
I phy nothing can appear more 
' striking than the effects pro- 
duced upon the world at large 
by the opinions and events 
which originated among the 
Jewish people. A pastoral fa- 



HEB 

mily, neither so numerous, so 
warlike, nor so well instructed 
in the arts of civilized life, as 
many others in the same quar- 
ter of the globe, gradually in- 
creased into a powerful com- 
munity, became distinguished 
by a system of doctrines and 
usages different from those of 
all the surrounding tribes; re- 
taining it, too, amid the nu- 
merous changes of fortune to 
which they were subjected, 
and finally impressing its 
leading principles upon the 
most enlightened nations of 
Asia and of Europe. At a re- 
mote era Abraham crosses the 
Euphrates, a solitary traveller, 
not knowing whither he went, 
but obeying a divine voice, 
which called him from among 
idolaters to become the father 
of a new people and of a purer 
faith, at a distance from his 
native country. His grandson 
Jacob, a "Syrian ready to 
perish," goes down into Egypt 
with a few individuals, where 
his descendants, although evil 
entreated and afflicted,became 
a " nation, great, mighty, and 
populous," and whence they 
were delivered by the special 
interposition of Heaven. In 
prosperity and adversity they 
are still the objects of the same 
vigilant Providence which re- 
served them for a great pur- 
pose to be accomplished in the 
latter days ; while the Israel- 
ites themselves, as if conscious 
that their election was to be 
crowned with momentous re- 
sults, still kept their thoughts 
fixed on Palestine, as the the- 
atre of their glory, not less 
than as the possession of their 
trioes. 

We accordingly see them 
at one period in bondage, the 
victims of a relentless tyranny, 
and menaced with complete 
extirpation; but the hope of 
enjoying the land promised to 
their fathers never ceased to 
animate their hearts ; for they 



HEB 

trusted that God would surely 
visit them in the house of their 
affliction, and, in his appoint- 
ed time, carry them into the 
inheritance of peace and rest. 
At a later epoch we behold 
them swept away as captives 
by the hands of idolaters, who 
used all the motives which 
spring from fear and from in- 
terest to secure their compli- 
ance with a foreign worship ; 
but, rejecting all such induce, 
ments, they still continued a 
separate people, steadily re- 
sisting the operation of those 
causes which, in almost everv 
other instance, have beeii 
found sufficient to melt down 
a vanquished horde into the 
population and habits of their 
masters. At length they ap- 
pear as the instruments of a 
dispensation which embraces 
the dearest interests of all 
the sons of Adam ; and which, 
in happier circumstances than 
ever fell to their' own lot, has 
already modified and greatly 
exalted the character, the in- 
stitutions, and the prospects of 
the most improved portion of 
mankind, in botft hemispheres 
of the globe. 

Connected with Christiani- 
ty, indeed, the history of the 
Hebrews rises before the re- 
flecting mind in a very singular 
point otview ; for, in opposition 
to their own wishes, they laid 
the foundations of a religion 
which has not only superseded 
their peculiar rites, but is ra- 
pidly advancing towards that 
universal acceptation which 
they were wont to anticipate 
in favour of their own ancient 
law. In spite of themselves, 
they have acted as the little 
leaven which was destined to 
leaven the whole lump; and 
in performing this office, they 
have proceeded with nearly 
the same absence of intention 
and consciousness as the la- 
tent principle of fermentation 
to which the metaphor bears 
302 



HEB 

allusion. They aimed at one 
thing, and have accomplished 
another ; but, while we com- 
pare the means with the ends, 
whether in their physical or 
moral relations, it must be 
admitted that we therein exa- 
mine one of the most remark- 
able events recorded in the 
annals of the human race. (See 
Canaan, Captivity, Jews, 
Tribes. See also thefollowing 
publications of the Am. S. S. 
Union, viz. Biblical Antiqui- 
ties, vol. ii. ch. U,for a full his- 
tory, plan, &c, of the Jewish 
commonwealth ; Omar, for a 
history of the Jews during the 
period between the close of 
the Old Testament history 
and the coming of Christ; and 
Union Questions, vols. iii. iv. 
vi. vii. ix., with Teacher's 
Assistant in use of vols. iii. 
and iv.) 

Hebrew of the Hebrews 
(Phil. iii. 5) has been supposed 
by some to denote that the in- 
dividual so called had both a 
Hebrew father and mother; 
but others take it to mean that 
he was a Hebrew both by na- 
tion and language, — which 
many of Abraham's descend- 
ants were not, — or a Hebrew 
Jew performing worship in the 
original Hebrew tongue, and of 
course more truly honourable 
in a Jew's eyes than one born 
out of Judea, and speaking the 
Greek or any other than the 
Hebrew language. 

Epistle to the Hebrews. 
There is probable evidence 
that this epistle was written 
by Paul about the year 62-3, 
in the Greek language, and 
that it w r as addressed to the 
believing Jews of Palestine. 

This important portion of the 
New Testament is designed to 
show the divine character and 
offices of the Redeemer, the 
superiority of the gospel to the 
law, and the true design and 
import of the Mosaic institu- 
tions ; the fortitude and perse- 



HEB 
verance to which the gospei 
promises were calculated tc 
excite the Hebrew converts, 
and the course of life to which 
such hopes and promises as 
the gospel reveals should lead. 
It has been said of this epistle, 
that whether it is considered 
in reference to Christian doc- 
trine or to Christian practice, 
whether it be applied to for 
instruction, or comfort, or re- 
proof, it will be found emi- 
nently calculated to enlarge 
our minds, to strengthen our 
faith, to encourage our confi- 
dence, and to animate our 
hopes. It carries on the be- 
liever from the first elements 
of the doctrine of Christ to 
perfection. It exhibits the di- 
vine character of the Redeem- 
er in all its glory, establishes 
his infinite superiority to Moses 
as an apostle, and to the Aa- 
ronic family as a priest. It 
contrasts the grandeur, the 
efficacy,, and the perpetuity of 
new-covenant privileges, wor- 
ship, and promises, with the 
earthliness,the feebleness, and 
the temporary nature of the 
figurative economy ; and it en- 
forces the awful responsibility 
which attaches to the profes- 
sion of Christianity by consid- 
erations derived from all that 
is fitted to elevate hope and 
to give energy to godly fear. 
It is the key to the ritual of 
Moses, which unlocks its most 
intricate and mysterious, and 
apparently trivial arrange- 
ments. It brings to view the 
soul that animated the whole 
body of its ceremonies, and 
which gives them all their 
importance; and by the light 
it affords, we are enabled to 
enter into the darkest places 
of that extraordinary edifice, 
and to see the wisdom of its 
proportions, and the admira- 
ble adaptation of all it3 parts 
to their design. It was calcu- 
lated to reconcile the Jew to 
the destruction of his temple 
303 



HEB 

the loss of his priesthood, the 
abolition of his sacrifices, the 
devastation of his country, and 
the extinction of his name ; 
because it exhibits a nobler 
temple, a better priesthood, a 
more perfect sacrifice, a hea- 
venly inheritance, and a more 
durable memorial. And as the 
distinguished honours and pri- 
vileges which it makes known 
are equally the portion of the 
Gentile believer, they are no 
ess fitted to wean his mind 
from the beggarly elements of 
this world, and to reconcile 
him to the lot of a stranger 
and sufferer on the earth. 

HEBRON, (Num. xiii. 22,) 
so called after a son of Caleb, 
was one of the most ancient 
cities of Judea, and was origi- 
nally called Kirjath-Arba, or 
the city of Arba, from its being 
the residence of a famous giant 
of that name. (Josh. xiv. 15.) 
Moses calls it Mamre, Gen. 
xxiii. 19, and xxxv. 27. . It Was 
situated on an eminence from 
twenty to thirty miles, south 
of Jerusalem, and nearly a 
hundred from Nazareth, (Luke 
i. 39,) and is still known as 
the flourishing town of Ha- 
broun, or El-khalil,— which 
means the friend or the be- 
loved, (2 Chron. xx. 7,) — cele- 
brated for the manufacture of 
glass. 

Mr. Fisk, an American mis- 
sionary, was at Hebron in Feb. 
1824. He says the place is 
called Halcel of Khaleel-Rah- 
man or the beloved of the 
^merciful, and that Haleel and 
Abraham are used inter- 
changeably as the name of the 
same~person. The number of 
houses he states at four hun- 
dred. 

Mr. Whiting, an American 
missionary, visited Hebron in 
4.pril, 1835, and describes the 
vineyards and oliveyards, that 
eover the valleys, as by far 
the best he sa iv in any part of 
the country. 



HEB 

He visited what is regarded 
as the field of Machpelah, 
situated on the side of a high 
hill, sloping westward ; from 
the summit of which is a 
beautiful view of the plains of 
Mamre, where has been erect- 
ed a splendid temple by the 
mother of Constantine, or, as 
the Moslems say, by Solomon, 
which neither Jews nor Chris- 
tians are allowed to enter. 
Mr. Fisk says that the Jews 
are allowed to come to aplacp 
at the side of a certain gme, 
and there read and weep, and 
repeat their prayers in honour 
of their ancestors. Mr. W. 
read in Arabic, to some Mos- 
lems who were there, the 
twenty-third chapter of Gene- 
sis. About four hundred fami- 
lies of Arabs dwell in Hebron, 
and about one hundred and 
twenty families of Jews ; the 
latter having'been greatly re- 
duced in number by a bloody 
battle in 1834, between them 
and the troops of Ibrahim Pa- 
sha. 

A mile or two north of Hebron 
is a quadrangular spot, enclos 
ed by the foundations of a very 
ancient wall, the stones of 
which are composed chiefly of 
shells. This is pointed out to 
the traveller as the place 
where Abraham received the 
angels. (Gen. xviii.) 

Hebron is associated with 
some of the most interesting 
passages of sacred history. 
The valley of Eshcol (Num. 
xiii. 24, 25) is supposed to have 
been in its vicinity ; and the 
vale of Hebron was at one 
time the residence of Jacob. 
(Gen. xxxvii. 14.) Abraham's 
abode was also here, (Gen. xiii. 
18,) and his family burying 
place. (Gen. xxiii. 2, 3. 19; 
xxv. 10; xlix.29-33;1.12,13.) 
Upon the conquest of Canaan, 
Hebron was assigned to Caleb 
as part of his portion, (Num. 
xiii. 30—33; xiv. 5, 24. . Josh 
xiv. 6—14,) though it wa» 
304 



HEL 

finally a city of refuge, and 
among the possessions of the 
priests. (Josh. xx. 7; xxi. 11. 
13.) It is supposed by many 
that Zacharias and Elisabeth 
lived at Hebron, and that it 
was the birthplace of John 
the Baptist. Hebron was the 
residence of David until Jeru- 
salem was made the capital, 
(2 Sam. ii. 1 ; v. 4—9;) but we 
find it among the cities of Ju- 
dah at the fme of the revolt. 
(2Chron. xi. 10.) 

HEDGE. (Hos. ii. 6.) Tra- 
vellers tell us that such hedges 
as are mentioned in this pas- 
sage are often found in east- 
ern countries at this day, and 
that they are especially useful 
as defences against the incur- 
sions of the Arabs on horse- 
back. The hedge is sometimes 
figuratively usedto denote pro- 
tection. (Comp. Job i. 10. Ps. 
xxxiv. 7.) 

HEIFER. (Hos. x. 11.) The 
figurative allusions of the sa- 
cred writers to the wildness, 
Bportiveness, and indocility of 
this animal, especially when 
well-fed, are very striking. 
(Jer.xlvi.20;l. 11. Hos. iv. 16.) 
In Isa. xv. 5, allusion is proba- 
bly made to the lowing of a 
heifer— a mournful sound that 
can be heard at a great dis- 
tance : so should the lamenta- 
tion of the Moabites be in the 
day of their visitation. 

iThe heifer was used in sacri- 
fice on a particular occasion, 
(Num. xix. I— 10. Comp. Heb. 
ix. 13, 14 ;) the manner and de- 
sign of which are fully stated 
irT the passage cited. (For a 
full and interesting exposition 
of the whole subject of the wa- 
ter of separation, see Biblical 
Antiquities, vol. ii. ch.vii.,and 
Cmar, p. 174, both by Am.S.S. 
Union.) 

HELBON. (Ezek. xxvii. 18.) 
A Syrian city of great opulence 
and antiquity,celebrated for its 
wines ; and probably the same 
with Aleppo, (or as the Arabs 
26* 



HEL 

say, Alep or Halab,) which is 
now one of the most flourishing 
cities of Turkey. Its buildings 
are of hewn stone, and its 
streets paved with the same 
It was once deeply concerned 
in the India trade, and is still 
a place of commercial inter- 
course and manufacturing en- 
terprise. This city was almost 
entirely destroyed, in 1822, by 
an earthquake, and its popu- 
lation reduced from 250,000 to 
less than 100,000 ; one-sixth of 
whom are regarded as nominal 
Christians. 

HELL. (Deut. xxxii. 22.) 
This word is used by the sacred 
writers in several senses,which 
it is important to distinguish. 
The original word, from which 
hell is derived, means to hide 
cr conceal. The Hebrew word, 
translated hell in our Bible, 
sometimes means simply the 
grave, the receptacle of the 
dead, or the place of departed 
spirits, as in Job xi. 7 — 9. Ps. 
xvi. 10 ; cxxxix. 8. Isa. v. 14 ; 
xiv. 9. Amos ix. 2, 3. Acts 
ii. 31. Rev. xx. 14. In other 
passages it denotes the place 
of future punishment, as in 
Ps. ix. 17. Prov. v. 5; ix. 18; 
xxiii. 14. One of the Greek 
words, which is translated hell 
in the New Testament, gene- 
rally means the grave ; and 
another Greek word, which is 
also translated hell, literally 
means the valley of Hinnom, 
(2Chron. xxxiii. 6,) where the 
most abominable idolatries 
were practised; called also 
Topheth, (2 Kings xxiii. 10,) 
from toph, (a drum,) because 
that instrument was used there 
to drown the cries of victims 
Hinnom or Topheth thus be- 
came a fit emblem of hell. (See 
Selumiel, ch. ix., by Am. S.S. 
Union.) 

It is generally easy to see 
from the connexion, in any 
given case, in what sense the 
word is used. Thus, in Ps. ix 
17. Matt, xxiii. 33. Mark ix.43 
305 



HER 

—48. 2 Pet. ii. 4, the word hell 
evidently denotes the place of 
the future ana everlasting mi- 
sery of the ungodly; consisting, 
in part at least, in the eternal 
separation of the soul from 
God, and from the presence of 
his glory, and in the suffering 
of inconceivable anguish and 
remorse for ever and ever. 
These sufferings are described 
with all the force and vivid- 
ness which language or ima- 
gination can supply. And 
whether material substances 
are actually emp^yed or - not 
in ministering to the torments 
of the prison of despair, it is 
sufficient for us that the most 
excruciating suffering we can 
endure in the flesh is used to 
represent, as far as it can be 
represented, the suffering of 
the lost soul. 

G/tes of Hell. (Matt.xvi. 
18.) A. figurative expression, 
denoting the power of wicked 
spirits. (See Gate.) 

HEMLOCK. (Hos.x.4.) A 
well known bitter and poi- 
sonous herb, a species of which 
is common in the United 
States. The word rendered 
hemlock in the above pas- 
sage, and in Amos vi. 12, is 
elsewhere rendered gall. The 
figurative use of it is explain- 
ed by comparing the above 
passages with Deait. xxix. 18. 
Amos v. 7. Heb. xii. 15. The 
evils of perverted judgment 
resemble the springing up of 
useless and poisonous plants, 
where we look for and expect 
valuable and nutritious vege- 
tation. 

HERESY, (Acts xxiv. 14,) 
HERETIC. (Tit. iii.10.) These 
terms, as they are generally 
used by the sacred writers, 
imply no judgment respecting 
the truth or error of religious 
sentiments, but simply sects, 
or a peculiar system of opin- 
ions ; so that when the word 
sect is used, ihe word Jicresy 
would be equally appropriate, 



HER 

as in Acts v. 17; xxiv. 5; xxvi. {V, 
and xxviii.22. In the epistles, 
where the word is usually 
employed without reference to 
any particular class by name, 
it imports either differences 
which led to divisions in the 
Christian church,— and which 
were greatly to the reproach 
of the faith, — or corruptions 
of the true faith, (1 Cor.xi. 19;) 
and it is in this last sense 
that the term is commonly ap- 
plied at the present day. 

HERMON. (Deut. iii. 8.) A 
mountain, branching off south- 
east from Anti-Lebanon, and 
running between Damascus 
and the sea of Tiberias, called 
by the Sidonians, Sirion; and 
by the Amorites, Shenir, and 
also Si on.- (Deut. iii. 9 ; iv. 48.) 

Mr. Fisk, an American mis- 
sionary, passed mount Hermon 
in the autumn of 1823, and de- 
scribes it as nearly south of 
Tabor, which rises like a vast 
pyramid, while the ridge of 
Hermon is longer and uneven. 
At the foot of Hermon, the 
guide pointed out a place as 
Nain. The country was cover- 
ed with shrubbery, and the 
soil was rich. (See Dew. See 
also Omar, p. 124, by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

HEROD, (Matt. ii. I,) sur- 
named the Great, was the an 
cestor of several of the same 
name, mentioned in the New 
Testament. He was governor 
of Judea (then a Roman pro- 
vince) at the time of our 
Saviour's birth. Though lie 
was called king, he was sub- 
ject to the Roman emperor, 
and was distinguished for his 
savage cruelty. 

The table on the follow hie 
page shows at a glance tne 
chief connexions ot this fami- 
ly, so far as they are mentioned 
in the sacred history. 

In the thirty-third year of 
the reign of Herod the Great, 
Christ was born in Bethle- 
hem. Fearing that, this eveit 
306 



HER 




Herod Agrippa, 
(Acts xii. 1.) 



Aristobulus, 
(son of above.) 



Agrippa, 
(Acts xxv. 13, 
and xx vi. 2.) 



Herod, 
(Mark vi. 22.) 



Herodias, after- \J 

wards wife of w Herod Philip, 



Herod Antipas, 
(Mark vi. 22.) 



J\\ 



(Mark vi. 17.) 



Salome, 
(Mark vi. 22.) 




might in some way affect his 
interests,and not knowing pre- 
cisely the age of the supposed 
Eretender to his throne, and 
aving attempted in vain to 
ascertain the precise period of 
his birth, Herod issued a de- 
cree, requiring the indiscrimi- 
nate massacre of all the child- 
ren of Bethlehem, of two years 
old and under. This decree 
was executed. Herod died a 
/nost dreadful death at Jeri- 
cho; distributing the govern- 
ment of the province among 
his three sons ; Judea to Arche- 



Herod w Cleopatra, 

the Great. his fifth wife. 




Herodias, 
Herod Antipas, " before married 
(Matt. xiv. 1.) t0 he*" ancle 

V A Philip. 



laus ; Galilee and Perea to 
Herod Antipas ; and the three 
upper districts east of the Jor- 
dan (Batanea, Auranitis, and 
Trachonitis) to Philip. (Luke 
iii. 1.) 

Archelaus held the govern- 
ment about nine years, and 
was then banished for high 
crimjs; and Judea became 
completely subject to Rome, 
and received its governors of 
procurators directly from the 
emperor, and probably for li- 
mited periods. Pontius Pilate 
was in this office when John 
307 



HER 

ehe Baptist appeared. The 
other sons of Herod the Great 
remained in possession of their 
provinces as at the death of 
their father. (SeeOMAR,pp.l80 
and 241, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

HERODIANS. (Matt. xxii. 
16.) A Jewish sect or party, 
originating probably in a po- 
litical partiality towards the 
Roman emperor and Herod his 
deputy. It is generally sup- 
posed, that the"gre*at body of 
the Jews, and especially the 
Pharisees, held that the law of 
Moses (Deut. xvii. 15) forbade 
their subjection to a foreign 
power; while Herod and his 
party (the Herodians) regarded 
that law as forbidding a volun- 
tary subjection ; but if they 
were reduced to subjection by 
force of arms, they considered 
it lawful to avow their allegi- 
ance and pay tribute; and they 
not only paid it themselves, 
but urged others to pay it, and 
to submit cheerfully to Rome. 
Hence the difficulty of the 
question proposed to Christ. 
(Matt. xxii. 17.) The Herodi- 
ans also held, that it was on 
the same principle lawful to 
comply with the customs and 
adopt the rites of the conquer- 
ing nation. This is probably 
the leaven of Herod. (Mark 
viii. 15.) Some have inferred, 
from a comparison of Mark 
viii. 15, and Matt. xvi. 6, that 
the Herodians were chiefly 
Sadducees. 

HERODIAS. (Matt. xiv. 3.) 
The grand-daughter of Herod 
the Great. She first married 
her uncle, Herod Philip, and 
afterwards Herod Antipas, an- 
other uncle, and that too dur- 
ing her first husband's life- 
time. For this unlawful and 
scandalous connexion, John 
the Baptist faithfully reproved 
the parties; and his fidelity 
cost him hi* life. (Matt. xiv. 
3—10.) 

HF.PON. (Ler.xi.79.) An 
unclean biru, but cf what sp<s- 



HEZ 

cies is quite uncertain The 
original word describes thj bin? 
known to us as the heron, bet- 
ter perhaps than any other bird 
now known. 

HESHBON. (Num. xxi. 25. 
A royal city of the Amorites. 
It was given first to Reuben, 
(Josh. xrj. 17,) then transferred 
to Gad, tjosh. xxi. 39,) and in 
the time of Isaiah and Jeremi- 
ah, recovered by the Moabites, 
to whom it had before belonged. 
(Isa. xv. 4. Jer. xlviii. 2.) It 
exists now under the name 
of Heshban, and lies east of 
mount Nebo, about twenty 
miles from the Jordan. Neat 
it are wells and ponds, hewn 
out of the rock, referred to in 
Sol. Song vii. 4. . 

HETH <Gen. x. 15) was the 
eldest son of Canaan, and the 
ancestor of the Hittites. 

HEZEKIAH. (2 Chron. xxix. 
1,) a distinguished kin of Ju- 
dah, was the son and successor 
of Ahaz. He was twenty-five 
years of age when he came tc 
the throne,and he immediately 
took measures to break up the 
idolatrous customs into which 
the people had fallen during 
the reign of Ahaz; to bring 
them back to the temple and 
worship of their fathers, and to 
repair the losses and defeats 
they had suffered. Early in 
his reign, the Assyrians in- 
vaded the neighbouring king- 
dom of Israel, and carried the 
ten tribes into bondage. 

Notwithstanding this threat- 
ening position of affairs, Heze- 
kiah, not willing to acknow- 
ledge any subjection to Assyria, 
refused to pay the tribute which 
had been imposed and paid 
during the reign of his father. 
In consequence of which, the 
Assyrian army, under Senna- 
cherib, invaded his territory. 
This event happened in the 
fourteenth year of Hez^kiah's 
reign, and is described, with all 
the interesting details, in Isa, 
xxxvi. 1—22. The Assyrian 
308 



HIE 

army was so far reduced in a 
single night by the immediate 
judgment of God, as to be 
obliged to make a precipitate 
retreat. Soon after this signal 
deliverance, Hezekiah was 
seized with a severe illness, 
the fatal termination of which 
was averted in answer to his 
prayers. Fifteen years longer 
were promised him; and the 
promise was confirmed by a 
miraculous sign. (See Dial.) 
His gratitude" is expressed in 
the most affecting language, 
(Isa. xxxviii. 10—20;) and yet 
we find him afterwards greatly 
elated by a message of congratu- 
lation from Baladan, king of 
Babylon, before whose ambas- 
sadors he made a vain and 
pompous display of his posses- 
sions. To punish this pride 
and vanity, he was informed 
by a special message from 
God that his wealth should, at 
a future day, be transported to 
Babylon, and his own sons be- 
come servants in the palace 
of her king. 

The latter years of his life 
were passed in tranquillity, 
and he was succeeded by his 
son Manasseh. 

HLDDEKEL. (Gen. ii. 14. 
Dan. x. 4.) Universally ac- 
knowledged to be the Tigris, 
which divided Assyria from 
Mesopotamia, and the present 
names of which, Degil, Diktat, 
and Diklath, are manifestly 
derived from the ancients. It 
rises about fifteen miles from 
the source of the Euphrates. 

HIERAPOLIS. (Col. iv. 13.) 
A city of Phrygia, in the neigh- 
bourhood of Colosse and Lao- 
dicea. about five miles from 
the latter. It was formerly fa- 
mous for its hot baths. It is 
supposed to have derived its 
name (which signifies holy, 
city) from the multitude of 
temples which it contained; 
the ruins of which are still 
visible. The Turks call the 
place Pambuk-Kalasijfrom the 



HIG 

whiteness of the rock on which 
it stands. Nothing but the hot 
baths could have furnished a 
motive for building a great city 
on a spot so sterile. 

HIGGAION (Ps. ix. 16) 
signifies meditation, and calls 
for extraordinary attention and' 
reflection to the passage ; like 
a f^if or N. B. in modern 
writings. • 

HIGII PLACES (1 Sam. ix. 
12) were places upon hills and 
mountains, appropriated some- 
times to the true service of 
God, but generally to idolatrous 
worship. The most elevated 
places seem to have been cho- 
sen from the earliest period 
for the erection of altars. (Gen. 
xii. 7, 8; xxii. 2; xxxi. 54.) 
Before the temple furnished a 
fixed place of worship, it seems 
to have been considered proper 
to erect altars on such places. 
(Judg. vi. 25, 26. 1 Sam. ix. 12. 
19. 25. IChron. xvi. 39; xxi. 
29.) After the temple was built, 
such places became an abomi- 
nation. These places became 
so universally the scene of 
idolatrous worship, that the 
sacred historian says of a par- 
ticular king, that he did that 
which was right, &c, yet the 
high places were not taken 
away. (2 Kings x v. 35.) 

HIGH-PRIEST. (Lev. xxi. 
10.) The head of the Jewish 
priesthood. All the male de- 
scendants of Aaron were by 
divine appointment conse- 
crated to the priesthood ; and 
the first-born of the family, in 
regular succession, was con- 
secrated in the same manner 
to the office of high-priest. 
The ceremony of consecration 
was alike for both, and is par- 
ticularly described in Ex.xxix. 

The dress of the high-priest 
was much more costly and 
magnificent than that of the 
inferior order of priests. It is 
described, Ex. xxxix. 1—9. In 
the first cut are seen the robe 
and ephod : the latter of which 
309 



H1G 



HIG 




is outermost of all, and is curi- 
ously wrought with gold-wire, 
and blue, purple, and scarlet 
thread. Upon either shoulder 
is seen an onyx stone, on each 
of which were engraved the 
names of six of the tribes of 
Israel. The breastplate is also 
seen, with a wrought chain of 
gold attached to e'ach corner, 
and passing under the arms 



and over the shoulder. (See 
Breastplate.) 

The mitre, or head-dress, is 
formed of eight yards of fine 
linen, in circular folds, and in- 
scribed in front, upon a plate 
of pure gold, Holiness to the 
Lord. The fringe, or hem of 
thte robe, and the bells sus 
pended from it, are also seen. 

The dress of the high*priest, 
310 



H1G 



Hie 




on the day of expiation, is 
given in the second cut, and is 
very plain and simple; con- 
sisting only of plain linen, 
with a sash or girdle. Hence 
tti^se were called by the Jews, 
the priest's " white garments," 
-fee. ; the former, " garments of 
gold." 

The office of the high-priest 
was originally held Ifor life; 



but this, as well as the right ef 
the first-born, were disregarded 
in the later ages of that dispen- 
sation; and the sacred place 
was occupied by the worst of 
men, among whom was Caia- 
phas. The high-priest's most 
solemn, peculiar, and exclu- 
sive duty was to officiate in the 
most holy place on the great 
day of atonement. In Lev. xvi 
3ii 



HIR 

we have a full account of this 
most interesting service, and 
the imposing ceremonies which 
preceded it. The high-priest 
might, at any time, perform 
the duties assigned to the ordi- 
nary priests. The high-priest 
is supposed to have had an 
assistant, to occupy his place 
in case of his incompetency 
from sickness, defilement, or 
otherwise. (2 Kings xxv. 18. 
Jer. lii. 24. For a more full 
account of this office, and the 
duties, &c, appertaining to 
it, see Scripture Illustra- 
tions, part ii. pp. 75—82, and 
Biblical Antiquities, vol. ii. 
ch. iv. § 3, and ch. vi. § 5, both 
by Am. S.S.Union.) 

HIGHWAYS, (Lev. xxvi. 
22,) sometimes simply ways, 
(Ps. lxxxiv. 5. Prov. xvi. 17, 
metaphorically.) means any 
public way or high-road, in 
distinction from a private wall 
or footpath. (See Causeway.) 
HILL-COUNTRY. (Lukei. 
39.) This term was applied to 
the country in the vicinity of 
Jerusalem. 

HILL OF ZION, (Ps. ii. 6,) 
and HOLY HILL, (Ps. iii. 4,) 
both refer to the eminence on 
which the temple of Jerusalem 
was erected, and in which God 
was supposed to manifest his 
presence in a peculiar man- 
ner. (Comp. Ps. xlviii. 1, 2.) 
HIN. (See Measures.) 
HIND. (See Hart.) 
HINGES. (See Dwellings.) 
HINNOM. (See Hell. See 
also Selumiel, ch. ix., by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

HIRAM. 1. (2 Sam. v. 11, 
12.) A distinguished king of 
Tyre. He was contemporary 
with David and Solomon, and 
on terms of the strictest politi- 
cal and personal friendship 
with them. Under his reign, 
the city of Tyre became cele- 
brated for its wealth and mag- 
nificence; and the vast sup- 
plies he furnished to the kings 
of Israel show the greatness 



HiV 

of his resources. (1 Kings ix 
14; x.22.) 

2. (IKingsvii. 13.) An emi- 
nent artificer of Tyre, who was 
employed by Solomon on some 
of the most difficult of the fix- 
tures and furniture of the tern- 
pie. 

HIRELING. (Jobvii.l.) One 
who is employed on hire for a 
limited time, &s a day or year. 
By the Levitical law, such an 
one was to be paid his wages 
daily. (Lev. xix. 13.) The cir- 
cumstance that the time is 
limited suggests the figurative 
language in the above passage, 
and in Job xiv. 6 : and the 
little interest which would be 
felt by such a temporary la- 
bourer, compared with that of 
the shepherd or permanent 
keeper of the flock, furnishes 
a striking illustration in one 
of our Lord's discourses. (John 
x. 12, 13.) 

HISS. (1 Kings \x. 8.) To 
hiss at one is an expression of 
insult and contempt, (Jer. xix 
8. Ezek.xxvii. 36. Mic. vi. 16;) 
and to call any one with a 
hiss denotes power and autho- 
rity over him, (Isa. v. 26; vii. 
18. Zech. x. 8 ;) as if it should 
be said, " he will come at my 
beck or nod." 

HITTITES. (1 Kings xi.l.) 
The posterity of Heth, the se- 
cond son of Canaan. Thefr 
settlements were in the south* 
ern part of Judea, near Hebron. 
(Gen. xxiii. 3.) They are also 
spoken of as inhabiting the 
mountains of Judah, (Num. 
xiii. 29;) and again as in the 
neighbourhood of Bethel.(Judg, 
i. 26.) Probably they main- 
tained a sort of independence* 
(1 Kings x. 29. 2 Kings vii. 6 ;) 
and they seem to have retain- 
ed their distinctive name to a 
late period. (Ezra ix. 1, 2.) 

HIVITES. (Gen. x. 17.) A 
horde of the Canaanites, else- 
where called Avims. (Deut. ii. 
23. See Avim.) They seem 
to have been settled in various 
312 



HON 

rrtsoftheland. (Gen.xxxiv. 
Josh, xi a 19.) 

HOBAB. (Num. x. 29-32.) 
The son of Jethro, and brother- 
in-law of Moses. 

HOBAH. (Gen. xiv. 15.) A 
place north of Damascus,where 
a hill is still shown to travel- 
lers, bearing the same name,' 
and alleged to occupy the 
same site. 

HOLY, HOLINESS. (Ex. 
xv. 11. Lev. xxvii. 14.) Holi- 
ness, or perfect freedom from 
sin, and infinite purity, is one 
of the distinguishing attri- 
butes of the divine nature. 
(Isa.vi.3.) These words (which 
in their primitive meaning im- 
ply a separation or setting 
apart) are sometimes used to 
denote the purity of the angelic 
nature, (Matt. xxv. 31,)^ the 
comparative- freedom from sin 
which results from the sancti- 
fication of the human heart, — 
as in the case of prophets,(Rev. 
xxii. 6,) apostles, (Rev. xviii. 
20,) ministers, (Tit. i.8,) Chris- 
tians, (Heb.iii.l,)— and the con- 
secrated character of things, 
(Ex. xxx. 25. Lev. xvi. 4,) and 
places. (2 Pet. i. 18.) 

HOLY CITY. (See Jeru- 
salem.) 

HOLY DAY. (See Feasts.) 

HOLY GHOST, HOLY SPI- 
RIT. (See Spirit.) 

HOLY LAND. (See Canaan.) 

HOME-BORN SLAVE. (See 
Servant.) 

HOMER. (See Measures.) 

HONEY, HONEYCOMB. 
(Ps. xix. 10.) The abundance 
of honey in the land of Judea 
may be inferred from a variety 
of passages in the Bible, as 
well as Irom the accounts of 
modern travellers. It was, al- 
most, without metaphor, a land 
flowing with milk and honey. 
(Ex. iii. 8. 17.) The wild honey 
on which John the Baptist 
lived was, perhaps, such as he 
could gather from rocks and 
hollow trees. 

The syrup obtained from 
27 



HOS 

dates m supposed to be some- 
times intended by the word 
honey. (2 Chron. xxxi. 5.) And 
we are told of a tree, found in 
some parts of the east, upon 
the leaves and twigs of which 
a sweet substance collects, and 
is gathered and used by the 
Arabs, which at first strongly 
resembles honey. The figura- 
tive allusions of the sacred 
writers to honey and the honey- 
comb are striking and beauti- 
ful. (Ps. xix. 10. Prov. v. 3; 
xxvi i . 7.) Milk and honey were , 
the chief dainties of the earlier 
ages, as they are now of the 
Bedouins ; and butter and ho- 
ney are also mentioned among 
articles of food. (2 Sam. xvii. 
29. Isa. vii. 15) In South Afri- 
ca, bees deposit their honey 
on the surface of the cliffs of 
rocks ; and, for its protection, 
cover it with a dark coloured 
wax. This, by the action of 
the weather, becomes hard,and 
of the complexion of the rock. 
The traveller makes an inci- 
sion in this wax-covering, and, 
by applying his mouth to the 
aperture, sucks out as lnuch 
honey as he wants. fc)eut. 
xxxii. 13.) They alsareover 
trees in the same manner 

HOOD. (See Clothes.) 

HOPHNI. (See Eli.) 
HOR. (Num. xx. 22. 25.) A 
celebrated mountain on the 
border of Idumea, about half- 
way between the Dead and 
Red Seas, where Aaron was 
buried. (See Seir.) A north- ] 
eastern branch of mount Leba- j 
non is also called mount Hot. \ 
(Num. xxxiv. 7, 8.) It consti- 
tuted part of the northern 
boundary of the land of Israel. 
HOREB. (Ex. iii. 1.) To 
understand the relative situa- 
tion of the interesting group of 
mountains, to which both Ho- 
reb and Sinai belong, and the 
scenes which were witnessed 
upon them, it is necessary to 
go into some detail, as it re- 
313 



HOR 

apects the face of the coun- 
try. 

The peninsula formed by the 
two branches, in which the 
gulf called the Red Sea termi- 
nates, constitutes part of a. wild 
and desolate region. It has 
been called " a sea of desola- 
tion." It would seem as if it 
had once been an ocean of 
lava, and that, while its waves 
were literally running moun- 
tain—high, it was commanded 
guddenly to stand still. The 
whole of this region is com- 
posed of bare rocks and craggy 
precipices, among which nar- 
row denies and sandy valleys 
are interspersed. There is 
little vegetation. Many of the 
plains are covered with loose 
flints and pebbles, and others 
are sandy. The few plants 
and shrubs that are to be found 
are such as love a dry sandy 
soil, or such as contrive to 
draw nourishment from the 
fissures of the rocks, or from a 
thin mixture of clayj which 
may be found in some parts of 
the" soil. Rain rarely falls in 
this vuAderness, and fountains 
or sprWgs of water are exceed-* 
ingly rare ; and, when found, 
the water is generally either 
brackish orsulphureous,though 
not unwholesome. 

In the central part of this 
peninsula, stands the group of 
the Sinai mountains, to which 
great celebrity has been given 
by its connexion with several 
important circumstances in the 
migration of the Israelites from 
Egypt to Canaan. This group 
is composed almost entirely of 
granite, and forms a rocky wil- 
derness of an irregular, circu- 
lar shape, intersected by many 
narrow valleys, and i"s from 
thirty to forty mile3 in diame- 
ter. It contains the highest 
mountains of the peninsula, 
whose shaggy and pointed 
peaks, and steep and shatter- 
ed sides, render it clearly dis- 
tinguishable from all the rest 



HOR 

of the country in view. It is 
upon this region of the penin 
sula that the fertile valleys 
are found which produce fruit- 
trees. "Water is found in plenty 
in this district; on which ac- 
■ count it is the place of refuge 
•to all the Bedouins when the 
low country is parched up. Its 
advantage in this respect may 
have operated in the selection 
of the spot for the encampment 
of the Israelites, who remained 
here nearly a year ; for there 
seems little doubt that this 
upper country or wilderness 
formed exclusively the desert 
of Sinai, so often mentioned in 
the account of their wander- 
ings. It is perhaps impossible 
to^ascertain with distinctness 
which of the different eleva- 
tions comprised in this chain 
forms the Horeb, wmere Mo- 
ses received the call to his 
great work, or the Sinai, 
where the tables of the law 
were committed to his hands. 
There has been a good deal of 
discussion on this point, into 
which we do not feel it neces- 
sary to enter, contenting our- 
selves with an account of the 
part of the group to which that 
distinction is restricted by local 
traditions and religious asso- 
ciations, and to which the de- 
scriptions of travellers more 
particularly refer. The inte- 
resting part of the Sinai group 
consists of two adjoining ele- 
vations, or, nerhaps we should 
say, one mountain with two 
summits, respectively known 
as Djebel Mousa (mount Moses) 
and Djebel Katerin, (mount 
Catherine ;) the former being, 
in common opinion, Sinai ; 
and the latter, Horeb. Without 
attempting to decide the point, 
we must observe that seme 
authorities incline to reverse 
this arrangement ; consider- 
ing Djebel Mousa as Horeb, 
and Djebel Katerin as Sinai; 
while others question whether 
e-ther of the two has any iusl 
314 



HOR 

claim to be considered as Sinai 
or Horeb. A more elevated 
Bummit, with five peaks, to 
the westward, called mount 
Serbal, seems to have been at 
some early time considered as 
the " mount of Moses ;" a com- 
prehensive term,implyingboth 
Sinai and Horeb. 

A very discerning modern 
traveller expresses the opinion 
that mount Serbal was at one 
time the chief place of pilgrim- 
age in the peninsula, and that 
it was then considered as the 
mountain where Moses receiv- 
ed the tables of the law; though 
he is equally convinced, from 
a perusal of the Scriptures, 
that the Israelites encamped 
in the upper Sinai, and that 
either Djebel Mousa or mount 
St. Catherine is the real Horeb. 

Between Sinai and Horeb is 
the valley of El Ledja, in which 
is the small convent of El Er- 
bayn, which is in good repair, 
and affords a convenient rest- 
ing place to travellers descend- 
ing from the barren mountains 
above. This valley, though 
narrow and encumbered with 
blocks of stone rolled clown 
from the mountains, is, upon 
the whole, very pleasant and 
agreeable. 

It presents many objects of 
veneration, particularly the 
supposed rock which Moses 
Btruck for a supply of water. 
This lies quite insulated by the 
side of the path, and is about 
twelve feet in height, of an 
irregular shape, approaching 
to a cube. There are some 
apertures on its surface,through 
which the water is said to have 
burst out ; they are for the most 
part ten or twelve inches long, 
two or three broad, and not 
more than from one to two 
inches deep ; but a few may be 
as deep as four inches. Most 
of these fissures are evidently 
the work of art ; but three 01 
four of the twenty may be na- 
tural ; and these probably first 



HOR 

drew the attention of the monks 
to the stone. That it is really 
the rock of Meribah is sin- 
cerely believed by the present 
monks of Sinai, as well as by 
the Bedouins, who put grass 
into the fissures as offerings to 
the memory of Moses, in the 
same manner as they place 
grass upon the tombs of their 
saints; because grass is to them 
the most precious gift of nature, 
and that upon which their ex- 
istence depends. They also 
bring hither their female ca 
mels, believing that by making 
the animal crouch down befor 
the rock, while they recite 
some prayers and renew the 
grass in the fissures of the 
stone, their camels will be- 
come fertile, and yield their 
milk in abundance. That this 
is not the real rock of Meribah, 
nor the vale the "valley of 
Rephidim" ot the Bible, is 
clear from the fact, that here 
and elsewhere in the upper 
Sinai, 'perennial springs are 
so numerous as to supersede 
all occasion for a miraculous 
supply of water. Not far from 
this is shown a small and 
apparently natural excavation 
in a granite rock, resembling a 
chair, where it is said that 
Moses often sat. Near this is 
shown the petrified pot or ket- 
tle of Moses, as they call it, 
being a circular projecting 
knob in a rock, resembling 
the lid of a tea-kettle in size 
and shape. The Arabs have 
often in vain endeavoured to 
break this rock, supposi ng it t 
conceal great treasures. (See 
Sinai. See Map, pp. 520, 521.) 

HORIMS. (Deut.ii. 1.22.) A 
general name for dwellers in 
caves, and perhaps the same 
with the Horites. 

HORITES. (Gen. xiv. 6.) 
An ancient and powerful peo- 
ple, who dwelt in mount Seir, 
(Gen. xxxvi. 20—30.) 

HORN. (ISam. ii. 1. 10. 
This word is employed in the 
315 



HOR 

Old Testament as an emblem 
of power, honour, or glory. 
(Dent, xxxiii. 17. Job xvi. 15. 
Luke i. 69.) Hence it is fre- 
quently employed in prophetic 
visions, instead of kings and 
kingdoms. (Dan. vii. 20—24.) 
Horns were used as vessels for 
liquids, especially oil and per- 
fumes, (1 Sam. xvi. 1. 1 Kings 
. 39,) and also for trumpets. 
(Josh. vi. 8. 13.) The horn 
being the chief defence and 
strength of many beasts, to 
break or cut off the horn of a 
king or people is to abridge 
or destroy their power ; and to 
raise or exalt the horn is to 
establish or increase power 
and prosperity. So also among 
the aborigines of this country 
a like custom prevailed. The 
chief of the council which ne- 
gotiated the treaty with Wil- 
liam Penn opened the business 
by placing on his own head a 
crown with a horn in it, signi- 
ficant of supreme authority, by 
which the covenants of the 
treaty were made binding. 

Some ha've supposed that in 
those passages, Ps. lxxv. 5. 10, 
allusion is made to a hollow 
silver horn, four or five inches 
in diameter at the root, and 
rising obliquely from the fore- 




head, which was worn as an 
ornament by oriental women, 
warriors, and distinguished 
men. (1 Sam. ii. 1.) 

They are noticed by travel- 
lers as worn by Abyssinian 
chiefs, and on the military 
caps of the sepoys of India. 



HOR 

Horns on the Altar. (Se€ 

At tar. ^ 

HORNET. (Deut. vn. 20.) A 
very large, strong, and bold 
species of the wasp, remarka- 
ble for their irritability, and 
for the severity of their sting. 
Hornets were employed as in- 
struments of the divine judg- 
ments upon the enemies of 
Israel. (Comp. Ex. xxiii. 28, 
and Josh, xxiv, 12.) 

HORSE. (G@4i. xlix. 17.) In 
the early periods of the world, 
the labouring beasts were chief- 
ly oxen and asses, while horses 
were used by kings and warri 
ors, either mounted or harness- 
ed to chariots. (Ex. xiv. 9. 23 
Esth. vi. 8.) The use of horses 
by the Israelites was discour ?g 
ed. (Deut. xvii. 16. Josh. xi. 6.) 
The reason is perhaps explain 
ed in Isa. xxxi. 1. 3. In Solo- 
mon's time, however, horses 
were common among them, 
and he probably imported 
them from Syria and Egypt- 
(lKingsiv.26; x. 26.29. 2Chron. 
i. 14—17 ; ix. 25.) Horses were 
consecrated to idol-gods, (2 
.Kings xxiii. 11,) and are often 
employed by the prophets, un- 
der different colours, to denote 
the character of future dispen- 
sations, (Zech. i. 8; vi. 2— 6;) 
and so also are angels repre- 
sented under the figure of 
horses, (2 Kings ii. 11 ; vi. 15 — 
17;) because of the character- 
istic strength, fleetness, and 
courage of that animal. (Job 
xxxix. 19—25. For a full de- 
scription of the horse, and 
illustrative engravings^ see 
Youth's Friend, vol. iii. No. 
6, Bible Natural History, 
and Portfolio of Animals, 
all by Am. S. S. Union.) 

HORSE-LEECH. (Piov.xxx. 
15.) A well known insect of 
the water, resembling a worm, 
and remarkable for its thirst 
for blood, which is never satis 
fied until its body is complete 
ly filled. The figure in the 
above passage may illustrate 



HOS 

the insatiable craving of lust, 
avarice, and cruelty. 

HOS ANNA (Matt. xxi. 9) is 
used either as a form of blessing 
or an ascription of praise. Thus, 
when Hosanna was cried, in 
the passage just cited, it was 
as if the people had shouted in 
ioyful acclamations on every 
side, Lord, preserve this Son 
of David; heap favours and 
blessings upon him. The same 
exclamation is supposed to 
have been used in the proces- 
sion at the feast of tabernacles. 

HOSEA, prophecy of, is 
supposed to have been uttered 
about seven or eight hundred 
years before Christ. This pro- 
phet was a son of Beeri, and 
iived in Samaria ; and if we 
construe the title of the pro- 
phecy literally, (Hos. i. 1,) we 
should infer tnat his prophecy 
embraced a period of at least 
eighty years. It is probable, 
however, that the work of Ho- 
sea begins with the second 
verse. The design of the pro- 
phecy is to reprove the people 
of Israel for their heinous sins 
and gross idolatry, and to warn 
Judah against falling into the 
same courses. 

The divine directions (Hos. 
i. 2; ill. 1) have occasioned 
much speculation. The gene- 
ral idea seems to be, that at 
that time (as at the present 
day in many eastern countries) 
it was common to form tempo- 
rary marriages; during the con- 
tinuance of which, strict fide- 
lity and propriety were main- 
tained on both sides, as when 
the contract was for a perma- 
nent union. So that, however 
revoltitg it must seem to us, 
it was not scandalous in the 
prophet, but might possibly ex- 
pose and reprove the peculiar 
iniquity of the Israelites. 

HOSHEA. 1. (Deut. xxxii. 
44.) The same with Joshua. 

2. (2 Kings xv. 30.) The son 
of Elah, and the last of the 
kings of Israel. In the ninth 
27* 



HUM 

year of his reign, the Assyrian 
kin?, provoked by an attempt 
which Hoshea made to form 
an alliance with Egypt, and 
so throw off the Assyrian yoke, 
marched against Samaria, and, 
after a siege of three years, 
took it, and"carried the people 
away into Assyria. (2 Kings 
xvii. 1—6. Hos. xiii. 16. Mic. 
i.6.) 

HOUGH. (Josh. xi. 6. 9.) To 
disable by cutting the sinews 
of the ham, (hamstrings.) 

HOUR. (Matt. xxv. 13.) A 
division of time known among 
us as the twenty-fourth part of 
a day. One of the earliest 
divisions of the day was into 
morning, heat of the day, mid- 
day, and evening; and the 
night, into first, second, and 
third watch. The first use of 
the word hour by the sacred 
writers occurs, Dan. iii. 6; but 
the length of the time denoted 
by it varied with the seasons of 
the year. The third, sixth, and 
ninth hours of the day, count- 
ing from 6 a. m., were espe- 
cially hours of prayer. 

HOUSE. (See Dwellings.) 
The word house is also used to 
denote a family, (Gen. xii. 17. 
1 Tim. v. 8,) a race, or lineage, 
(Luke ii. 4,) and property. 
(1 Kings xiii. 8.) 

House, in the New Testa- 
ment, as some suppose, signi- 
fies the immediate family of 
the householder ; while house- 
hold includes all who dwell 
under his roof. 

House of the Rolls, (Ezra 
vi. 1,) and 

Treasure House, (Ezra v. 
17,) are both expressions sup- 
posed to refer to the same 
apartment, and denote the 
public depository of books. 

HUMILITY (Prov. xv. 33) is 
the opposite of pride, and one 
of the cardinal graces of the 
renewed heart. It consists in 
a man's not thinking of him- 
self more highly than he ousht 
to think; and is urged with 
317 



HUS 

great force upon all who pro- 
fess to be Christ's disciples. 
(i Pet. v. 5.) In this, as in all 
other respects, our divine Sa- 
viour's life furnishes us with a 
perfect example, (Phil. ii. 5 — 
8;) and the sacred Scriptures 
abound with promises of grace 
and favour to the humble, and 
threatenings of sorrow and 
punishment to the proud. 

HUR. (Ex. xvii. 10.) The 
son of Caleb, and one of the 
chief men of the Israelites. 
(Ex. xxiv. 14.) 

HUSBAND. (SeeMAR- 
riace.) (Matt. i. 16.) A mar- 
ried man, and, as some derive 
it, the house-band, or one who 
connects the family and keeps 
it together. A man betrothed, 
but not married, was called 
a husband, as the espousals 
were considered sacred and 
inviolable. 

Tfie husband is the head of 
the wife, (Eph. v. 23,) inasmuch 
as he is the head of the house- 
hold, (though she is associated 
with him,) and, as such, he is 
entitled to the respect and 
affection of all. 



HYM 

HUSBANDMAN. (Johnxv 
1.) One whose profession and 
labour is to cultivate the 
ground. It is among the most 
ancient and honourable occu- 
pations. (Gen. ix. 20. Isa. 
xxviii. 24—28.) All the Jews 
who were not consecrated to 
religious offices were agricul- 
turists. The force and appro- 
priateness of the figurative 
uses of this term by the sacred 
writers are sufficiently obvious 
from their connexion. 

HUSHAI. (2 Sam. xv. 32.) 
An Archite, (Josh. xvi. 2,) and 
a particular and faithful friend 
of David. (2 Sam. xvi. 16.) 

HUSKS (Luke xv. 16) means 
either shells,— as of peas or 
beans,— or the fruit of the ca- 
rob tree, which is common in 
Palestine, and is used for food 
by the poor, and for the fatten 
ing of cattle and swine. 

HYMENEUS. (2 Tim. ii.17.) 
This name is mentioned once 
with Alexander and once with 
Philetus. He denied the doc- 
trine of a future resurrection, 
and was given up to Satan. 
(1 Tim. i. 20. Comp. 1 Cor. v. 5.) 



ICO 

ICE. (See Crystal.) 
ICHABOD. (L Sam. i v. 21, 
22.) The son of Phinehas, and 
grandson of Eli, the high-priest. 
He was born just aftpr his mo- 
ther received the sad tidings 
that her husband and father- 
in-law were dead, and the ark 
of God taken by the Philis- 
tines. Such was the effect of 
these tidings upon her, that 
she died immediately upon the 
birth of her child ; giving him 
the significant name Ichabod, 
or the glory is departing. 

ICONIUM. (Acts xiii. 51.) 
A city of ancient Lycaonia, in 
Asia Minor, at the foot of 
mount Taurus, now called 
Conia, or Cogni, the capital 
of Caramania, and residence 



IDD 

of a pasha. It contains at pre- 
sent about 15,000 inhabitants. 
It was visited by Paul and 
Barnabas, who preached the 
gospel there, and were so per- 
secuted in consequence of it 
as to be obliged to leave the 
place. (Acts xiv. 1—6.) Ico- 
nium is mentioned by several 
ancient historians. 

IDDO. (2Chron.ix.29.) In 
this passage are mentioned the 
visions of Iddo the seer against 
Jeroboam, &c; and in2Chron. 
xii. 15, is mentioned the book 
of lddo the seer concerning 
genealogies: and again, it is 
said, (2Chron. xiii. 22,) that the 
rest of the acts of Abijah, and 
his ways and his sayings, are 
written in the story (or com 
318 



IDO 

mentary) of the prophet Iddo. 
These expressions may all 
refer to one and the same 
volume. He was probably a , 
prophet and annalist of some ; 
distinction, and is supposed by 
many to have been the person 
who was slain by a lion, as re- 
corded 1 Kings xiii. Several 
others of the same name are 
mentioned, of whose history 
we know nothine. 

IDLE, (Matt. xii. 36,) in this 
connexion, means pernicious, 
false, or calumnious words. 

IDOL, (I Kinss xv. 13,) IDO- 
LATRY. (Axtsxvii.16.) What- 
ever receives the worship 
which is due only to God is an 
idol. In a figurative sense, the 
word denotes any thing which 
draws the affections from God, 
(Col. iii. 5 ;) and in a restricted 
sense, it denotes the visible 
image or figure to which reli- 
gious worship is paid. (Deut. 
xxix. 17.) 

Idolatry consists, (1.) In 
worshipping, as the true God, 
some other person or thing be- 
sides Jehovah ; and, (%) Wor- 
shipping the true God under 
some image, as the golden 
calf. (Ex. xxxii. 4, 5.) 

When the worship of idols 
commenced is uncertain. It 
was prevalent at a very early 
period of the world; and, as 
some suppose, was no incon- 
siderable part of the general 
corruption which called for 
the judgment of the deluge. 
(Gen. vi. 12.) The pagans wor- 
shipped universal nature, the 
soul of the world ; angels, de- 
mons, and the souls of departed 
men,either separate and alone, 
or in union with some star or 
other body. They worshipped 
the heavens, and in them both 
particular luminaries and con- 
stellations ; the atmosphere, 
and in it the meteors and fowls 
if the air; the earth, and in it 
beasts, birds, insects, plants, 
groves, and hills, together with 
divers' fossils, and fire. They 



IDO 

worshipped the water; and 
in it the sea and rivers; and 
in them fishes, serpents, and 
insects, together with such 
creatures as live in either ele- 
ment. They worshipped men, 
both living and dead ; and in 
them the faculties and endow- 
ments of the soul, as well as 
the several accidents and con- 
ditions of life. Nay, they wor- 
shipped the images of animals, 
even the most hateful ; such as 
serpents, dragons, crocodiles, 
&c. ; and at last descended so 
low as to pay a religious re- 
gard to things inanimate, herbs 
and plants, and the most offen- 
sive vegetables. 

No wonder that the com- 
mandment which touches this 
point should so particularly 
specify the objects which 
should not be represented in 
the form of graven images. (Ex. 
xx. 4.) 

"Usefulness was the common, 
but it was not the only quality 
that determined the object of 
idolatry ; for we may find, that 
whatever delighted with its 
transcendent beauty, whatever 
affrighted with its malignant 
power, whatever astonished 
with its uncommon greatness ; 
whatever, in short, was beauti- 
ful, hurtful, or majestic, be- 
came a deity, as well as what 
was profitable for its use. The 
sun, it was soon perceived, had 
all these powers and properties 
united in it: its beauty was 
glorious to behold ; its motion 
wonderful to consider ; its heat 
occasioned different effects, 
barrenness in some places, and 
fruitfulness in others; and the 
immense globe of its light ap-- 
peared highly exalted and rid- 
ing in triumph as it were round 
the world. The moon, it was 
seen, supplied the absence of 
the sun by night, gave a friend- 
ly light to the earth, and be- 
sides the great variety of its 
phases*, had a wonderful in- 
fluence over the sea and othei 
319 



IDO 

numid bodies. The stars were 
admired for their height and 
magnitude, the order of their 
positions, and celerity of their 
motions ; and thence the peo- 
ple were persuaded, either that 
some celestial vigour or other 
resided in them, or that the 
souls of their heroes and great 
men were translated into them 
when they died ; and upon 
these and similar presump- 
tions, they believed all celes- 
tial bodies to be deities. The 
force of fire, the serenity of air, 
the usefulness of water, as well 
as the terror and dreadfulness 
of thunder and lightning, gave 
rise to the consecration of the 
meteors and elements. The 
sea, swelling with its proud 
surface, and roaring with its 
mighty billows, was such an 
awful sight, and the earth, be- 
decked with all its plants, 
flowers, and fruits, such a 
lovely one, as might well draw 
forth a pagan's veneration ; 
when, for similar motives, viz. 
their beneficial, hurtful, de- 
lightful, or astonishing proper- 
ties, beasts, birds, fishes, in- 
sects, and even vegetables 
themselves, came to be adored. 
" The pride and pomp of the 
great, and the abject spirits of 
the mean, occasioned first the 
flattery, and then the worship 
of kings and princes as gods 
upon earth. Men famous for 
their adventures and exploits, 
the founders of nations or ci- 
ties, or the inventors of useful 
arts and sciences, were reve- 
renced while they lived, and, 
after death, canonized. The 
prevailing notion of the soul's 
immortality made them ima- 
gine, that the spirits of such 
excellent persons, either im- 
mediately ascended up into 
heaven, and settled there in 
some orb or other, or that they 
hovered in the air: whence by 
solemn invocations, and by 
making some statue or image 
to resemble, they might be 



IDO 

prevailed with to come dowc 
and inhabit it." 

Whether the idolatry of 
image worship originated in 
Chaldea or in Egypt we have 
no data from history to deter- 
mine ; but wherever it had its 
origin, the apostle Paul has 
sufficiently accounted for the 
grounds and reasons of it,when 
he says that men professing 
themselves to be wise, be- 
caryie fools, and changed the 
glory of the incorruptible' God 
into an image made like to 
corruptible man, and- to birds, 
and four-footed beasts, and' 
creeping things. (Rom. i. 22, 
23.) 

Such is the strong tendency 
of depraved nature to fall into 
this sin that the Israelites, the 
chosen people of God, were 
subjected to a twofold re- 
straint. God was their king, 
and hence idolatry with them 
was not only impiety, but trea- 
son. The positive precepts, 
and severe punishments with 
which the Jewish law met 
every approach to idolatry, and 
the. rigorous prohibition of all 
intercourse with the idola- 
trous nations which surround- 
ed them, show plainly how 
abominable the sin of idolatry 
is in the sight of God : so that 
customs which might excite 
or entice to idolatrous prac- 
tices, and which in any other 
view might seem perfectly in- 
nocent,were strictly forbidden. 
(Deut. xii.xiii.) Probably many 
peculiar provisions of the Jew- 
ish law, which may seem to 
us arbitrary or trifling, may 
have originated in this very 
circumstance. Notwithstand- 
ing all that was done to guard 
them against it, the people of 
Israel fell into some of the 
most cruel and shocking prac- 
tices of idolatry. Even the 
sacrifice of children, forbidden 
as it was under the most se- 
vere and summary penalties, 
(Lev. xx. 2,) was very common. 
320 



IDO 

Jeremiah and Ezekiel bcth 
epeak of it as a practice pre- 
vailing in or near their time. 
(Jer. vii. 31. Ezek. xvi. 21.) 

The rites of idolatry were 
generally impure and obscene 
in the highest degree. The 
priests and the gods were 
alike the slaves and the pa- 
trons of the most scandalous 
and filthy practices; and hence 
the word whoredom is often 
used as synonymous with idol- 
atry. Indeed, the present state 
of the heathen world, as it is 
represented by our own mis- 
sionaries, who have seen and 
heard with their own senses, 
shows conclusively that de- 
basement of mind, utter alien- 
ation of the heart from every 
thing pure and holy', the gross- 
est immoralities, and the most 
licentious practices, are inse- 
parable from idolatry. 

Roman Catholics deny the 
charge of idolatry, and justify 
their use of images, by saying 
that they merely serve to re- 
mind them of the objects 
represented. They say, that 
by casting their eyes on the 
images or pictures of beings, 
their thoughts are raised 
to the beings themselves. 
They assert, however, that 
saints are to be honoured and 
invocated, and their relics re- 
spected, and that the images 
of Christ, the Virgin Mary, 
and saints, ought to receive 
due honour and veneration. 
How far these practices are 
distinguishable from idolatry 
this is not the place to inquire. 
The history of mankind shows 
Us that those who are accus- 
tomed to behold allegorical 
and symbolical figures in their 

5)laces of religious worship soon 
brget the invisible object of 
adoration in the emblem by 
which it is set forth, and very 
naturally sink into that super- 
stition which is so congenial 
to the gross conceptions and 
depraved inclinations of man. 



IMM 

It is estimated that mora 
than 600,00u,000, or about two- 
thirds of the human family, 
are worshippers of idols. 

Sometimes idol temples were 
the repositories of treasure, 
(Judg. ix. 4,) and were protect- 
ed by a tower. (Judg. ix. 46.) 

IDUMEA. (SeeEDOM.) 

IJE-ABARIM. (See Aba- 
rim.) 

ILLYRICUM. (Rom. xv.19.) 
A province north-west of Ma- 
cedonia, lying along the Adri- 
atic Sea, having Italy and 
Germany on the north, and 
Macedonia on the east. Its 
southern portion was the Dal- 
matia which Titus visited. 
(2 Tim. iv. 10.) Taking Jeru- 
salem as a centre, it will ap- 
pear that Illyricum was nearly 
the extreme north-western pro- 
vince of what was then no 
small part of the known world. 
Perhaps Paul went into Illyri- 
cum ; but he speaks here only 
of having preached the gospel 
unto its borders. 

IMAGE. (Gen. i. 26, 27.) 
We are told that God created 
man in his own image; and 
Christ is said to be the image 
of God. (Col. i. 15. Heb. i. 3.) 
The term imports a complete 
and exact likeness, like that 
which exists between a seal 
and its impression, when the 
original is perfectly preserved 
in the representation. The 
word is usually employed to 
denote an object of idolatrous 
worship. (See Man, Idol.) 

IMMANUEL. (Isa. vii . 14.) 
A Hebrew word, signifying 
" God with ms," and used as 
one of the distinctive titles 
of the Messiah. (See Ahaz, 

IMMORTAL, IMMORTAL- 
ITY. (1 Cor. xv. 53. 1 Tim. i. 
17.) A state of being not sub- 
ject to death. It is one of the at 
tributes of the Supreme Being 

The bodies which we inha- 
bit while in this world are cor- 
ruptinle, exposed to sickness, 
321 



INC 

Oain, and death ; but the soul 
can never die, as the body 
dies. 1^6 ^ery nature is immor- 
tal. There is a sense in which 
the state of being, on which 
the souls of all men enter at 
death, is immortal. But the 
Scriptures speak of the future 
existence of the righteous as a 
state of immortality or eternal 
life, in distinction from the 
state of the wicked, (Matt, 
xxv. 46. Rom. ii. 7 ;) and it is 
obvious that the phrase im- 
mortal or eternal death, might 
be employed to express forci- 
bly the nature of the punish- 
ment to which the wicked will 
be doomed in the world to 
come. 

IMPUTE. (Rom. v. 13.) By 
comparing ver. 18 of the epis- 
tle to Philemon, with Rom. 
iv. 5—13, we shall see the 
force of this term. The words 
translated put that on mine 
account in the former passage, 
and that which is rendered by 
the words counted^ impute, and 
imputed, in the other,«bave a 
common origin and meaning. 
The plain Christian sees and 
feels the force of the expres- 
sion, and though he may be 
ignorant of technical distinc- 
tions, yet while he believes 
on One that justifieth the un- 
godly, he feels the blessedness 
of him to whom the Lord will 
,not impute sin. The great 
principle involved is, that the 
sinner who accepts Christ is 
delivered from the guilt,power, 
and punishment of sin, and is 
clothed with a righteousness 
which is not his own, but the 
gift of God through Jesus Christ. 
His sins are put to the account 
of another, and another's right- 
eousness is put to his account. 
INCENSE (Ex. xxx. 8) was 
a compound of frankincense 
and other gums or spices ; the 
materials and manufacture of 
which are particularly pre- 
scribed, Ex. xxx. 34—36. (See 
Frankincense.) It was the 



INH 

business of the priest to burn 
it morning and evening, upon 
an altar specially erected fo* 
this purpose ; and thence call- 
ed the altar of incense. The 
preparation of it for common 
use was positively forbidden ; 
neither could any other com- 
position be offered as incense 
on this altar, nor could this be 
offered by any but the priest. 
(See Censer. See Biblical 
Antiquities, vol. ii. pp. 46. 
49, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

INCHANTERSJNCHANT- 
MENTS, (Ex. vii. 11. Deut. 
xviii. 10.) Inchanters were 
persons who pretended to pos- 
sess the power of charming 
animals, &c. The practice 
of inchantment is allied to 
witchcraft and sorcery; and 
both the' practice and prac« 
tisers are decidedly con- 
demned by God's law. (Deut. 
xviii. 9—12.) It is unquestion- 
ably true that persons have 
sometimes obtained a wonder- 
ful influence, particularly over 
serpents of the most deadly 
species ; instances of which 
are often stated by eastern 
travellers. 

INDIA. (Esth. i. 1 ; viii. 9.; 
The southern section of the 
continent of Asia. It is only 
mentioned as the eastern boun- 
dary of the dominions of Aha- 
suerus. 

INGATHERING, fj;ast op. 
(See Feasts.) 

INHERITANCE.(Gen.xxxi , 
14.) In the modern use of this 
word, it denotes the estate to 
which one succeeds on the 
death of the present possessor, 
and who is hence called his 
heir. In eastern countries,how- 
ever, the portions of children 
were distributed to them by 
the father during his lifetime. 
Among the Hindoos, the father 
is bound to mak£ an equal 
distribution of his property, 
whenever his children, in a 
body, apply for it. Hence the 
legitimacy of the application 



INN 
which the prodigal son and 
his brother made, and which 
resulted in the father's divid- 
ing unto them his living. 
Luke xv. 12.) 

The word inheritance is also 
used, in a more general sense, 
to denote property, or partici- 
pation. (Comp. Ezek. xxxiii. 
24, with Acts vii. 5) 

INIQUITY. (Gen. xv. 16.) 
Whatever is done regardless 
of the law of God. Sin is the 
transgression of the law : ini- 
quity is a contempt or disre- 
gard of the law. (Ps. li. 2. 9 ; 
ciii. 10.) To bear the iniquity 
of the congregation (Lev. x.. 
17) is to make that expiation 
or atonement which is a pre- 
requisite to their forgiveness. 
(Isa. liii.6.) 

INK, INKHORN. (Jer.xxxvi. 
18. Ezek. ix.2.) It'is supposed 
that the common ink of early 
ages was made of water and 
pulverized charcoal, or the 
black of burnt ivory, with the 
addition of some kind of gum. 
Other substances were doubt- 
less used both for writing and 
colouring matter. The Ro- 
mans iraed a dark purple li- 
quid, which was obtained from 
a species of fish for this pur- 
pose. The ink in common 
use at this day has been known 
for several centuries in Eu- 
ropean countries, and is usual- 
ly made of nutgalls,vitriol, and 
gum. Ancient ink was more 
caustic, and less liable to fade 
or decay. Chinese ink is of 
the same quality. The pro- 
cessed writers or scribes car- 
ried with them, as they do at 
the present day in eastern 
countries, the implements of 
their business; and among 
these was an inkhorn, thrust 
into the girdle at the side. 

INN. (Luke x. 34.) In the 
earliest ages, an inn was no- 
thing more than the well or 
other convenient place where 
the company of travellers and 
their weary beasts reposed 



INS* 

for rest and refreshment. At 
a later period it was the cara- 
vansary, a very comfortless, 
temporary enclosure, without 
rooms or doors. Afterwards 
the inn became what the cara- 
vansaries of Persia are at the 
present day,— a place where 
travellers may buy lodging, 
food, and fuel. This was per- 
haps such an inn as accom- 
modated the poor wounded 
man, in the beautiful story of 
the good Samaritan; and it 
was to the stable or out-build- 
ing of such an inn that Mary 
was obliged to resort with the 
infant Saviour, because the 
general enrolment had brought 
so many strangers to the place 
as to fill the house before they 
arrived. 

INSPIRATION (2 Tim. iii. 
16) is a supernatural divine 
influence exerted upon the 
human mind, by means of 
which the individual is made 
to know certainly,and to speak 
truly,\vhat could not have been 
so known in the ordinary ex- 
ercise of the faculties, and 
without any such influence 
When this influence is so ex 
erted as absolutely to exclude 
uncertainty and all mixture 
of error in a declaration of 
doctrines or facts, it is called 
a plenary or full inspiration. 
And the book written under 
such an influence, though 
it may contain many things 
which the author might have 
known and recorded by the 
use of his natural faculties, is 
properly said to be an inspired 
book. Nor is it necessary that 
the particular style and me- 
thod of the writer should be 
abandoned. God may have 
wise purposes to answer in 
preserving this, while he se- 
cures, through its agency, an 
infallible declaration of his 
will. So that style, manner, 
&c, may be of the author's 
own choice, provided the facts 
stated and the doctrines 
323 



taught as of divine authority, 
are stated and taught under 
an immediate divine influ- 
ence, without the possibility 
©f error. And even if it should 
appear that the copies of such 
a book now in the world have 
suffered from the injuries of 
time, and the carelessness of 
transcribers and printers, so 
that inaccuracies and discre- 
pancies of unessential import- 
ance might be detected, still 
if the substance of the book, 
if the grand system of truth or 
duty revealed, is evidently, as 
a whole, the result of such di- 
vine inspiration, it is to be re- 
ceived, and may be entirely 
credited as an inspired book. 

Theological writers speak of 
I he inspiration of elevation, 
by which the natural faculties 
are endued with supernatural 
power, and rise to those sub- 
lime conceptions of divine 
things, which their natural 
force could not attain ; and 
also of the inspiration of sug- 
gestion, by which the truth is 
suggested directly to the mind 
by"the Spirit of God, and also 
the language in which it is to 
be declared to others. Such 
was the revelation to John in 
the isle of Patmos. All these 
various degrees or kinds of 
inspiration are supposed to 
occur in our Scriptures. And 
sometimes they are combined. 
(See Scripture.) 

INSTRUMENTS OF MU- 
SIC. (See Music.) 

INTERCESSION, INTER- 
CESSOR. (Isa.liii. 12;lix.l6.) 
To intercede for another is to 
appear for him or interpose in 
his behalf, and to plead for 
him. (1 Tim. ii. I.) It usually 
implies guilt or obligation; 
and the object of the interces- 
sor is to reconcile or satisfy the 
offended party, and procure 
the release and pardon of the 
offender. It sometimes denotes 
the reverse of this. (Rom. 
xi. 2.) 



IRO 

The Spirit is said to make 
inter cession for us. (Rom.viii. 
26.) This is to be understood 
as referring to that peculiar 
influence of the Spirit upon 
the heart by which it is taught, 
and guided, and enabled' to 
cherish and breathe forth holy 
desires, which God will gra- 
ciously accept through the 
complete and effectual media- 
tion of Him who ever liveth to 
make intercession for us. As 
to ihefact of Christ's interces- 
sion, see Rom. viii. 34. 1 Tim. 
ii. 5. 1 John ii. 1 ; and the man- 
ner of it is illustrated. Heb. 
vii.— x., in which chapters 
the continued intercession of 
Christ, and the sacrifice of 
himself as the ground of his 
intercession, are presented to 
the mind as a most affecting 
evidence of the nature and 
effect of sin. 

IRON. (Prov. xx vii. 17.) 
Some of the uses of this well 
known and most valuable 
metal were probably known 
at a very early period. (Gen. 
iv. 22.) We find it mention- 
ed as the material for tools, 
(Deut. xxvii. 5. 2 Kings vi. 
6 ;) weapons of war, (1 Sam, 
xvii. 7;) furniture, (Deut. iii. 
11 ;) implements of husbandry, 
(2 Sam. xii. 31. Jer. xxviii. 
14;) and chariots of war. (Josh, 
xvii. 16, &c. &c.) By northern 
iron (Jer. xv. 12) probably is 
intended a species of iron ore 
or manufacture, remarkable 
for its hardness, found in a re- 
gion bordering on the Euxine 
Sea, and of course north of Ju 
dea. 

It is naturally supposed, from 
the connexion, that by the ex- 
pression, a land whose stones 
are iron, (Deut. viii. 9,) is in 
tended an abundance of iron 
ore ; and a passage of like im. 
port occurs in the description 
of the lot of Asher, (Deut.xxxiii. 
25,) where the reading migh 
be, under thy shoes are irox 
and brass. 

324 



ISA 

ISAAC, (Gen. xxi. 3,) the son 
Bf Abraham and Sarah, was 
born a. m. 2108. The origin 
of the name, which signifies 
laughter, is given in Gen. xvii. 
17; xviii. 12 ; and xxi. 6. 

Abraham's laughter was that 
of joy; Sarah's, that of incredu- 
lity. Isaac's birth was the sub- 
ject of many remarkable pro- 
phecies ; and he was made, by 
express covenant with Abra- 
ham, the ancestor of the pro- 
mised Messiah. (Gen. xxi. 12.) 
When he had arrived at mature 
years, his father was required 
to offer him up in sacrifice; 
and his conduct on this occa- 
sion as remarkably illustrates 
his docility, and submission, 
and filial confidence, as the 
course of Abraham did his 
obedience and faith. (See 
Abraham.) He married Re- 
Dekah,the daughter of Bethuel, 
and by her became the father 
of Jacob and Esau. His pos- 
sessions were very great, (Gen. 
xxvi. 12, 13;) but his old asje 
was embittered by domestic 
trials. (Gen. xxvi. 35; xxvi i.) 
He died at Hebron, at the ad- 
vanced age of one hundred 
and eighty years. (Gen. xxxv. 
28, 29.) For a particular his- 
tory of Isaac, with maps and 
engravings, see History cf 
Abraham, Story of Isaac, 
Jacob and his son Joseph, 
and Stories from the Scrip- 
tures, all by Am. S. S. Union.) 

ISAIAH. (2 Kings xx. 1.) 
Very little is known of the 
personal history of this emi- 
nent prophet. We know that 
he was the son of Amoz, and 
the Jews say that Amoz was 
the brother of Amaziah king 
of Judah. Isaiah lived and 
prophesied between the year 
of the world 3164 and 3305; for 
Che days of Uzziah, Jotham, 
Ahaz, and Hezekiak embrace 

hat period, and his prophecy 
tvas uttered in their successive 
reigns. The history of these 
reigns is in 2 Kings zv.—xx. 
28 



ISA 

2 Chron. xxvi.— xxx\\. Soms 
passages of it are given by 
Isaiah, as in ch. vii. viii. xxxvi. 
— xxxix. Uzziah or Azariah 
reigned fifty-two years, Jotham 
and Ahaz each sixteen, and 
Hezekiah twenty-nine, mak- 
ing in all one hundred and 
thirteen : of course Isaiah did 
not live throughout the whole 
of their reigns. The period of 
the four reigns extends from 
the year of the world 3194 to 
3306, being before Christ 810 
to 698. The city of Rome wa 
founded in the time of Isaiah 
namely, in the year before 
Christ 753. 

Isaiah was nearly contem- 
porary with Hosea, Joel, Amos, 
and Micah ; and tradition says 
that he was one of the faithful 
who were sawn asunder, (Heb. 
xi. 37,) and that the event hap- 
pened about 698 years before 
Christ. There is no evidence, 
however, as to the time or 
manner of his death. 

Prophecy of, is regarded as 
one of the most complete and 
sublime of all the prophetical 
writings. Its reference to the 
advent, offices, and kingdom 
of the Messiah are so nume- 
rous and exact as to have ob 
tained for its author the titte 
of the evangelical prophet; and 
the name Isaiah (the salvation 
of Jehovah) indicates the same 
characteristic of this sublime 
book. 

The first thirty-nine chapters 
of the prophecy relate to sub- 
jects and events unconnected 
with each other, and embrace 
the period during which the 
propnet was more actively and 
openly employed as a minis- 
ter. The residue of the book 
relates chiefly to two events*— 
the end of the Babylonish cap- 
tivity, and the coming of the 
Messiah; the latter of which 
hs seems to have contemplated 
with a very distinct and ele- 
vated conception, not only of 
the circumstances of its com- 
325 



1SH 

mencement, but of its progress, 
glory, and ultimate triumph. 

1SHBOSHETH, (2Sam.ii.8,) 
son and successor of Saul, was 
persuaded by Abner 10 go up 
to Mahanaim, and assume 
the government, while David 
reigned at Hebron, (2 Sam. ii. 
1 1;) and a majority of the nation 
of Israel acknowledged him as 
king. A severe battle soon 
after occurred at Gibeon, be- 
tween the army of David, un- 
der Joab, and the army of 
Ishbosheth, under Abner; in 
which the latter were utterly 
defeated. 

Soon after this, Ishbosheth 
offended Abner, so that he for- 
sook his interest, and became 
the ally of David ; and at 
length Ishbosheth was assassi- 
nated at noonday, while he 
lay on his bed. (2 Sam.iv.5— 7.) 

ISHI, (Hos. ii. 16,) signifying 
my husband, and BAALI, in 
the same passage, signifying 
my Lord, are figuratively used 
to denote the contrast between 
the affections and relations of 
Israel towards God, at two dif- 
ferent periods of their history. 
The latter having been used 
in idol worship, the very name 
was to become obsolete. (Hos. 
ii. 17.) 

ISHMAEL. (Gen. xvi. 11.) 
The son of Abraham by Hagar. 
Previous to his birth, his mo- 
ther,being ill-treated by Sarah, 
tied from the house, and while 
in the wilderness was informed 
by an angel w^hat would be 
the character of her child, and 
that his posterity would be in- 
numerable. The birth of Ish- 
mael was in a.m. 2094; and 
as Abraham supposed that the 
promises of God respecting his 
seed were to be fulfilled in 
ishmael, he nurtured him with 
much care. (Gen. xvii. 18.) 

When Isaac was weaned, 
Ishmael was about seventeen 
years of age, and having of- 
fended Sarah by his treatment 
of tier child, she insisted upon 



ISH 

it that both he and his mother 
Hagar should be banished from 
the family. 

Hagar probably made up her 
mind to return to her kindred 
in Egypt ; but when she had 
reached the wilderness of Beer- 
sheba, her stock of water was 
exhausted, and the lad, over- 
come with fatigue and thirst, 
sunk down, apparently to die. 
God appeared for their deliver- 
ance, directed Hagar to a foun- 
tain of water, and renewed his 
promise to make of him a great 
nation. They remained in the 
wilderness, and he sustained 
himself and his mother by 
hunting. (Gen. xxi.I3— 20.) At 
length he married an Egyptian 
woman ; and so rapidly did his 
progeny multiply, that in a few 
years afterwards they are spo- 
ken of as a trading nation. 
(Gen. xxxvii. 25.) 

The prophecy that he should 
be a wild man, or literally a 
wild ass man, or as wild as a 
wild ass, has been wonderfully 
verified in the history of the 
Arabs, who are a branch of his 
posterity. They are univer- 
sally known as robbers and 
pirates ; and all wno pass 
through their country do it 
in caravans, and with arms. 
They hare never been driven 
from their territory, but have 
maintained their independ- 
ence and peculiarity Gf man- 
ners and customs up to the 
present day, though they have 
lived in the midst of influ- 
ences and events, and have 
been themselves instrumental 
in their occurrence, by which 
the relations of all the other 
kingdoms of the earth have 
been essentially modified, if 
not completely subverted. 

The wild man still spurns 
the chains of a foreign con 
queror, still waylays the tra- 
veller by the fountain, ana 
maintains himself, as In the 
days of old, by violence and 
plunder, sweeping' his troop 
32G 



1SL 

jf fierce bandrts across the 
path of the merchant and the 
pilgrim. The parcelling of 
the natives into independent 
tribes impaired their common 
strength. No necessity ever 
summoned them to combine 
for their mutual defence; no 
motives of external advantage 
could prevail with them to 
suspend their domestic feuds ; 
and no leader, till Mohammed 
arose, seems to have possessed 
the genius or address to con- 
centrate their impetuous ener- 
gies with a view to national 
aggrandizement. 

ISHMAELITES. (Gen. 
xxxvii. 25.) The descendants 
of Ishmael. The company of 
Ishmaelites, to whom Joseph 
was sold, are elsewhere called 
Midianites. (Gen. xxxvii. 28.) 
Probably they were Ishmael- 
ites who dwelt in Midian. It is 
evident, however, that the two 
names were sometimes applied 
to the same people, (Judg. viii. 
22. 24,) though we know the 
descendants of Midian were 
not Ishmaelites, (for Midian 
was a son of Abraham by Ke- 
turah.) 

ISLANDS, ISLES, Sec. (Isa. 
xlii. 12.) These words, as used 
in our version, import either, 
(I.) A settlement or colony, as 
distinguished from uninhabit- 
ed country, or from seas and 
rivers, (as in Gen. x. 5. Job 
xxii. 30, and Isa. xlii. 15;)— so 
at this day, small districts of 
cultivated and settled coun- 
try, surrounded by immense 
wastes, are, in the same 
sense, called islands ; — or, (2.) 
Coast or country adjacent to 
water or maritime places, (as 
Isa. xx. G, and xxiii. 2. 6, and 
Ezek.xxvii.7;) or, (3.) Distant 
lands beyond the sea, or places 
which were reached by sea, 
whether coasts or islands, and 
especially the regions west of 
Palestine, whether islands or 
not, (as Isa. xxiv. 15; xl. 15; 
and xlii. 4. 10. 12;) jr. (4.) 



ITA 

Islands, properly so called, ^a» 
Esth.x. 1.) where it is express- 
ly used in distinction from the 
continent or main land. 

Isles of the Gentiles, or 
Heathen, (Gen. x. 5, Zeph. 
ii.ll,)mean generally the parts 
of Europe most known to the 
ancient Asiatics. 

ISRAEL. (Gen. xxxv. 10.) 
The surname of Jacob, given 
to him by the angel at jVlaha- 
naim. (Gen. xxxii. 28. Hos. 
xii. 3.) It signifies the prince 
that prevails with God. 

We find it used, however, 
for the whole race of Jacob's 
posterity, (1 Cor. x. 18 ;) also 
for the kingdom of the ten 
tribes, as distinguished from 
Judah, (2 Kings xiv. 12;) and 
asain for all true believers, 
(fsa.xlv. 17. Rom. ix.6; xi.26.) 

Land of. (See Canaan.) 

Kingdom of. (See Israel 

ITES ) 

ISRAELITES. (Josh. iii. 17.) 
This was the usual name of 
the twelve tribes, from the time 
of their leaving Egypt until the 
revolt under Jeroboam, when 
the ten tribes constituted th€ 
kingdom of Israel, and the re- 
maining two the kingdom cf 
Judah/ (See Hebrews.) 

ISSACHAR (Gen. xxx. IS) 
was the fifth son of Jacoh and 
Leah. The prophetical de- 
scription of him, uttered by his 
father, (Gen. xlix. 14, 15,) was 
fulfilled in the fact that the 
posterity of Issachar were a 
laborious people, and addicted 
to rural employments ; hardy, 
and patient to bear the burdens 
both of labour and war. (J udg. 
v. 15. 1 Chron. vii. 1—5.) 

Tribe of, had its portion in 
one of the most fertile tracts of 
the country. It was a triangu- 
lar section on the Jordan, be- 
tween Zebulon and Ephraim. 
including the rich valley ol 
Jezreel ; thus fulfilling the pre- 
diction of his father in this re 
spect. (Gen. xlix 14, 15.) 

ITALY. (Acts x vi d .2 ; xx v L« 
327 



ITU 

i. 6. Heb. xiii. 24.) This coun- 
try, of which Rome was the 
capital in the days of Christ 
and his apostles, is too well 
known to need description. 
It stretches out into the Medi- 
terranean Sea, having the 
Adriatic on the north-east, the 
Tuscan Sea on the south-west, 
and France, Switzerland, and 
Germany on the north. 
ITHAMAR. (See Eleazar.) 
ITUREA. (Luke iii. 1.) A 
province of Syria, which de- 
rived its name from Jetur, a 
son of Ishmael, (Gen. xxv. 15. 
1 Chron. i. 31,) whose posterity 
inhabited it. It was south of 
Trachonitis, beyond Jordan, 
and probably included Aura- 
nitis and Balanea. It was 
overrun by a narty of the Isra- 
elites in the' time of Jotham 
king of Judah, and a vast 
quantity of spoil taken. (IChr. 
v. 19. 22.) It is now called 
Djedour. 



LVO 

IVORY, (lttings x. 13.) The 
substance of the tusk of the 
elephant. That which is 
brought from Ceylon is re- 
garded as most valuable. It 
was among the merchandise 
of Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 15) and 
Tarshish. (1 Kings x. 22.) So- 
lomon's throne Was built of it, 
(2 Chron. ix. 17. 21 ;) and so 
lavishly was it used in archi- 
tecture of various kinds, and 
cabinet work, as to justify the 
expressions we find in Amos 
iii. 15; vi.4, and Ezek. xxvii. 
6. In the last of these passages 
ivory shrines are meant, used 
as little images are by many 
modern sailors for superstitious 
purposes. 

The term ivory palaces (Ps. 
xlv. 8) is supposed to refer 
either to the country whence 
the perfume was obtained, or 
to boxes richly wrought, or 
inlaid with ivory, in which it 
was kept. 



JAB 

JABBOK. (Gen. xxxii. 22.) 
A brook rising in the moun- 
tains south-east of Gilead, and 
running in a rocky channel, 
through a deep ravine, about 
fifty miles westward to the Jor- 
dan, separating the Amorites 
from the Ammonites. (Num. 
xxi. 24.) Jacob crossed it on 
his return from Mesopotamia. 
(Gen. xxxii. 22.) It is now 
called Zerka, (blue river ;) 
and travellers speak of cliffs 
on either side of five hundred 
feet perpendicular height, with 
a breadth, from cliff to cliff, of 
not more than one hundred 
feet. In some places the stream 
is not more than thirty feet 
wide. 

JABESH, (1 Sam. xi. 5,) or 
JABESH-GILEAD, (Judsr. xxi. 
8,) was situated at the foot of 
mount Gilead, within the ter- 
ritory of Manasseh, on a small 
brook which is still called 



JAB 

Tabes. In the days of the 
judges, this place was sacked 
by the Israelites, and nearly 
all the inhabitants -cut off, be- 
cause they refused their aid 
in a war upon the tribe of 
Benjamin. (Judg. xxi. 10.) Af- 
terwards it was besieged by 
the Ammonites, who refused to 
spare the citizens, unless they 
would consent to have their 
right eyes plucked out. (1 Sam. 
xi. 2.) Having obtained a sus 
pension of hostilities for a 
week, they took advantage of 
the interval to secure the aid 
of Saul, who marched an army 
to their rescue, and surprised 
and defeated the Ammonites 
with great slaughter; a ser- 
vice for Which the inhabitants 
of the city evinced their grati- 
tude. (l'Sam. xxxi. 11, 12. 3 
Sam. ii. 5.) 

JABIN. l.(Josh.xi.l.) King 
of Hazor, a northern districl 
328 



J AC 
of Canaan. He attempted, by 
aformidable alliance,to oppose 
the progress of T oshua. He and 
his allies were terribly defeat- 
ed in a battle at Merom, the 
city of Hazor was taken, and 
Jabin put to death 

2. (Judg. iv. 2.) Another 
king of the same name and 
place, who had great wealth 
and power,and was guilty of op- 
pressing the children of Israel 
for twenty years. His army 
was defeated by Deborah and 
Barak, and Sisera, his princi- 
pal general, put to death. 

JABNEEL, (Josh. xv. 11,) or 
IABNEH, (2Chron. xxvi. G,) 
was a city of the Philistines, 
situated twelve miles south of 
Joppa. It was called Jamnia 
by the Greeks and Romans, 
and. is now called Gebna, or 
Yebna. 

JACINTH. (Rev. ix. 17.) A 
precious stone, of a reddish 
yellow or hyacinth colour, re- 
sembling the amethyst. 

JACOB, (Gen. xxv. 26,) the 
son of Isaac and Rebekah, and 
twin brother to Esau, received 
his name, which signifies siqy- 
planter, from a circumstance 
which occurred at his birth. 
(Gen. xxv.) When these bro- 
thers grew up, Esau devoted 
himself to hunting, and often 
gratified his aged father with 
savoury meat which he pre- 
pared from the fruits of the 
chase. By this means he be- 
came v ry much the favourite 
of Isaac ; while Jacob who was 
a plain, domestic man, was no 
less the favourite of his mother. 
(Gen. xxv. 27.) Isaac, appre- 
hending that his end was 
drawing near, was desirous, 
oefore his departure, of pro- 
nouncing a solemn, paternal 
benediction on his eldest son; 
and that his mind might be 
excited to the lively exercise 
of affection, he requested Esau 
to go out to the field and take 
some venison, and make him 
savou ry meat, such as he loved, 
23* 



JAC 

and bring it to him, that he 
might eat and bless him before 
he died. Before this time, J(^ 
cob had, for a mess of pottage, 
purchased from Esau his birth- 
right,which included the bless- 
ing now about to be given. 
(Gen. xxv. 34.) Rebekah, 
having overheard Isaac's re- 
quest to Esau, and no doubt 
being acquainted with the cir- 
cumstance of the sale of the 
birthright, immediately con- 
ceived a plan of securing the 
patriarchal blessing, which 
was prophetic in its nature, for 
her favourite; for, while Esau 
was in the pursuit of venison 
in the field, she induced Jacob 
to personate his brother, and 
to carry to his father savour/ 
meat, prepared by herself frori 
a tender kid ; and as Isaac's 
eyes were so dim that he was 
unable to distinguish between 
his sons by their appearance, 
all that was necessary was to 
guard against detection, in 
case he should be led to feel 
the hands and face of Jacob ; 
for Esau being very hairy, and 
Jacob smooth, it readily occur- 
red to the latter that his father 
might resort to this method of 
identifying him. To prevent 
detection in this way, Rebekah 
covered the neck and hands 
of Jacob with the skin of the 
kid. Thus prepared, he ven- 
tured into his father's pre- 
sence, and by means of lies 
and fraud obtained the chief 
blessing, which was intended 
for the first-born. When Esau 
returned, the deception was 
rendered manifest ; but Isaac, 
though deeply distressed on 
account of his mistake, and 
importunately and with tears 
entreated by Esau, would not 
consent to change any thing 
which had gone out of his 
mouth; and Esau received, in- 
deed, a benediction, but not 
that of the first-born, which, 
was already given to Jacob. 
By this fraud "and injury, tho 
329 



JAC 

enmity of Esau to his brother 
was excited to the highest de- 
btee, (Gen. xxvii. 41 ;) and he 
threatened to take away his 
life, as soon as his father's 
funeral should be over. Rebe- 
kah, hearing of these threats, 
persuaded Isaac to send Jacob 
away to Haran, to her brother 
Laban, until his brother's an- 
ger should subside. Accord- 
ingly, Jacob having again re- 
ceived his father's blessing, 
and a charge not to take a. 
wife of the daughters of Ca- 
naan, as Esau had done, to the 
sore grief of his parents, set off 
on his journey to Padan &ram. 
(Gen. xxviii.5.) As he journey- 
ed, he came to a certain place 
where he resolved to 'edge; 
and taking some stones «f the 
place for a pillow, he laj Jown 
to sleep. As he slept God -nade 
known to him, in a ren ^rka- 
ble dream, that his por.erity 
should be very numerous , that 
they should one day /'^ssess 
the soil on which he w?--< then 
reposing; that he she -.Id be 
personally protected ai i pros- 
pered; and that in bin ill the 
families of the earth s) vld be 
blessed. This place w i after- 
wards called Bethel (Gen. 
xxvii. xxviii.) 

When Jacob cam' near to 
the residence of hi* -lother's 
kindred, he saw iv ie field 
a well, where w ^e three 
flocks of sheep, anc? -Ceir shep- 
herds with them ; od on in- 
quiry, he found th<-* they were 
of Haran, and tha,, Rachel, the 
daughter of Lai- -n, was then 
approaching. T**** meeting be- 
tween Jaob t £tl the young 
and beaut/ ul ^vspherdess, his 
cousin, rm 4e *n impression on 
his hear' vy7 cch wa3 indeli- 
ble. Sop tpf*«r the young man 
was don eed .ated in theliouse 
of Lab? i r {tor Nahor, though 
living, teems to have been 
supera* nuated,) he made pro- 
posals to Laban to take 
ttacMi in marriage, promis- 



JAC 

ing to serve seven years for 
her. But as he had been 
guilty of a gross deception 
towards his father, to the in- 
jury of his only brother, he 
himself now became the dupe 
of a designing and unjust rela- 
tive. Instead of his beloved 
Rachel, Leah, her elder sister, 
was given to him deceptively ; 
and "when he remonstrated 
with his father-in-law, he was 
told that the custom of the 
country required that the old- 
est should be disposed of in 
marriage before a younger sis- 
ter : but it was proposed, that 
if he would serve as much 
longer, he should still have 
Rachel. ' It is not to be under- 
stood that he did not receive 
her until the seven years were 
ended : a careful attention to 
the history will show, that he 
must have received Rachel 
immediately,* and served for 
her afterwards. With each of 
his daughters Laban gave a 
maid, both of whom became 
the wives of Jacob, of the se- 
condary or inferior kind. (Gen. 
xxix.) 

From all these there were 
born to Jacob while he sojourn- 
ed in Mesopotamia, eleven 
sons and one daughter. Of 
these, Joseph only was the 
son of Rachel ; Benjamin, her 
other son, having been born 
near Bethlehem. (Gen. xxxv. 
18.) Avarice seems to have 
been the ruling passion with 
Laban ; for the gratification 
of which, he seemed to be 
willing to sacrifice even the 
comfort of his own children, 
and to take every advantage 
of a young and inexperienced 
kinsman. Continually he 
seems to have been studying 
and contriving some scheme 
by which he might obtain the 
services of Jacob for less than 
their value; but the provi- 
dence of God prevented him 
from eventually injuring his 
servant, with whom he had 
330 



JAC 

entered into covenant at Beth- 
el. Whatever plan of wages 
Laban would fix on, the Lord 
overruled it for the benefit 
of Jacob. (Gen. xxx. 26—43.) 
itJut at length he resolved to 
return to his own country, 
TOm which he had been so 
.ong an exile. And lest his 
ather-in-law should hinder his 
mrpose, he communicated his 
.iesign to his own family ; but 
-ookT the opportunity, when 
Laban was absent, to set off 
with his wives and children, 
and all his cattle, and all his 
goods, to go to Isaac his father, 
in the land of Canaan, who 
still continued to live, beyond 
his own and the hopes of all 
his friends. This important 
step, however, was not taken 
without the direction of his 
covenant-keeping God. On the 
third day after Jacob's depart- 
ure, Laban received intelli- 
gence of his flight, and he im- 
mediately pursued after him 
with a company of men, and 
on the seventh day overtook 
him in the mount Gilead. 
There can be no doubt that 
Laban'? intentions were hos- 
tile ; but on the night preced- 
ing his coming up with Jacob, 
he received an admonition 
from the Lord, in a dream, not 
to attempt any thing against 
him. After a warm expostula- 
tion on both sides, they agreed 
to part in peace ; and accord- 
ingly a solemn covenant was 
entered into between them; 
as a sign of which, they piled 
up a heap of stones, on which 
they ate together in token of 
friendship, and agreeably to a 
custom prevalently many an- 
cient nations. The mount on 
which this transaction occur- 
red received its name, Gilead. 
from the heap of stones set up 
for this witness. (Gen. xxxt. 
47,48.) 

Soon after Jacob was reliev- 
ed from all fear from Laban, 
and had the pleasing prospect 



JAC 

of speedily coming to the end 
of his journey, new fears and 
troubles arose. The danger 
which now threatened him 
was indeed appalling ; his 
brother Esau was on his way 
to meet him, accompanied by 
four hundred men. No other 
than a hostile aitack could be 
meditated, as he supposed, 
when he saw his offended 
brother approach with such 
an army, against a company 
of helpless women and child- 
ren. In this extremity, Jacob 
had no other resource but to 
look to Heaven for help. Ever 
sinceGod had revealed himself 
to him at Bethel, he had made 
Him his confidence and refuge 
in all his troubles. Now, there- 
fore, he cried to Him in his dis- 
tress. (Gen. xxxii. 9. 12.) 

Having thus committed his 
cause by fervent prayer to the 
Almighty, he did not think it 
unnecessary to make use of 
the most probable means to 
avert the threatening evil ; and 
therefore he sent messengers 
to meet his brother with a va- 
luable present from his flocks 
and herds; in separate droves. 
In that night Jacob took his 
two wives, and his two wo- 
men servants, and his eleven 
sons, and passed over the ford 
Jabbok ; and having sent 
them over this stream, to- 
gether with all his property, 
he remained alone on the op- 
posite side. And here a very 
extraordinary scene occurred, 
which is recorded at length, 
Gen. xxxii. 24—30 ; and on this 
occasion Jacob's name was 
changed to Israel. 

Esau now approached, but 
not as an enemy. There was 
revived in his bosom a strong 
feeling of fraternal affection ; 
so that when he saw Jacob, he 
ran to meet him, and embraced 
him, and they wept. Thus mar 
vellously did God provide foi 
the safety and comfort of his 
servant. Esau inquired kindl> 
331 



JAO 

concerning his brother's fami- 
ly, who came forward succes- 
sively, and paid their respects 
to him: and he would have 
declined receiving the present 
which had been sent forward 
to him, but Jacob insisted on 
his acceptance of it, and he 
took it. After this interview, 
Esau returned to mount Seir, 
and Jacob journeyed to Suc- 
coth, where he made booths for 
his cattle: from which circum- 
6 ance, the place received its 
name, as the word succoth sig- 
nifies booths. But he seems 
only to have sojourned here 
for a short time ; probably to 
give rest to the women and 
children, and to the flocks and 
herds, which had now been 
driven a long distance, without 
much cessation. But his jour- 
ney was not terminated until 
he came to Shalem, a city of 
Shechem, which is in the land 
of Canaan, where he bought a 
parcel of ground of the children 
of Hamor, for a hundred pieces 
of money, and erected there 
an altar, and called it El- 
Elohe-Tsrael, that is, God, the 
God of Israel. (Gen. xxxiii.) 

But' although Jacob seems to 
have intended this as his place 
of permanent residence, yet 
events occurred which render- 
ed it expedient for him to re- 
move to another part of the 
country. (Gen. xxxiv. See 
Dinah.) 

Jacob was greatly grieved at 
the cruel and treacherous con- 
duct cf his sons in the affair 
of Dinah, and foresaw that it 
would render him and his 
family odious to all the people 
in the neighbourhood, so as to 
expose him to be slain with all 
his house. 

The same invisible power, 
however, which preserved him 
from the hostility of Laban and 
his brother, now also shielded 
him from the resentment of 
the Canaanites, so that they 
were not interrupted nor pur- 



JAC 

sued in their journey; for the 
terror of God was upon the 
cities that were round about 
them, and. they did not pursue 
after the sons of Jacob. During 
this journey, Jacob purged his 
house from idolatry, and puri- 
fied them by some ceremony ; 
which has commonly been sup- 
posed to have been by washing 
their bodies in water; for they 
were commanded to be clean, 
and change their garments. 
(Gen. xxxv. 2.) 

He now arrived at Bethel; 
where,in conformity with vows 
and the divine sanction, he 
built an altar, which he called 
El-Bethel, the God of Bethel. 
Here also God appeared untc 
Jacob again, and blessed him; 
and, under the name of God 
Almighty, renewed the pro- 
mise respecting the multipli- 
cation of his seed, and the 
possession of the land of Ca- 
naan. 

But the domestic troubles of 
this good man were far from 
being ended. He was now 
called to endure a bereave- 
ment of the most afflicting 
kind which could have befal- 
len him. Having completed 
his pilgrimage to Bethel, he 
was on his way to Ephratah. 
and had come near to the 
place, when Rachel died, soon 
after giving birth to a second 
son, whom, with her expiring 
breath, she named Benoni ; 
but his father called him Ben- 
jamin. After the burial of his 
wife, Jacob continued his jour- 
ney until he came to a place 
beyond the tower of Edar, 
where he spread his tent, and 
fixed his abode; but domestic 
troubles were still allotted to 
him ; for while resident here, 
his oldest son Reuben acted 
in a manner so base and dis- 
honourable, that the feelings 
of his father must have been 
deeply wounded. At length, 
pursuing his way, he came to 
Mamre, which had been th8 
332 



JAC 

favourite residence of Abra- 
ham, and from which Isaac 
was never absent for any 
considerable time, until the 
day of his death. This peace- 
able and pious patriarch 
was still alive, though at a 
very advanced age; but soon 
after Jacob's arrival, he died, 
and was gathered unto his 
people, being old and full of 
days: and his sons Esau and 
Jacob buried him in the cave 
of Machpelah, where probably 
were the ashes of his father 
and his mother. Soon after 
this, the affecting scenes open, 
in which Joseph took so con- 
spicuous a part, and which 
exhibit the still heavier trials 
of Jacob, and the wonderful 
dealings of a covenant God 
towards him and his house. 
(Gen. xxxvii. — xlv.) These 
events led to his removal to 
Egypt, (Gen. xlvi..) where, in 
the land of Goshen, he led a 
prosperous and tranquil life 
for seventeen years, and then, 
after pronouncing a remarka- 
ble prophetic blessing on the 
infant children of Joseph, (Gen. 
xlviii. 8. 22,) he died, a. m. 2616, 
aged one hundred and forty- 
seven years ; and, according to 
his dying request, his remains 
were carried up, attended by 
the chief officers and nobility 
of Egypt, to Canaan, and bu- 
ried in the family vault at 
Machpelah. (Gen. 1. 13. For a 
full history of Jacob and his 
family, see Jacob and his 
son Joseph, Story of Isaac, 
History of the Patriarchs, 
History of Joseph, Union 
Questions, vol. iii., and 
Teacher's Assistant in the 

j use of that vol., all by the Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

The terms Jacob and the 
seed or children of Jacob are 

j often applied to the body of 
true believers eenerally.(Deut. 
xxxiii. 10. Ps.xiv. 7; xxii.23; 
cv. 6 ; cxxxv. 4. Isa. xiv. 1 ; 
xliv. 2. Mic. vii. 20.) 



JAD 

Jacob's Well. (See Shk- 

CHEM.) 

JADDUA, (Neh. xii. 11,) or 
JADDUS, the son of Jonathan, 
high-priest of the Jews, who 
officiated a considerable time 
after the captivity, and is be- 
lieved to be the same who 
lived in the time of Alexander 
the Great. Concerning him, 
Josephus relates this remarka- 
ble story : that Alexander hav- 
ing sent to him for provisions 
for his army while besieging 
Tyre, he excused himself on 
the ground that he had taken 
an oath of fidelity to Darius, 
king of Persia. The impetu- 
ous conqueror was highly pro- 
voked, and vowed vengeance 
against the Jews. According- 
ly, as soon as Tyre was sub- 
dued, he put his army in 
motion towards Jerusalem ; but 
before he reached the place, 
Jaddus and the other {tfiests, 
clothed in their pontifical 
robes, and a multitude of the 
principal people, all dressed 
in white garments, met him; 
on which Alexander bowed 
himself to the ground, anc 
seemed to worship the high- 
priest, which conduct filled 
all his followers with amaze- 
ment. And Parmenio, request- 
ing an explanation of this 
extraordinary behaviour, was 
informed, that before he left 
Macedonia, he had seen in a 
dream the appearance of the 
person now before him. who 
promised him the empire of 
the world, and that his adora- 
tion was not addressed to the 
man,, but to the deity whose 
sacred name he bore on his 
forehead. Whatever truth there 
may be in this story, we know 
that Alexander, instead of in- 
flicting punishment on the 
Jews, granted them great im- 
munitfes, especially exemp- 
tion from taxation on every 
seventh or sabbatical year, 
and took many of them into 
his own service: and when he 
333 



JAH 

built the city of Alexandria, in 
Egypt, he invited multitudes 
of this nation to settle there ; 
and put them, in regard to 
privileges, on a level with his 
own Macedonians. 

JAEL. (Judg. iv 17.) The 
wife of Heber the Kenite. After 
the defeat of Jabin's army by 
Deborah and Barak, Sisera, the 
general, fled towards the tent 
of Jael. It was not unusual 
for the women to have a tent 
separate from the men, as in 
Sarah's case, (Gen. xxiv. 07,) 
and Leah's. (Gen. xxxi. 33.) 
This was regarded as a place 
of security ; for then, as now, 
among the Arabs, a stranger 
would" not venture into The 
women's tent unasked. Jael 
invited him in, and concealed 
him. Fatigued and thirsty, he 
asked for water, and she gave 
him milk, (see Butter,) as 
some suppose, to produce sleep 
the sooner. (Judg. v. 25.) After 
instructing Jael to stand at the 
door of the tent, and to deny 
that he was within, if any one 
should inquire for him, he fell 
into a sound sleep. She then 
took a tent-pin, and with a 
hammer drove it through his 
temples into the ground. Un- 
natural and horrid as this 
act seems, we find that in 
the song of triumph, which 
was afterwards uttered by De- 
borah and Barak, the tragical 
circumstances are minutely 
related, and Jael is called 
blessed above women. (Judg. 
v. 24—27.) And we are to sup- 
pose that she was employed, 
under divine direction, as a 
mere instrument for accom- 
plishing God's purposes in the 
deliverance of Israel from op- 
pression. 

JAH. (Ps. lxviii. 4.) A con- 
traction of the word Jehovah, 
and imports the attribute of 
self-existence. It is part of 
the compound words Adonijah 
(God is my Lord) and Halle- 
lujah (Praise the Lord.) 



JAM 

JAHAZ, (Num. xxi. 23,) or 
JAHAZA, (Josh. xiii. 18,) or 
JAHAZAH, (Jer. xlviii.21,) or 
JAHZAH. (lChron.vi.78.) A 
city en the northern frontier 
of the Moabites, in the vicinity 
of which, Moses defeated the 
army of Sihon, on his refusal 
to permit him to pass through 
it peaceably. 

JAIR. 1. (Num. xxxii.41.> 
A son of Manasseh, who dis- 
possessed the Amorites, and 
took several small towns ; 
hence called Havath-jair. 
(Judg. x. 4.) 

2. (Judg. x. 3.) A native of 
Gilead, and probably a de- 
scendant of the foregoing. For 
twenty-two years he was a 
judge in Israel ; a»d he had 
thirty sons, all of whom, it \o 
supposed from the language 
of the sacred historian, (they 
rode on thirty ass-colts,) were 
deputy judges, and rode from 
town to town, administering 
justice. (See Havath-jair.. 
The fact that they succeeded 
to the paternal inheritance 
furnishes some evidence of 
their good character and ha- 
bits. 

JAIRUS. (Mark v. 22.) An 
officer of the Jewish church, 
who applied to Christ to restore 
to life his daughter, who was 
at the point of death when he 
left home. He evinced very 
strong faith. Chri3t with his 
disciples went to the ruler*s 
house, and his daughter was 
restored. (See Susan Ell- 
maker, p. 80, by Am. S. S, 
Union.) 

JAMES. 1. (Matt. iv. 21.) 
A son of Zebedee and Salome, 
and brother of John the Evan- 
gelist. He was present at se- 
veral of the most interesting 
scenes in our Saviour's life, 
and was put to death by Herod. 
a. d. 42—44, (Acts xii. 2;) thus 
fulfilling the prediction of our 
Saviour concerning him. (Luke 
xxi. 16 "> 

2. (Mark xv. 40 ) A son of 
334 



JAM 

Cleophas (or Alpheus) and 
Mary, called (either in refer- 
ence to his years or stature) 
James the less. This James is 
probably intended in Gal. i. 
19, by the Lord's brother. (See 
also Matt. xiii. 55. Mark vi. 3.) 
That he was first cousin to 
our Saviour in the flesh we 
know, for his mother was sis- 
ter to Christ's mother, (John 
xix. 25 ;) and the term brother 
was often applied to near kin- 
dred. (Gen. xiii. 8. 2 Sam. L26. 
Acts vii. 25, 26 ; ix. 17.) Some 
have conjectured, that after 
Joseph's death, Alpheus mar- 
ried his widow, and their off- 
spring was James the Less ; 
hence called the Lord's bro- 
ther; but there is no evidence 
to support the opinion. James 
the Less is mentioned with 
peculiar distinction, Acts xii. 
17 ; xv. 13 ; xxi. 18. 1 Cor. xv. 
7. Gal. i. 19, and ii. 9. 12. He 
resided at Jerusalem during 
the labours of the apostles ; 
and was present at the apos- 
tolic council at Jerusalem, 
where he seems to have pre- 
sided ; as he was the last to 
give his judgment, in which 
all tne ether members of the 
council acquiesced. (Acts xv. 
13—19.) He was put to death 
in the year 62; and tradition 
says that he was thrown by 
the Jews from the battlements 
of the temple, and then de- 
spatched with a fuller's club, 
while on his knees, and in the 
act of praying for his murder- 
ers. 

Epistle of, was written 
by James the less (see preced- 
ing article) about the year 
61 or 62. It was not addressed 
to any particular church, but 
to the whole Jewish nation, 
—the twelve tribes scattered 
abroad, (ch. i. 1,) believers and 
unbelievers, (ch. iv. 1 — 10); — 
and hence it is cal.ed a gene- 
ral or catholic epistle. The 
design cf the epistle is, (1.) Ta 
wrrect errors, both in doctrine 



JAP 

and practice, into which the 
Jewish Christians had fallen, 
especially relating to justifica- 
tion by faith ; (2.) To animate 
their hope, and strengthen 
their faith, in view of atfiic 
tions felt and feared ; and, (3.) 
To excite the unbelieving 
Jews to repentance towards 
God, and faith in the rejected 
Messiah. It is remarkable, 
that the name of our blessed 
Lord occurs but twice in th.s 
epistle, (ch. i. 1; ii. 1,) and 
that it is without the usual 
apostolical salutation and be- 
nediction. 

JANNES AND JAMBRES. 
(2 Tim. iii. 8.) Two famous 
magicians of Egypt, who are 
supposed to have used then- 
art to deceive Pharaoh. (Ex. 
vii. 9—13.) 

JAPHETH. (Gen. v. 32.) 
The eldest son of Noah. (Gen. 
x. 2. 21.) The prophetic bless- 
ing pronounced on Japheth by 
his father (Gen. ix. 27) was 
accomplished to the full extent 
of the promise. Besides all 
Europe and the isles, and of 
course most of North America, 
his posterity possessed Asia 
Minor, Media, part of Armenia, 
and those vast regions of the 
north, inhabited Formerly by 
the Scythians, and then by 
the Tartars. And as to the 
ether branch of the prophecy, 
he (God) shall dwell in the 
tents of Shem, it was fulfilled 
when the divine presence was 
manifested in the tabernacle 
and temple; or if we read, he 
(Japheth) shall dwell in the 
tents of Shem, it was fulfilled, 
literally when the Greeks and 
Romans (descended from Ja- 
pheth) subdued Judea, the in- 
heritance of Shem ; and figura- 
tively, when the descendants 
of Japheth (the Gentiles) re- 
ceived the gospel, which the 
Jews, who were of the see-j of 
Shem, rejected. 

Japheth is often mentioned 
in the early histories of Greece, 
335 



JAV 

Under the name of Japetus, as 
the ancestor of that nation. 

JAPHO. (SeeJoppA.) 

JASON. (Acts xvii. 5.) A 
resident of Thessalonica, and 
perhaps a relative of Paul. 
(Rom.ix.3. Comp. xvi.21.) At 
any rate, Paul lodged at his 
house when he visited that 
city. The apostle's plain scrip- 
tural preaching a few Sab- 
baths (Acts xvii. 2, 3) result- 
ed in the conversion of a great 
multitude of the citizens, and 
in the excitement and opposi- 
tion of the unbelieving Jews, 
who gathered a mob from 
among"^ the idle and worthless 
of the place, and attacked 
Tason's house, in order to seize 
ihe apostle; but not finding 
the man they sought, and still 
determined to vent their rage 
on somebody, they laid violent 
hands on Jason and some 
friends who were with him, 
and dragged them before the 
police, and charged them with 
treason, because they said that 
there is another king, (besides 
Caesar,) one Jesus. (Luke xxiii. 
2. John xix. 12.) However, as 
there was probably no evi- 
dence to support the charge, 
they gave some sort of security, 
either for their own future ap- 
pearance or good conductor for 
the appearance of the apostle, 
and were then discharged. 

JASPER. (Rev. iv. 3.) A 
precious stone, usually regard- 
ed as of the quartz species. It 
is obtained chiefly from Per- 
sia, the Indies, Syria, &c, and 
is chiefly used for vases, watch- 
seals, &c. Its colours are beau- 
tifully variegated and it is 
susceptible of a fine polish. 
The red jasper is found in 
Saugus, near Boston, Mass. 

JAVAN. (Gen. x. 2.) The 
fourth son of Japheth, and the 
ancestor of the Grecians or 
+ onians. Hence the word Ja- 
van, in the Old Testament, 



JEA 

denotes Greece, or the Greeks, 
(fsa. lxvi. 19. Ezek. xxvii. 13.) 

JAVELIN. (See Arms.) 

JAZER, (Josh. xxi. 39,) or 
JAAZER. (Num. xxi. 32.) A 
city of the Ammonites, on the 
river Jabbok, the ruins of 
which are still visible about 
fifteen miles from Heshbon. 

Sea op. (Jer.xlviii.32.) Pro- 
bably a lake existing in an- 
cient times near the city of 
Jazer. A body of water is now 
to be seen near the city, ou 
of which the Debir flows. 

JEALOUSY. (2 Cor. xi. 2. 
It is most frequently used to 
denote a suspicion of conjugal 
infidelity. It is sometimes used 
for anger, or indignation, (Ps. 
lxxix. 5. 1 Cor. x. 22,) or an 
intense interest for the honour 
and prosperity of anothe*. 
(Zech. i. 14; viii. 2.) 

When God is said to be a 
jealous God, or to be moved to 
jealousy, or when the still 
stronger expression is used, 
Jehovah, whose name is Jea- 
lous, (Ex. xxxiv. 14,) we are to 
understand this language as 
employed to illustrate, rather 
than to represent, the emotions 
of the Divine mind. The same 
causes operating upon the 
human mind, would produce 
what we call anger,jeal ousy Re- 
pentance, grief, &c; and there- 
fore, when these emotions are 
ascribed to the mind of God, 
this language is used because 
such emotions can be repre- 
sented to us by no other. 

Thus God is represented 
as a husband, related to his 
church by a marriage cove- 
nant that binds her to be 
wholly for him, and not for 
another. The more sincere 
and constant the love, the 
more sensitive is the heart to 
the approach of a rival : and 
the thought of such affection 
being alienated or corrupted, 
fills ~the soul with crrief and 
indignation. So God commends 
336 



JEA 

the purity, the fervency, and 
the sincerity of his love to his 
church, by the most terrific 
expressions of jealousy. 

The various significations of 
the word jealousy are denoted 
usually by its connexion. It is 
one of the strongest passions of 
3ur nature. (Pro v. vi. 34. Sol. 
Song viii. 6.) 

The IMAGE OF JEALOUSY 

(Ezek. viii. 3. 5) is the same 
with Tammuz, in ver. 14. 
'See Tammuz.) 

Jealous? -offering. (Num. 
v. 13.) The Jewish law con- 
tained a singular provision 
for the trial of the crime of 
adultery. A. man who was 
jealous of his wife, without 
any actual evidence of her 
infidelity, was required to 
bring her to the priest, with 
an offering; and when they 
came to the presence of the 
Lord, a part of the water of the 
temple was taken, with cer- 
tain ceremonies,and presented 
to the woman to drink ; she at 
the same time holding the 
offering in her hand. Before 
drinking the water, the most 
bitter curses were imprecated 
upon her; and if she was 
guilty, the water was to be- 
come" the cause of terribly bo- 
dily diseases. 

This imprecation-water, or 
water of curses, is not unlike 
the ordeal of later ages; and 
we are told that among the 
savages of western Africa, the 
custom is to make the suspect- 
ed wife drink poison ; in which 
case, innocence can be pro- 
tected only by a miracle ; but 
in the administration of the 
Jewish law, there was nothing 
in the ceremony which could 
harm the accused person,with- 
out the direct judgment of God 
in the infliction of a particu- 
lar and very peculiar disease; 
and still the ceremony was so 
solemn and imposing, that a 
Jewish woman must have had 
the most unparalleled effront- 
29 



JEH 

ery to have gone through it 
without betraying guilt, if it 
existed. 

JEBUS. (Judg.xix. 10.) The 
Jebusite is mentioned among 
the descendants' of Canaan the 
son of Ham, (Gen. x. 16,) and 
there was a warlike race call- 
ed Jebusites, inhabiting the 
mountainous country around 
Jerusalem, and keeping pos- 
session of it, (Josh. xv. 63,) until 
it was wrested from them by 
David, and made the capital of 
Judea. (1 Chron. xi. 4—8. See 
Jerusalem.) The Jebusitei 
were probably permitted to 
remain on the ground after 
their conquest. (2 Sam. xxiv. 
16. 24.) It is supposed they 
were dispossessed for a season 
by Joshua, (Josh. x. 23. 40 ; xli. 
10,) and afterwards regained 
some districts, while the Isra- 
elites possessed others. (Comp. 
Josh. xv. 63. 1 Sam. xvii. 54. 
2 Sam. v. 6.) 

JECONIAH. (See Jehoia- 

CHIN.) 

JEDUTHUN. (1 Chron. xvi. 
38.) An eminent master of 
the temple music, to whom 
several of the psalms are in- 
scribed, (see Ps. xxxix. Ixii. 
lxxvii. &c.,) or, as some sup- 
pose, were written by him. 

JEHOAHAZ. l.(2Kingsxiii. 
1.) Son and successor of Jehu 
king of Israel, whose reign 
was disastrous to the kingdom 
to such a degree, that his army 
was reduced to a mere nomi- 
nal existence ; and the kings 
of Syria (Hazael and Benha- 
dad) are said to have destroyed 
them, and to have made them 
like the dttst of the threshing 
floor. (2Kingsxiii. 7.) Before 
death, however, he was brough' 
to reflect and humble himself 
before God, on account of th< 
calamities with which his sub 
jects were visited ; and God 
was pleased to raise up fo». 
them a deliverer in the person 
of Joash, the son and succes* 
sor of Jehoahaz. 

337 



JEH 

2. (2 Kings xxiii. 30.) Son 
and successor of Josiah king 
of Judah. Ke is called Shal- 
lum^ 1 Chron. iii. 15. Jer. xxii. 
1 1. He was the fourth son, and 
of course not the rightful heir 
to the crown; but his father, 
being mortally .wounded in the 
battle of Megiudo, the people 
immediately placed Jehoahaz 
on the throne. This irregular 
step, taken without consulting 
him, offended the king of 
Egypt ; and before he had 
reigned four months, he ma- 
naged to get Jehoahaz into his 
power at Riblah, in Syria, 
whence he sent him, a prison- 
er, loaded with chains, into 
Egypt, and there he died, (Jer. 
xxii. 11, 12;) and his brother, 
Jehoiakim, became king in 
his stead. (2 Kings xxiii. 29. 
35.) 

3. (2 Chron. xxi. 17.) The 
same with Ahaziah and Aza- 
riah. (Comp. 2 Chron. xxi. 17 ; 
xxii. 1.6.8,9.) 

JEHOASH. (See Joash.) 
JEHOIACHIN, (2Kings xxiv. 
8,) or CONIAH, (Jer. xxii. 24,) 
or JECONIAH, (I Chron. iii. 
17,) or JECONIAS, (Matt. i. 
..2,) s tn an-1 su^essoi of J.v 
hoiakim king of Judah. It is 
supposed by some that when 
he was only eight years old 
he was associated with his 
father in the administration of 
the government. This suppo- 
sition is adopted in order to 
reconcile the apparent incon- 
sistency of 2 Kings xxiv. 8, and 
2 Chron. xxxvi. 9 ; but it seems 
hardly necessary to resort to 
such means to account for a 
very natural error or omis- 
sion of a transcriber, especial- 
ly in an immaterial chronolo- 
gical fact of such remote date. 
The reign of Jehoiachin ter- 
minated at the end of three 
months ; at which time, the 
city of Jerusalem was besieged 
by Nebuchadnezzar, the king 
of Babylon, in the eighth year 
of his reign, (coinpr 2 Kings 



JEH 

xxiv. 12, and xxv. 1 ;) and the 
king and his family, and the 
principal part of the nation, 
with the royal treasures and 
the temple furniture, were car- 
ried away to Babylon. 

The wickedness of this king 
is described in very strong 
language by the prophet Jere- 
miah. (Jer. xxii. 24—30.) 

The expression, however, in 
Jer. xxii. 30, is not to be con- 
strued literally. (1 Chron. iii. 
17, 18. Matt. i. 12.) Write this 
man childless might as veil 
read, He shall have no succes- 
sor or heir, or None of his seed 
shall prosper. (See Life op 
Jeremiah, ch. viii., and Eli- 
sama, pp. 64— €6, both by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

JEHOIADA. (2 Kings xi. 4.) 
A high-priest of the Jews, and 
the husband of Jehosheba. (See 
Athaliah.) His administra- 
tion was so auspicious to the 
civil and religious interests of 
the nation, (2~Kingsxii. 2Chr. 
xxiii. 16,) that when he died, 
at the advanced age of one 
hundred and thirty years, he 
was buried in the royal sepul- 
chres at Jerusalem. (2 Chron. 
xmv. lb) 

JEHOIAKIM. (2 Kings xxiii. 
36.) Eldest son of Josiah, and 
the brother and successor of 
Jehoahaz king of Judah. His 
original name was Eliaki??i ; 
but it was changed by order of 
the king of Egypt, (2 K : jigs 
xxiii 34^) who put him on the 
throne. The iniquity of his 
reign is strongly depicted by 
the historian and prophet, 
(2Kingsxxiv.4. 2Chron. xxxvi. 
8. Jer. xxii. xxvi. xxxvi.;) and 
his end, as Jewish historians 
inform us, was in strict accord- 
snce with the prediction con- 
cerning him. 

For the first four years of his 
reign, Jehoiakim was subject 
to the king of Egypt, and paid 
an enormous tribute. Then 
he became tributary for three 
years to Nebuchadnezzar king 
a33 



JEH 

of Babylon, (2 Kings xxiv. 1,) 
who at first. bound him with 
chains to carry him to Baby- 
lon, (2Chron. xxxvi.6. Dan. i. 
2,) but afterwards set him at 
liberty, and left him at Jeru- 
salem to reign as a tributary 
prince. The whole time of his 
reism was eleven years. 

The expression, Jer. xxxvi. 
30, is not to be taken strictly ; 
and yet, as the reign of Jehoia- 
chin was for only thirteen 
weeks, Jehoiakim may be 
said to have been compara- 
tively without a successor. He 
scarcely sat down upon the 
throne before he was deposed. 
The same explanation applies 
to 2 Kings xxiii. 34, where Eli- 
akim is said to have succeeded 
his father Josiah ; whereas, the 
reign of Jehoahaz intervened. 
This was so short, however, as 
not to be reckoned in the suc- 
cession. (See Eltsama, ch.iii. 
and iv., by Am. S. S. Union.) 

JEHONADAB. (^eRs- 

CHABITES.) 

JE HO RAM, or JORAM, 
(2Kines viii. 16. 21,) was the 
son and successor of Jehosha- 
phat king of Judah. When 
ne was thirty-two years of age 
he was associated with his 
father in the government of 
the kingdom. (2Kings viii. 17. 
2Chron. xxi. 5.) At the end 
of four years, his father died, 
and he became sole king. One 
of the first acts of his govern- 
ment was to put to death his 
six brothers and several of the 
chief men of the kingdom. 
(2 Chron. xxi. 4.) To punish 
him for this and other abomi- 
nations of his reign, (2Chron. 
xxi. 11— 13,) the Edomites,who 
had long been subject to the 
throne oT Judah, revolted, and 
secured their independence. 
(2 Chron. xxi. S-10.) One of 
hisown cities also revolted, and 
about the same time he receiv- 
ed a writing from Elijah, or, as 
some suppose, Elisha, admo- 
nishing him of the dreadful ca- 



.EH 

lamities which he was bring- 
ing on himself by his wicked 
conduct. In due time these 
calamities came upon him and 
his kingdom. Their territory 
was overrun with enemies; the 
king's palace was plundered. 
and the royal family, except 
the youngest son, made prison 
ers. The king himself was 
smitten with a terrible and 
incurable disease, which car- 
ried him to the grave, unla- 
mented; and he was buried 
without royal honours. (2 Chr. 
xxi. 14—20.) 

JEHOSHAPHAT, (1 Kings 
xv. 24,) or JOSAPHAT, (Matt. 
i. 8,) was the son and succes- 
sor of Asa king of Judah. He 
is called king of Israel (2 Chr. 
xxi. 2) possibly because his 
kingdom was a part of the 
ancient kingdom of Tsrael, but 
probably by mistake: Israel 
being written for Judah. He 
was a prince of distinguished 
piety, and his reign, which 
lasted twenty-five years, was 
powerful and prosperous. This 
remarkable commendation is 
given Jehoshaphat by the sa- 
cred historian, that the more 
his riches and honour increas- 
ed, the more his heart was 
lifted up in the ways of the 
Lord. (2 Chron. xvii. 5, 6.) 
Among other evidences cf his 
piety and benevolence, we are 
told that he caused the altars 
and places of idolatry to be 
destroyed, a knowledge of the 
law to be diffused throughout 
the kingdom, and the places 
of judicial and ecclesiastical 
authority to be filled by the 
wisest and best men of the 
land. (2 Chron. xvii. 6—9; 
xix. 5— 11.) His sin in form- 
ing a league with Ahab, con- 
trary to the counsel of Mica- 
iah, against Ramoth-gilead. 
(2 Chron. xviii.) was severely 
censured by Jehu, (2 Chron. 
xix. 2,) and had nearly cos* 
him his life. (2 Chron. xviii 
31.) 



JEH 

A few years after this, the 
kingdom of Judah was invaded 
by a confederacy of Edomites, 
Moabiles, and others. They 
collected their forces at Enge- 
di. and threatened to over- 
throw the kingdom. Jehosha- 
phat proclaimed a fast; and 
the people came from all parts 
of the kingdom, men, women, 
and children, up to Jerusalem ; 
and being assembled in one 
place, the king himself made 
supplication to God for help 
in their extremity. His re- 
markable prayer "is recorded, 
2Chron. xx. 6—12; and while 
•he was yet speaking, his pray- 
er was answered, and a certain 
and easy victory was promised. 
On the following day, the army 
of Judah went forth to meet the 
enemy, preceded by a compa- 
ny of singers, who praised the 
name of the Lord. The vast 
army of his enemies were pa- 
nic-struck, and fell into irre- 
coverable confusion ; and in- 
stead of facing their adver- 
saries, turned their swords 
against each other, until they 
were utterly routed and over- 
thrown; so that Jehoshaphat 
and his men had no occasion 
to engage in the conflict. And 
such abundance of spoil re- 
mained in rhe camp, that the 
men of Judah were employed 
Jiree days in collecting it. 
(2Chron. xx. 14— 27.) 

Still later in his life, Jeho- 
shaphat connected himself 
with Ahaziah, son and succes- 
sor of Ahab kin§ of Israel, in 
a naval expedition; but this 
alliance with a wicked king 
turned out disastrously, as had 
been predicted by Eliezer, the 
son of Dodavah ; for while the 
fleet lay at Ezion-geber, it 
was utterly destroyed by a vio- 
lent storm. (2 Chron. xx. 35. 
See Ahaziah.) 

Again he involved himself 

in an alliance with Jehoram. 

. the second son of Ahab, and 

alsc with the Edomites, for 



JEH 

the purpose of invading the 
land of Moab ; but while they 
attempted to make their way 
through the wilderness, their 
water failed, and the whole 
army must have perished with 
thirst, had not a miraculous 
supply been granted in answer 
to the prayers of Elisba, who 
accompanied the army. (2 
Kings iii. 6—20.) Jehoshaphat 
left seven sons, one of whom 
(Jehoram) succeeded him. 

Valley of Jehoshaphat. 
(Joel iii. 2. 12.) A narrow 
glen running north and south, 
between Jerusalem and the 
mount of Olives, through which 
flows the brook Cedron. This 
valley is supposed to be meant 
by the king's dale, (Gen. xiv. 
17. 2 Sam. xviii. 18;) and its 
name to be derived either from 
the burial of king Jehosha- 
phat, or for the great victory 
he obtained there over the 
Moabites and their allies. 
(2 Chron. xx. 25.) This valley, 
it is supposed by the Moham- 
medans, (from the passage 
first above cited,) will be the 
scene of the final judgment. 
The better opinion is, however, 
that the prophetic language in 
this connexion refers to the 
event of the general judgment, 
and not to the place ; the 
meaning of the word Jehosha- 
phat being judgment of God. 
(For a beautiful lithographic 
view of this valley,- and a 
minute description of scenery, 
localities, &c. see Views of 
Palestine, pp. 10—12; Selu 
miel, pp. 111—114; and Map 
of Jerusalem, accompanying 
the same, all by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

JEHOVAH. (Ex. vi. 3.) A 
title of the Supreme Being, 
indicative of the attribute ol 
self-existence. It is similar 
in import to the title, I am, 
(Ex. iii. 14,) and denotes not 
only self-existence, but perfect 
independence, eternity, and 
immutability. (SeeJAH,GoD.) 
340 



JEH 

JEHU, 1. (lKings xvi.7 T ) was 
The son of Hanani the seer, 
with whom Asa was so much 
enraged as to cast him into 
prison. (2 Chron. xvi. 7— 10.) 
He was appointed to carry a 
message to Baasha from God, 
threatening to visit upon him 
the most fearful judgments. 
He was afterwards employed 
on a similar errand to Jeho- 
shaphat. (2 Chron. xix. 1, 2.) 

2, (1 Kings xix. 16. Comp. 
2 Kings ix. 2.) The son of 
Nimshi, and grandson of Jeho- 
shaphat, was selected by God 
to reign over Israel, and to be 
the instrument of executing 
his judgments on the house of 
Ahab. (1 Kings xix. 17. 2 Kings 
ix. 1—10.) In executing this 
commission, he commenced 
with the reigning king, Joram, 
who was then lying ill at Jez- 
reel. Having been proclaimed 
king by a few adherents who 
were with him at Ramoth-gi- 
lead, he proceeded towards 
Jezreel. Upon his approach 
Within sight of that place, Jo- 
ram despatched two or three 
messengers to ascertain his 
design; and finding they did 
not return, he went out him- 
self to meet him. It happened 
that they met on the ground 
of Naboth the Jezreelite, 
(1 Kings xxi. 1—24;) and Jehu 
at once charged him with his 
gross iniquities, and immedi- 
ately shot him dead in his 
chariot. (Comp. 1 Kings xxi. 
19, and 2 Kings ix. 25.) 

Jehu rode on to Jezreel, and 
as he was passing in at the gate, 
the wicked Jezebel, who^had 
prepared herself for the occa- 
sion, and was looking out at a 
window, said something in al- 
lusion to what had happened 
to Ahab. Jehu called to two 
or three persons who were at 
the same window to throw her 
down, which they did ; and as 
she struck the ground, her 
blood flew out upon the wall, 
and upon the horses, and her 
29* 



>EH 

body was actually trodden un 
der foot. Jehu's party then 
went into the city, and dined ; 
and after dinner, he ordered 
his attendants to go and bury 
the cursed womanj as this re- 
spect might be due to a king's 
daughter; and when they came 
to the place, nothing could be 
found of her but the skull, the 
feet, and a part of the hands. 
The dogs had consumed the 
residue, - in fulfilment of ( the 
prophecy. (IKings xxi." 23, 
2 Kings ix. 32— 37.) 

Jehu then proceeded to ex 
terminate the family of Ahab. 
He addressed letters to those 
who had the care of his sons, 
(no less than seventy in num- 
ber,) and proposed to them to 
select the fittest of them, and 
place him on the throne of his 
father. This they declined to 
do, (through fear of Jehu,) but 
promised to do any thing else 
that might be required." Ac- 
cordingly, Jehu directed them 
to bring to him the heads of 
Ahab's sons the next day at 
Jezreel ; and they were sent 
in two baskets. He directed 
them to be emptied out in two 
heaps, at the gate of the city, 
and to remain There over night. 
The next morning he ordered 
a general slaughter of all 
Ahab's family and adherents 
in the town of Jezreel. He 
then set out for Samaria, and 
meeting on his way a party of 
forty-two persons, all the fa- 
mily of Ahaziel. (a branch of 
Ahab's house,) he seized and 
slew them. 

But the most revolting of 
these deeds of blood remains to 
be told. When he arrived at 
Samaria, and had cut off every 
branch of the house of Ahab 
that he could find, (2 Kings x. 
17,) he ordered a general con- 
vention of all the worshippers 
of Baal throughout the land, 
and made every arrangement 
as if he would have an 
united universal act of ho- 
341 



JEP 

mage to the false god ; and so 
strict were his orders that no 
worshipper of Baal could ab- 
sent himself but upon pain of 
death. They assembled ; and 
we are told that not a man 
was absent. Each of the wor- 
shippers was furnished with a 
peculiar dress, that they might 
be distinguished from all 
others; and when the assem- 
bly was convened, Jehu took 
pains to exclude every indivi- 
dual except the worshippers 
of Baal. As soon as they com- 
menced their worship, Jehu 
appointed a detachment of 
eighty men to go in among 
the assembled idolaters, and 
put every one of them to death ; 
and, to ensure the execution of 
his orders, he ordained, that if 
a single worshipper escaped, 
the life of him who suffered the 
escape should be forfeited. But 
there was no escape; every 
individual was put to the 
sword ; the image of Baal was 
broken down and destroyed; 
and the temple was made the 
receptacle of offal and filth, in 
contempt and abhorrence of 
the idolatry which had been 
practised there; and every 
trace of Baal's worship was 
blotted out of Israel. 

This dreadful extermination 
of the house of Ahab, and of 
the idolatrous worship which 
he sanctioned, was in accord- 
ance with the divine com- 
mand, and received the divine 
approbation. (2 Kings x. 30.) 
Jehu himself, however, was 
ambitious and tyrannical, and 
fell into idolatrous practices. 
(2 Kings x. 31.) His reign lasted 
twenty-eight years ; and he 
was succeeded by his son Jeho- 
ahaz. (For a full and inte- 
resting account of Jehu, and 
the various incidents of his 
life, see Life of Elisha, ch.x.) 

JEPHTHAH, (Judg. xi. 1,) 
one of the judges of Israel, was 
the illegitimate son of Gilead ; 
and this fact made him so 



JEP 

odious to the other children 
of the family that they banish- 
ed him from the house, and he 
took up his residence in the 
land of Tob, a district of Syria 
not far from Gilead, and pro- 
bably the same with Ish-tob. 
(2 Sam. x. 8.) Here, it is sup- 
posed, he became the head of a 
marauding paity; and when 
a war broke out between the 
children of Israel and the 
Ammonites, he probably sig- 
nalized himself for courage 
and enterprise. This led the 
Israelites to seek his aid as 
their commander-in-chief; and 
though he objected at first, on 
the ground of their ill usage 
of him, yet. upon their solemn 
covenant to regard him as 
their leader, in case they suc- 
ceeded against the Ammon- 
ites, he took command of their ' 
army. After some preliminary 
negotiations with the Ammon- 
ites, in which the question of 
the right to the country is dis- 
cussed with great force and 
ingenuity, and finding every 
attempt to conciliate them 
abortive, the two armies met; 
the Ammonites were defeated 
with great loss of life, and 
their coumrv scoured by the 
Israelites. 

On the eve of the battle. 
Jephthah made a vow, that it 
he obtained the victory, he 
would devote to God whatever 
should come forth from his 
house to meet him on his re- 
turn home. This turned out 
to be his daughter, an only 
child, who welcomed his re- 
turn with music and dancing. 
Jephthah was greatly afflicted 
by this occurrence; but his 
daughter cheerfully consented 
to the performance of his vow, 
which took place at the expi- 
ration of two months ; and the 
commemoration of the event 
by the daughters of Israel was 
required by a public ordinance. 

Whether Jephthah actually 
offered up his daughter for * 
342 



JEP 

burnt-offering, is a question of 
great difficulty, and continues 
to be much disputed. Those 
who maintain the negative al- 
lege, that by translating the 
Hebrew prefix or, rendered 
and in our version, all diffi- 
culty will be removed. His 
vow will then read, 'shall 
sureiy be the Lord's, or, I will 
offer a burnt-offering;' and not 
unfrequentiy the sense re- 
quires that the Hebrew should 
be thus rendered. Moreover, 
when Jephthah made this vow, 
he could not have intended to 
insult the Lord by promising a 
sacrifice against which he had 
Expressed "the utmost abhor- 
rence, (Lev. xx. 2—5. Deut. 
xii. 31,) especially as it is re- 
corded that the* Spirit of the 
Lord was upon him when he 
uttered his vow. Suppose a 
dog had come out of the house 
of Jephihah, can any one sup- 
pose that he would have offer- 
ed this unclean animal as a 
burnt-offering to the Lord? 
And why then should we sup- 
pose that he wuuld offer a 
human sacrifice, which would 
have been so much more abo- 
minable ; and, in all such 
cases, the law allowed the 
right of redemption, for a 
small sum of money. It is, 
moreover, argued that no men- 
tion is made of any bloody sa- 
crifice of the young woman. 
But merely that he did with 
her according to his vow which 
he had vowed : and she knew 
no man; which last words 
6eem to convey, not obscurely, 
the idea that Jephthah devoted 
his daughter to the Lord, by 
consecrating her to a life of 
celibacy. And it should not 
be forgotten, that in the epistle 
to the~Hebrews, (ch. xi.,) Jeph- 
thah is placed among the wor- 
thies who were distinguished 
for their faith. Now can we 
suppose that such a man would 
be guilty of the crime of sa- 
crificing his own daughter? 



JEP 

(Comp. Heb. xi. 32, with 2 Sam. 
xii. 9. 1 Kings xi. 5. 7.) It, is 
.suggested whether the insertion 
of Jephthah's name in this pas- 
sage is conclusive evidence of 
his piety. That he was distin- 
guished for one kind of faith is 
evident; but was it savins 
faith ? (1 Cor. xiii. 2.) 

Those, on the other hand, 
who receive the common read- 
ing of this passage, and follow 
the obvious meaning, reason 
in the following manner: That 
upon every fair principle of 
construction, it must be admit- 
ted, that Jephthah's vow was 
single, and that he did actually 
bind himself, by this solemn 
bond, to offer as a burnt-offer- 
ing to the Lord whatever 
should first come forth from 
his house to meet him on his 
return. That the time in which 
Jephthah lived was one of gross 
ignorance and idolatry, (judg. 
x. 6 ;) that a pious man might 
have felt himself bound by the 
obligation of a vow, in making 
which he had none but a pious 
intention ; that the law of re- 
deeming devoted persons and 
things for money did not apply 
to the case of such a vow ; that 
Jephthah's excessive grief on 
seeing his daughter come forth 
to meet him, can only be ac- 
counted for on the supposition 
that he considered her devoted 
to death ; that the mourning 
for the daughter of Jephthah 
for four days in the year can 
be reconciled only with the 
opinion that she was offered 
up as a burnt-offering ; and 
that there is no law or prece- 
dent to authorize the opinion 
that to devote her to perpetual 
celibacy was not an offence to 
God of equal enormity with 
that of sacrificing her as a 
burnt-offering. It seems the 
difficulties which attend this 
construction of the passage are 
less tnan those which attend 
the other; and it has beei» 
well remarked, that if it was 
343 



JER 

\je\-fkrtWj -,lear that Jephthah 
saci-'ficed his daughter, there 
is not the least evidence that 
his conduct was sanctioned by 
God. He was a superstitious 
and ill-instructed man, and, 
like Samson, an instrument 
of God's power rather than an 
example of his grace. 

The Ephraimites, who had 
not been invited to take part 

n the war against the Am- 
monites, quarrelled with Jeph- 

hah, and in a battle with the 
Gileadites, were defeated ; and 

he latter, seizing the fords of 
Jordan, slew every Ephraimite 
who attempted to escape by 
crossing the river; and the 
method' employed to ascertain 
whether they belonged to 
Ephraim was, to cause them 
to pronounce the word 'shib- 
boleth,' which they sounded 
' sibboleth ;' for, it seems, that 
by this time a difference in 
the manner of pronouncing at 
least one Hebrew letter had 
arisen between the inhabitants 
on the different sides of Jordan. 
On this occasion, 42,000 men of 
Ephraim were slain ; which 
was a just punishment for 
commencing a war with so 
small a provocation. (Judg. 

X1 JEREMIAH, or JEREMY, 
(Matt. ii. 17.) or JEREMIAS, 
(Matt. xvi. 14,) one of the 
chief of the Hebrew prophets, 
was the son of Hilkiah, and of 
the' sacerdotal race. (Comp. 
Jer. i. 1, and Josh. xxi. 18.) He 
was very young when he was 
called to the prophetic office, 
and on that account declined 
it. (Jer. i.6;) but God promised 
him grace and strength suffi- 
ciemTfor his work; and for 
forty-two years he persisted in 
this arduous service, with un- 
wearied diligence and fidelity, 
in the midst of the severest 
trials and persecutions. 

During all this time, Jerusa- 
lem was in a most distracted 
and deplorable condition, and 



JER 

the prophet was calumniated, 
imprisoned, and often in dan- 
ger of death. But no ill trea 
ment or threatenings could 
deter him from denouncin 
the judgments of God, whic! 
were coming upon the nation 
and that devoted city. His 
exhortation to the king and 
rulers was to submit at once 
to the arms of Nebuchadnez- 
zar, for by that means they 
would preserve their lives; 
but he assured them, as a 
message received from God, 
that their continued resistance 
would have no other effect 
than to bring certain and 
dreadful destruction upon Je- 
rusalem and on themselves. 
At this time, Jerusalem swarm- 
ed with false prophets, who 
contradicted the words of Jere- 
miah, and flattered the king 
and his courtiers that God 
would rescue them from the 
impending danger; and after 
the city was taken, and part 
of the people carried away to 
Babylon, these prophets confi- 
dently predicted a speedy re- 
turn. On the other hand, Jere- 
miah sent word to the captives 
that the time of their captivity 
would be long, and that their 
best course was to build houses 
and plant vineyards in the 
land to which they were car- 
ried, and to pray for the peace 
of the country in which they 
resided. Indeed, he expressly 
foretold that the captivity 
would endure for seventy 
years ; which duration, he in- 
timated, was to make up for 
the sabbatical years which 
they had neglected to observe. 
He also foretold the deliver- 
ance of the people, and their 
return to their own country. 
Towards the close of his life, 
he was carried into Esypt 
against his will, by the Jews 
who remained in Judea after 
the murder of Gedaliah. On 
this occasion, he was requested 
by Johanan and his followers 
244 



1 



JER 

to inquire of the Lord whether 
ihey should flee into Egypt: 
in answer, after accusing them 
of hypocrisy, he warned them 
in the most solemn manner, 
from the Lord, not to go down 
to Egypt; but they disre- 
garded the commandment of 
(rod, and went, and took Jere- 
miah forcibly along with them, 
where, in all probability, he 
died, some think, as a mar- 
tyr. For the reference to Jere- 
my in Matt, xxvii. 9, see Zech. 
3ci- 12, 13. (See the Life and 
Prophecies of Jeremiah, and 
Elisama, ch. iii.— vi., both by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

Prophecy of, is the twenty- 
fourth book of the Old Testa- 
ment and the ninth prophet- 
ical book in chronological 
order. It embraces a period 
of upwards of forty years, be- 
tween b. c. 628 and b. c. 586. 
Jeremiah entered upon the of- 
fice of a prophet in the thir- 
teenth year of the reign of 
Josiah, (Jer. i. 2;) and his 
prophecy relates to the judg- 
ments that were to come upon 
the people for their gross idol- 
atry and corruption ; to the re- 
storation which awaited them, 
whenever they would repent 
of their sins, and forsake them; 
and to the future glory which 
would arise on the church of 
God, and on such as were 
steadfast in his service ; when 
the Desire of nations should 
come, and all flesh should see 
the salvation of God. 

The just and natural order 
of this book is as follows : 

1. The prophecies uttered in 
losiah's reign, ch. i. — xii. 

2. In Jeho!akim's,ch. xiii. xx. 
xxii. xxiii. xxxv. xxxvi. xlv. 
-xlviii. xlix. 1—33. 

3. In Zetlekiah's, ch. xxi. 
sxiv. xxvii.— xxxiv. xxxvii. — 
ixxix. xlix. 34—39 ; 1. li. 

4. In Gedaliah's, ch. xl.— 
Jrliv. 

This arrangement of the 
(natter will make the book 



JER 

much more intelligible to the 
reader. 

The fifty-second chapter, 
which seems to have been 
compiled from the latter part 
of the second book of Kings, 
was probably added to the 
book by Ezra ; and seems de- 
signed partly as an illustration 
of the accomplishment of Jere- 
miah's prophecies respecting 
Zedekiah, and partly as an 
introduction to the Lamenta 
tions. 

Lamentations 0F,(the book 
immediately succeeding the 
prophecy,) are a series of ele- 
gies written in view of the 
dreadful calamities which the 
city of Jerusalem, and the Jew- 
ish nation generally, were to 
suffer for their continued re- 
bellion against God ; and these 
events are described as if they 
were actually accomplished. 
The lamentations of Jeremiah 
have been regarded by distin- 
guished critics as the most per- 
fect and regular elegiac com- 
position in the world. One 
would think that every letter 
was written with a tear, and 
every word with the anguish 
of a broken heart, by one who 
never breathed but in a sigh, 
nor spoke but in a groan. (See 
Life and Prophecies of Je- 
remiah, pp. 75—78, by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 

Mr. Fisk, an American mis- 
sionary, who was at Damascus 
in 1823, visited a place near 
the gate of that city, where it 
is said Jeremiah wrote this 
book. It is a natural cave, 
over which the rock rises forty 
or fifty feet perpendicularly; 
and its whole appearance be- 
tokens a fit place lor such me- 
lancholy musings. The travel- 
ler sat down in the cave, and 
read Jer. ix. 1—8 ; and a mere 
exact description of the present 
character and conduct of the 
people of Jerusalem could no*, 
be written. 

JERICHO, CNum. xxii. 1,) 
345 



JER 

Dne of tt>e oldest cities in the 
Holy Land, was situated in the 
iribe of Benjamin,about twenty 
miles from Jerusalem, and two 
from the river Jordan. This, 
pr some place in its vicinity, 
is called the city of palm trees, 
(Deut. xxxiv. 3';) perhaps from 
the abundant growth of the 
palm tree in that neighbour- 
hood. The word Jericho may 
be from Jerah, the moon ; and 
the worship of the moon may 
have prevailed there. This 
city, which was next in size to 
Jerusalem, was besieged and 
subdued by the Israelites im- 
mediately after the passage of 
the Jordan. The siege was 
conducted under the divine di- 
rection ; and, at a given signal, 
by the immediate interposition 
of miraculous power, the walls 
fell flat to the earth, probably 
destroying many lives, and 
throwing the citizens into uni- 
versal consternation. The Is- 
raelites marched directly to 
the heart of the city, and in 
obedience to the express com- 
mand of God, they put to death 
every living creature, except 
Rahab and her family, and the 
two men sent as spies from the 
camp of Israel, (Josh. ii. 1,2,) 
whom she had concealed. The 
city itself was then set on fire, 
every thing in it,except the ves- 
sels of gold, silver, brass, and 
iron, which were previously re- 
moved, was burnt to ashes, and 
the very site of it was cursed. 
(Comp. Josh. vi. 26. 1 King* 
xv). 34.) 

A city was rebuilt on or near 
this spot, which is afterwards 
mentioned (2 Sam. x. 5) 33 con- 
taining a school 3f the prophets, 
(2 Kings ii. 5,) and as being the 
residence of Elisha (2 Kings ii. 
18) and Zaccheus. (Luke xix. 
1 — 10.) It was in the vicinity 
if this place that a miraculous 
change wa.3 effected by Elisha 
in the ta-jve >f the waters-of a 
particular wring, and that the 
two blind £>?n were miracu- 



JER 

lonsly restored by our Saviour. 
(Matt. xx. 29—34.) 

Under the Romans, Jericho 
was a royal residence, and 
Herod the Great died there. 
It was more tha»n once laid 
waste, and rebuilt, after He- 
rod's day ; and there is now a 
■ miserable hamlet, called iZi'Aa, 
or Rah, situated on the ruins 
of the ancient city, (or, as some 
think, three or four miles east 
of it,) which a modern travel- 
ler describes as a poor, dirty 
village of the Arabs. There 
are perhaps fifty houses, of 
rough stone, with roofs of 
bushes and mud, and the 
population, two hundred or 
three hundred in number, is 
entirely Mohammedan. The 
road from Jerusalem to Jericho 
lies through what is called the 
wilderness of Jericho, and is 
described by modern travellers 
as the most dangerous and for- 
bidding about Palestine. As 
lately as 1820, an English tra- 
veller, Sir Frederick Henni- 
ker, was attacked on this road 
by the Arabs, with fire-arms 
who left him naked and se- 
verely wounded. (Luke x. 30.) 

Messrs. Fisk and King, 
American missionaries, were 
&t Jericho in June, 1823. They 
confirm the accounts cf other 
travellers, and mention partis 
cularly the mountain Quar- 
rantania, where tradition says 
Christ fasted, and from the 
base of which rises a fountain 
whose waters were the subject 
of Elisha's miracle. (2 Kings 
ii. 19—22.) This is the river, 
or water of Jericho, referred 
to, Josh. xvi. 1. (See Omar, 
)p. 137-142, by the Am. S. SL 

nion.) 

Plains of, (Josh. jv. 13,) de- 
note that tract of country lying 
between the city and river 
Jordan, down to the Dead Sea, 
(See Life of Elisha, ch. ii., 
by Am. S. S. Unions 

JEROBOAM, l.(i Kings xi. 
26,) the son of Nebat, is dietin* 
34« 



fS 



JER 

guished as the man who made ] 
Israel to sin. He was evidently j 
a bold, ambitious, unprincipled ' 
man; and having received from 
the prophet Ahijah a most sin- 
gular intimation that the king- 
dom of Solomon was to be 
divided, and he was to become 
the head of the ten tribes, he 
perhaps made the fact known, 
or took some means to bring 
about the event. At any rate, 
Solomon was alarmed, and 
took measures to apprehend 
Jeroboam, who fled to Eeypt, 
and remained there till Solo- 
mon's death. Rehoboam his 
eon succeeded him; and had 
already m de himself so unpo- 
pular with ten of the tribes, 
that they had withdrawn from 
his interest, and were found by 
Jeroboam, on his returs, ready 
to receive him as their king. 
Ke fixed his residence at She- 
chem, which, with other cities, 
he fortified for the furtherance 
of his plans. 

Fearing that if the revolted 
tribes should go up to the so- 
lemn national feasts at Jerusa- 
lem, they would be persuaded 
to return to their allegiance, 
and forgetting his obligations 
to God and his dependence on 
him, (1 Kings xi. 14-59,) he 
caused two golden calves to be 
erected ; one at Dan, and the 
other at Bethel, the extremi- 
ties of his dominions, and 
caused a proclamation to be 
made, requiring the worship 
of these idols. (1 Kings xii. 26 
-33.) 

Jeroboam, having set up the 
idols, assembled the people at 
the former place, to engage in 
the solemn worship of them ; 
and to show his zeal for the 
service, he officiated at the 
altar himself. But while he 
was thus occupied, a prophet 
<rom the land of Judah appear- 
ed in the midst of the assem- 
bly, and in the hearing of all 
the people, uttered a predic- 
tion, that a man by the name 



JER 

of Josiah should arise, and de- 
stroy that altar, and shc-ald 
burn upon it the bones of the 
priests ; and to confirm his au- 
thority, he gave this sign, that 
the altar should immediately 
be broken in pieces, and the 
ashes upon it be poured out; 
and it was so. Jeroboam, great- 
ly provoked by his bold Intel 
ference, put forth his hand to 
seize the prophet; but in a 
moment it was stiffened, so 
that he could not draw it in- 
Intimidated by this miracu- 
lous judgment, and convinced 
that the man was indeed a 
prophet of the Lord, he begged 
that he would intercede for 
him, that his arm might be re- 
stored ; which was done accord- 
ingly. Jeroboam, however, was 
not reformed by this divine 
message and double miracle, 
but continued to cause Israel to 
sin, in worshipping the calves 
which he had set up. His son 
was taken sick, and he in- 
structed his wife to disguise 
herself and go to Ahijah, who 
was now blind with age, and 
consult him as to the event of 
the disease. The prophet was 
forewarned of her approach; 
and as soon as he heard her 
footsteps, he called her by 
name, and then recounted the 
sins of Jeroboam, and predicted 
the disgrace, and ruin, and 
utter extirpation of his whole 
family, and also the captivity 
and dispersion of the people 
of Israel. He also told her that 
the child should die, and that 
the nation should mourn for 
him as the only individual of 
the house of their king who 
should come to a peaceful end ; 
and also as one who, in the 
midst of all the idolatry and 
wickedness of the times, had 
some pious emotions, even in 
the house of Jeroboam. As she 
entered the door of her house, 
the child died. (1 Kings xiv.17.) 
Jeroboam reigned "in Israel 
twenty-two years, and was 
347 



JER 

succeeded by his son Nadab. j 
During his life, there were I 
almost unceasing wars be- i 
tween him and the house of; 
David ; and history records not 
more destructive wars ; for in 
one conflict, the Israelites lost 
no less than 500,000 men. 

2. (2Kingsxiv. 23— 29,) the 
son of Joash, and great-grand- 
son of Jehu, reigned forty-one 
years, and followed the former 
Jeroboam in his idolatrous 
worship. The Lord, however, 
£y him, according to the pre- 
dictions of the prophet Jonah, 
raised the kingdom of the 
ten tribes to its greatest splen- 
dour. All the countries on the 
east of Jordan he reduced. It 
appears from the writings of 
Hosea and Amos, that idleness, 
effeminacy, pride, oppression, 
injustice, idolatry, and luxury, 
greatly prevailed in his reign. 
(Amos ii. 6—16 ; v. vi.) Nor 
was it long after his death, 
before the Lord, according to 
the predictions of Amos, cut 
off his family with the sword. 
(2 Kings xv. 10. Hos. i. 1, &c. ) 

JERUB-BAAL. (See Gide- 
on.) 

JERUSALEM. (Josh, xviii. 
28.) The capital of the king- 
dom of Judah, and the scene of 
the most extraordinary events 
which occur in the annals of 
the human race; events, in 
which men and angels have 
and must for ever have the 
deepest interest. This was the 
place selected by the Almighty 
for his dwelling, and here his 
glory was rendered visible. 
This was the "perfection of 
beauty," and the "glory of all 
lands"" Here David sat, and 
tuned his harp, and sung the 
praises of Jehovah. Hither the 
tribes came up to worship. 
Here enraptured prophets saw 
Dright visions of the world 
above, and received messages 
from on high for guilty man. 
Here our Lord and Saviour 
came in the form of a servant, 



JER 

and groaned, and wept, and 
poured out his soul umo death, 
to redeem us from sin, and save 
us from the pains of hell. Here, 
too, the wrath of an incensed 
God has been poured out upon 
his chosen people, and has laid 
waste his heritage. 

It was probably once called 
Salem, (Gen. xiv.18. Ps. lxxvi. 
2. Heb. vii. 1,2,) and in the 
days of Abraham was the 
abode of Melchizedek. When 
the Israelites took possession 
of the promised land, they 
found this stronghold in the 
possession of the Jebusites, 
(see Jebus,) and it was by 
them called Jebus, (Judg. xix. 
10,) or Jebusi. (Josh, xviii. 28.) 
Perhaps the more modern 
name of the city may be com- 
pounded of these two, with a 
little modification for the sake 
of sound. 

We have called »t a strongs 
hold,a:.d so indeed it was, even 
in its earlier days. (2 Sam. v. 
6—8. 1 Chron. xi. 4-6.) The 
whole foundation was of rock, 
with steep ascents on three 
sides. Then it was nearly sue- 
rounded by a deep valley, 
which was again embosomed 
with hills. 

This natural position of the 
city furnishes some of the 
beautiful illustrations of the 
Bible. (Ps. xlviii. 2. 13; cxxv. 
1, 2.) The ancient Salem was 

Erobably built upon Acra and 
Ioriah, the eastern and west- 
ern hills. "When the Jebusites 
became masters of it, they 
erected a fortress in the south- 
ern quarter of the city, which 
was afterwards called mount 
Zion, but to which they gave 
the name of their ancestor, 
Jebus ; and although the Isra- 
elites, under Joshua, took pos*- 
session of the circumjacent 
territory, (Josh, xviii. 28,) the 
Jebusites still held this fortress, 
or upper town, until the time 
of David, who wrested it from 
them, (2 Sam. v. 7—9,) and 
348 



JER 
then removed his court from 
Hebron to Jerusalem, which 
was thenceforward known as 
the city of David. (2 Sam. vi. 
10. 12. , Kings viii. 1.) As the 
city was on the boundary line 
between the tribes of Judah 
and Benjamin, it is sometimes 
spoken of as the possession of 
each. 

Upon this eminence,Solomon 
erected the temple, or place 
of worship for the whole Jew- 
isn nation, and also a palace 
for himself, called the house of 
the forest of Lebanon^ on ac- 
count of the multitude of cedars 
from that mountain employed 
in the construction of it,(lKings 
vii. 2 ; x. 17 ;) and in his reign 
the city became renowned 
for its commercial enterprise, 
(1 Kings x 22,) its boundless 
wealth, (1 Kings x. 14—29,) 
and especially for the enjoy- 
ment of the peculiar presence 
and favour of the Almighty. 
(Ps. ii. 6; xv. 1; lxxiv. 2.) 
This eminence it maintained 
for nearly five hundred years, 
when it was destroyed by Ne- 
buchadnezzar. Then it lay 
in ruins seventy years, while 
the Jews were in captivity ; 
after which it was restored in 
some degree to its former im- 
portance, and so remained 
for nearly six hundred years, 
when it was finally destroyed 
by Titus, a. d. 70. In the reign 
of Adrian, the city was partly 
rebuilt, under the name of 
MW&. After being transformed 
into a pagan city, Helena, the 
mother of Constantine, over- 
threw its monuments of idola- 
try, and erected over the sup- 
posed site of the sepulchre of 
Christ a magnificent church, 
which included as many of the 
scenes of our Saviour's suffer- 
ings as superstition and tradi- 
tion could conveniently crowd 
into one spot. 

The emperor Julian, in the 
true spirit of/ an apostate, de- 
signing to give the lie to pro- j 
30 



JER 

Jhecy, assembled the Jews at 
erusalem, and endeavoured 
in vain to rebuild the temple. 
In this attempt he was frus- 
trated by an earthquake, and 
fiery eruptions from the earth, 
which totally destroyed the 
work, consumed the materials 
which had been collected, and 
killed a great number of the 
workmen. 

Jerusalem continued in the 
power of the eastern emperors 
till the reign of the caliph 
Omar, the third in succession 
from Mohammed, who reduced 
it under his subjection. This 
Omar was afterwards assassi 
nated in Jerusalem, in 643. 

The Saracens conti nued mas* 
ters of Jerusalem till the year 
1099, when it was taken by 
the crusaders, under Godfrey 
of Bouillon. They founded a 
new kingdom, of which Jen*, 
salem was the capital, and 
which lasted eighty -eight 
years, under nine kings. At 
last this kingdom was utterly 
ruined by Saladin; and though 
the Christians once more ob- 
tained possession of the city, 
they were again obliged to re- 
linquish it. In 1217, the Sara- 
cens were expelled by the 
Turks, who have ever since 
continued in possession of it. 

Seventeen times has Jerusa- 
lem been taken and pillaged ; 
millions of men have been 
slaughtered within its walls. 
No other city has experienced 
such a fate. This protracted 
and almost supernatural pun- 
ishment, betokens unexampled 
guilt. 

The present political state 
of Jerusalem is perhaps as low 
as it has been at any time 
while under the dominion of 
the Turks. It has not even 
the honour of ranking as a 
provincial capital, and enjoys 
none of the immunities pecu- 
liar to the other holy cities of 
Islamism. It is included with 
in the pashalic of Damascus, 
349 



JER 



JER 




JER JEB 



1 Castle of Hippicus. 

2 Gate of the gardens. 

3 Tomb of high-priest John. 

4 Bridge between temple and city. 

5 Supposed site of the Xistus. 

6 Castle of Antonia. 

a Jaffa gate. 
b Zion gate. 
c St. Stephen's gate. 
d Damascus gate, 
e Pool of Bethesda. 
f Pool of Si loam. 
g Fountain of the virgin. 
h Garden of Gethsemane. 
t" Monuments of Absalom and Zechariah. 
k Village of Silor. 
I Mount of Corruption. 
m Jaffa road. 
n Bethlehem road. 
o Road to Bethphage and Bethany. 



The line with black squares ■■ ■ ■ upon it shows the 
course of the wall in our Saviour's time. 

The zig-zag line wx>v%/v shows the extent of the wall 
built by Agrippa, after Christ's death. 

The dotted line shows the present wall. 

The square on the eastern side represents the site of the 
ancient templs, now occupied by the mosque of Omar. 



351 



JER 

and is governed by a deputy 
appointed from thence. No 
deference is created by the 
peculiar sanctity of the place, 
(except in the minds of Chris- 
tians,) as is done by that of 
the Arabian cities of Mecca 
and Medina; for, while a go- 
vernor of either of these is 
honoured by distinguished pri- 
vileges, the governor of Jerusa- 
lem ranks only as a magistrate 
of a provincial' town. 
The force usually kept in 
erusalem consists of about a 
thousand soldiers, including 
horse and foot, armed and 
equipped in the common Turk- 
ish fashion, and composed of 
Turks, Arabs, and Albanians. 
These are stated to be suffi- 
cient to repel any attack from 
the armies of the country, but 
could offer no effectual resist- 
ance to European troops. 

The site of the city of Jeru- 
salem has never been called 
in question. The associations 
with it have been permanent 
and uninterrupted, and seem 
designed to connect the great 
eras in the history of the 
church of the Redeemer, to 
be an everlasting monument 
of the truth and faithfulness 
of the God of Jacob. 

There have been many 
changes in its form and ap- 
pearance ; the most important 
of which we proceed to state, 
and to illustrate them by a 
map, which is prepared from 
the best materials that the 
journals of travellers supply, 
flown to the year 1836. 

The city of Jerusalem stands 
in 31° 50' north latitude, and 
35° 20' east longitude, from 
Greenwich. It is thirty-four 
miles south-easterly from Jaffa, 
(Joppa,) its port, and one hun- 
dred and twenty miles south- 
westward ly from Damascus. 
It has the valley of Jehosha- 
phat, or Kedron, on the east, 
and the valley of Hinnom on 
the south and west. 



JER 

Mount Moriah is ( now on a 
level with other parts of the 
city, and is occupied by the 
mosque of Omar, which stands 
probably very near, if not on 
the very site of the temple of 
Solomon. So sacred i3 this 
edifice in the view of the 
Turks, that no Christian is 
permitted to place his foot 
even within the spacious en- 
closure which surrounds it. 
Although the elevation of this 
mountain has disappeared, its 
position is beyond controversy. 
To prepare it for the vast 
structure of the temple, Solo- 
mon enclosed the mountain 
by a stupendous wall, of an 
average perpendicular height 
of five hundred feet; filling up 
the intervening space between 
the wall and the mountain, so 
as to form a spacious and level 
area for the temple and its 
extensive courts. At the north- 
western angle of this area was 
a magnificent tower, which 
was called by Herod the tower 
ofAntonia, in honour of Mark 
Antony. 

Mount Zion was south-west 
of Moriah; and its present 
position and elevation corre- 
spond very exactly with the 
most ancient records. 

It is impossible,after so many 
desolations as the city has suf- 
fered, to trace the boundaries 
of this mountain. There is, 
however, a rise of ground be- 
tween Zion and Moriah, which 
corresponds so entirely to the 
east part of Acra, as described 
by ancient historians, as to 
leave no doubt that it formed 
a portion of it. The Jews at 
present call the whole hill 
Zion. 

Acra (so called from a Greek 
word, signifying high) is some 
times called the loicer city, as 
mount, Zion was called the 
upper city. It was north of 
mount Zion, from which it was 
separated by the valley of the 
cheesemongers* A town waa 
3o2 



JER 

once erected on a peak of 
Acra, which overlooked the 
temple. After standing about 
twenty-five years, it was de- 
molished, and the mountain 
reduced to a level with the 
adjoining districts. 

Bezetha, or the new city, was 
a spacious suburb, stretching 
northward from mount Moriah, 
which was not taken within 
the city proper until nearly 
fifty years after the crucifix- 
ion. It embraces what is Sup- 
posed to have been the scene 
of that wonderful event. 

The modern city of Jerusa- 
lem is chiefly built on mount 
Moriah, and derives its princi- 
pal support from the visits of 
pilgrims. The different ac- 
counts, given by travellers, of 
the appearance of the city, 
may be accounted for in part 
by the direction in which it is 
approached. From the north, 
it appears to the best advan- 
ce; and from the west, to 
the least. It is about two miles 
and a half in circuit, and con- 
tains a population variously 
estimated from 15,000 to 50,000. 
The most accurate estimate 
we have seen places it at 
20,000. 

It will be observed that the 
map presents the city in three 
different aspects. 

marks the present 

boundary of the city. 

vww the wall built by 
Agrippa. 

■ ■ a a what was the city 
at the time of the crucifixion. 

At present, the south wall 
passes over mount Zion, near 
its summit, so that a great part 
of the city is without the walls. 
South of mount Zion is the 
deep valley of the son of Hin- 
nom ; the same valley, turning 
north, bounds Zion likewise on 
the west. Moriah has on the 
east the deep valley of Cedron. 
On the south of it, without the 
city, is a little elevation, which 
is marked on D'Anville's map 
30* 



JER 

j as Ophei; thence the descent 
is steep, till we come to the 
fountain of Siloah. The val- 
i leys north and west of Moriah 
j at present are not very deep, 
i Calvary was perhaps only a 
j small elevation on a greater 
i hill, which is now the north- 
I west part of the city ; but the 
name is now given to the 
whole hill. Bezetha is sepa- 
rated from Calvary by a wide 
valley ; and east of Calvary is 
the dividing^ valley between 
Moriah and Bezetha, in which 
is the pool of Bethesda. 

We have viewed Jerusa- 
lem, says a Christian traveller, 
from different stations, have 
walked around it and within 
it, and have stood on the mount 
of Olives, with Josephus' de- 
scription of it in our hands, 
trying to discover the hills and 
valleys, as laid down by him 
near eighteen hundred years 
ago ; and after all our research, 
we compare Jerusalem to a 
beautiful person, whom we 
have not seen for many years, 
and who has passed through a 
great variety of changes and 
misfortunes, which have caus- 
ed the rose on her cheeks to 
fade, her flesh to consume 
away, and har skin to become 
dry and withered, and have 
covered her face with the 
wrinkles of age ; but who still 
retains some general features, 
by which we recognise her as 
the person who used to be the 
delight of the circle in which 
she moved. Such is the. pre- 
sent appearance of the Holy 
City, which was once the per- 
fection of beauty, the joy of 
the whole earth. 

Jerusalem,as to general form, 
may be called a square, oi 
rather a rhomboid ; the north- 
east and south-west angles are 
acute, and the north-west and 
south-east are obtuse. The 
east wall is nearly straight tha 
whole length. On the north 
and south sldes,the wall makei 
333 



JER 

a bend outwardly, and on the 
west side it makes an inward 
bend ; so that it would not be 
very inaccurate to call the 
city a heptagon. There are 
likewise many little irregu- 
larities in the wall. 

Near the bend on the west 
side is Jaffa gate, called also 
the gate of Bethlehem and the 
Pilgrim's gate, and Bab el 
Khaleel, (the gate of the Be- 
loved, i. e. Abraham.) On the 
south side is the gate of Zion, 
called also the gate of David. 
On the east side, near the pool 
of Bethesda, is the gate of 
Stephen, called likewise the 
Sheep gate, and the gate of 
the Virgin Mary. On the west 
side, between Calvary and Be- 
zetha,is Damascus gate. These | 

From the north-west corner 

to Jaffa gate ... 

to south-west coiner - 

to Zion gate 

to the bend in the south wall 

to the Dung gate 

to the south-east corner 

to the Golden gate 

to St. Stephen's gate • 

to north-east corner • 

to Herod's gate • 

to the bend 

to Damascus gate 

to north-west corner - 

The total is 4-279 paces; and 
allowing five pacps to a rod, 
this gives eight hundred and 
fifty-six rods, or about two 
miles and two thirds, for the 
circumference of the city. 
Maundrell measured the city, 
and judged it to betwj miles 
and a half in circumference. 
According to Josephus, it was 
thirty-three furlongs, or eight 
miles, in circumference before 
Titus destroyed it. Mount Zion 
was then included ; and the 
city seems, from his descrip- 
tion, to have extended further 
north than it does now. The 
wall of the city is high, but not 
thick. From counting the rows 
of stones, the height, in differ- 
ent places, is supposed to be 
forty, fifty, and perhaps sixty 
feet. There is a castle, with two 



JEB 

four are the principal gates 
of the city, and are always 
open from morning till sunset. 
There are two other small 
gates, which are opened only 
occasionally. One is on the 
south side, a little west of 
mountMonah. Maundrell calls 
it the Dung gate. The other, 
which Maundrell callsHerod's 
gate, is on the west side, and 
goes out from Bezetha. On 
the east side of Moriah is a se- 
venfh gate, or rather a place 
where there was one when the 
Christians possessed the city : 
for it is now completely walled 
up. Maundrell calls this the 
Golden gate. 

The measure of the city by 
paces gives the following re- 
suit: 



Paces. 
300? 



west side. 



195^ 

HI i 1149 south side. 

415) 

353) 

230). 943 east side. 

360) 

350J 

i0 M419 north side. 



150 
- 660; 

towers, on the west side, a 
little south of Jaffa gate,. to 
which travellers have given 
the name of the Pisan's 
tower. For a little distance, 
near the north-east corner, 
there is a trench without the 
wall, but now nearly filled up. 
The Jhws occupy a much 
smaller part of the city than 
the Turks and Arabs. The 
Armenians live in and around 
their convent on mount Zion ; 
the Greeks and Catholics have 
their convents and houses on 
mount Calvary. The Turks 
and Arabs occupy Bezetha, 
and all the eastern part o} 
the city, and have scattered 
dwellings in every quarter. 
The Jews live in the dust, be- 
tween Zion and Moriah. The 
whole area of the ancient Jew- 
354 



JER 

tsh temple on Moriah, which 
now encloses the mosque of 
Omar, is walled in, and, as 
was before observed, none but 
Mussulmans are allowed to 
enter it on pain of death, 
though this rule seems to have 
been" lately relaxed in some 
degree. In and near it are 
four minarets. There are two 
others on Bezetha, one on 
Acra, one on Zion, and two on 
Calvary. 

The Jews have a number of 
synagogues, all connected to- 
gether, in the quarter where 
they live. The church of the 
Holy Sepulchre stands on Cal- 
vary. This is an edifice dis- 
tinguished for its size and mas- 
si veness. It forms altogether 
a block of one hundred and 
sixty feet long and one hundred 
wide; and. includes what are 
called the chapel of the cruci- 
fixion, the church of the sepul- 
chre, seven small chapels, a 
monastery and cloisters. The 
traditions with which the va- 
rious apartments are associated 
are scarcely worthy to be pre- 
served, and yet the votaries of 
superstition have contrived to 
group and connect them in 
such a manner as to excite 
strong and probably salutary 
emotions in the mind of the 
reflecting visiter. The Catho- 
lics have one convent on the 
same mountain. The Greeks 
have twelve here,and one near 
Ziongate. The Armenians have 
three convents on mount Zion, 
a large one and a small one in 
the city, and another a little 
without Zion gate, where, it is 
belie ved, stood the house of Cai- 
aphas,where Jesus was arraign- 
ed,and wherePeterdenied him. 
The Copts, Syrians, and Abys- 
s'.nians have also each a small 
convent. The houses are of 
stone, most of them low and 
irregular, with flat roofs or ter- 
races, in the middle of which 
usually rises a small dome. 
The windows are small, and 



JES 

those towards the street have 
usually strong iron grates for 
defence, and then fine wooden 
grates to prevent the women 
from being seen by those who 
pass. The streets are narrow, 
and most of them irregular. 
There are but few gardens in 
the city. 

Jerusalem is seen to best 
advantage from mount Olivet. 

The substance of the forego- 
ing account of modern Jerusa- 
lem is abridged from the jour- 
nal of Messrs. Fisk and King, 
American missionaries, who 
were resident there in 1823; 
and its accuracy is confirmed 
by the descriptions of travel- 
lers who have visited it more 
recently. 

(For a more minute history 
and description of the city, see 
Destruction op Jerusalem, 
ch. vi. xiv. ; Elisama, ch. viii. 
— x. ; Omar, ch. iv. viii. ; and 
Selumiel, pp.49— 52. 150—174. 
195— 210, all by Am. S.S.Union. 
See also Map of Jerusalem, 
published in connexion with 
Selumiel, which corresponds 
in its principal outlines to the 
foregoing article.) 

Jerusalem, new, (Rev. xxi. 
2,) is a term employed meta- 
phorically^ represent the spi- 
ritual church. The ancient 
Jews regarded the taberna- 
cle, the" temple, and Jeru- 
salem itself, as descending 
directly from God ; and they 
suppose that there is a spirit- 
ual tabernacle, temple, and 
city corresponding with them. 
(Comp. Gal. iv. 26. 2 Pet. iii 
10—13. Rev. xxi.) Jerusalem 
of old was the city of God; 
and Jerusalem above is called 
the city of the living God, ox 
heavenly Jerusalem. (Heb. xii. 
22. Rev. iii. 12.) 

JESHURUN. (Deut. xxxii 
15.) A significant name, de- 
scriptive of the Israelitish com- 
munity, and implying either 
their general uprightness, or 
the peculiar manifestation of 
355 



JEW 

God's presence which they 
had enjoyed, and which aggra- 
vated the guilt of their rebel- 
lion. It is sometimes used as 
a term of fondness, and may 
De rendered the beloved one, 
or the object of God's special 
delight, as Benjamin was. 
(Deut. xxxiii. 12.) It is syno- 
nymous with Israel. (Isa. xliv. 
2.) 

JESSE. (IChron.ii. 13.) The 
on of Obed, and father of Da- 
vid. Hence he is called the 
root of David, and the ancestor 
of the Messiah. (Isa. xi. 1. 10.) 
Christ describes himself as the 
root and the offspring of David, 
(Rev. v. 5 ; xxii. 16,) in refer- 
ence to his twofold nature ; in 
one of which, he was the crea- 
torand source of all being,(John 
l. 3.) and in the other, he was 
born of a woman of a descend- 
ant of the family of David. 
(Matt. i. 5—16.) 

JESUS. (Matt. i. 21.) This 
term, in its original, imports 
the office of a Saviour, or one 
sent to save. It occurs only 
in the New Testament; and 
though it is not exclusively 
applied to Christ, it should be ; 
for in Acts vii. 45. Col. iv. 11, 
and Heb. iv. 8, Joshua, and 
not Jesus, is the proper ren- 
dering. 

In the evangelical history, 
our Saviour is designated by 
the name of Christ alone, in 
nearly three hundred passages; 
by the name of Jesus Christ, 
or Christ Jesus, less than one 
hundred times; and by the 
name of the Lord Jesus Christ, 
less than fifty. (See Christ 
Jesus.) 

JETHRO. (Ex. iii.l.) A 
priest or prince of Midian, and 
father-in-law of Moses. He is 
called Raguel, Num. x. 29, and 
Reuel, Ex. ii. 18; and was pro- 
bably known by either name. 
Tt is highly probable,too,that he 
was a descendant of Abraham, 
(Gen. xxv. 2 ;) but what was 
the nature o*" his office as 



JEW 

priest, (or prince, as some say 
it should be rendered,) we 
know not. (See Life of Mo- 
ses, pp. 36—41, by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

JEWELS. (Gen. xxiv. 53.) 
This term is applied to orna- 
ments, made of the precious 
metals, and used to adorn the 
person. We find them among 
the presents which the servants 
of Abraham made to Rebekah 
and her family when they 
sought her in marriage fox 
Isaac. (Isa. lxi. 10.) It is pro- 
bable that much skill was at- 
tained, at a very early period^ 
in the manufacture of metal 
ornaments ; such as chains, 
bracelets, ear-rings, &c. (Num 
xxxi. 50. Ezek. xvi. 12. Hos. 
ii. 13.) 

The word is figuratively used 
to denote any tfiing peculiarl) 
precious ; as, the chosen peo 
pie of God, (Mai. iii. 17,) oi 
wisdom. (Prov. xx. 15.) 

JEWRY. (Luke xxiii. 5.) 
The same with Judea. (Dan. 
v. 13.) 

JEWS. (2 Kings xvi. 6.) 
The word first occurs in this 
passage, and denotes the Ju. 
deans, or men of Judah, in 
contradistinction from the se 
ceding ten tribes who retained 
the name of Israel. The name 
Israelites was applied to the 
twelve tribes, or descendants 
of Jacob, (Israel,) as a body; 
but after the separation of the 
tribes, the above distinction 
obtained until the Babylonish 
captivity, which terminated 
the existence of the kingdom 
of Judah ; and thenceforward 
until the present day, the de- 
scendants of Jacob are called 
Jews, and constitute one of 
the two classes into which the 
whole human family is fre. 
quently divided, viz. Jews and 
Gentile3. (Rom. ii. 9, 10. See 
Hebrews.) Since the over- 
throw of their government, and 
the final destruction of their 
city, the Jews have been set 
356 



JEZ 

ttp on high as a visible, incon- 
trovertible, and overwhelming 
evidence of the truth and faith- 
fulness of Jehovah. So long as 
they were the objects of his 
regard, no weapon formed 
against them could prosper; 
but when they became the 
objects of his displeasure, on 
account of their sins and re- 
bellions, no plan or effort for 
their restoration succeeds, or 
will succeed, until the set time 
to favour them shall come. 
Their return to the rest and 
privileges of God's people will 
be as life from the dead. (Rom. 
xi. 15. 25—28. For a particular 
account of the calamities of 
this nation, from century to 
century, and the connexion of 
their wonderful history with 
prophecy, see The Bible is 
True, ch. iv. v., by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

The number of Jews in the 
world is estimated at from 
three to six millions. Of these, 
there are reckoned in Europe, 
2,000,000; Asia, 700,000; Africa, 
500,000. The largest numbers 
are in Russia and Poland. 

The number of Jews in the 
United States is computed at 
from 6,000 to 15,000. 

JEZEBEL, (1 Kings xvi. 31,) 
the wife of Ahab king of Israel, 
was the daughter of a Zidonian 
king, and of course educated 
in the idolatrous practices of 
her native country. It is 
charged upon Ahab as a sin of 
the deepest die, that he should 
connect himself with such a 
woman. She introduced the 
worship of Baal and other 
idols, maintaining four hun- 
dred idolatrous priests at her 
own expense, while Ahab 
maintained four hundred and 
fifty more. (1 Kings xviii. 19.) 

This wicked woman once 
resolved on the extermina- 
tion of all the prophets of 
God. Obadiah, who was a pi- 
ous maD, and principal officer 



JEZ 

one hundred of them at one 
time from her grasp, and 
supplied them with bread 
and water while they were 
concealed in caves. (1 Kings 
xviii. 3, 4. 13.) Soon after this, 
Elijah caused the four hundred 
and fifty priests of Baal, sup- 
ported by Ahab, to be put to 
death. For this proceeding, 
Jezebel threatened to take the 
life of Elijah, but her purpose 
was frustrated. Soon after 
wards, she planned and per- 
petrated the murder of Na- 
both. And by using the king's 
name and authority with the 
leading men of Jezreel, she 
secured their co-opera'tion in 
the flaarant crime. (1 Kings 
xxi. 1—13.) 

The doom of this impious 
woman was predicted by Eli- 
jah, and was in due time visit- 
ed upon her to the very letter. 
(See Jehu, Ahab.) 

In Rev. ii. 20, there is an 
allusion to this history ; but 
whether the word Jezebel is 
there used as the name of a 
person then living, and resem 
bling in character Jezebel of 
old, or whether it is only used 
proverbially, as it is in modern 
times, to denote a cunning, 
wicked, deceitful, abandoned 
woman, is not certain. 

JEZREEL. (Josh. xix. 18.) 
A royal city within the bounds 
of Manasseh, in the valley of 
Jezreel, where the tidings of 
Saul's death, in the battle at 
Gilboa, were first announced, 
(2 Sam. iv. 4,) and where his 
son Ishbosheth reigned after 
his father's death. (2 Sam. ii. 
9.) It is worthy of remark, that 
the fountain in Jezreel, where 
the Israelites encamped before 
the battle of Gilboa, (ISam 
xxix. 1,) was the very spot 
where the crusaders encamp- 
ed in 1183, when on the eve 
of a battle with Saladin. Ahab 
and Joram resided at Jezreel, 
(1 Kings xviii. 45. 2 Kings ix. 
15;) and Jezebel and Jcram 
357 



JEZ 

were slain there by Jehu. 
(2 Kings ix.24— 33.) There was 
also a city in Judah of this 
name. (Josh. xv. 56.) 

Valley op. (Josh. xvii. 16.) 
An extensive valley, (i Sam. 
xxxi. 7,) called by the Greeks 
Esdraelon, stretching south 
and south-west from mount 
Tabor and Nazareth, and re- 
markable for its beauty and 
fertility. It was the scene of 
many battles. Among them. 
one between Deborah and Ba- 
rak and Sisera, the command- 
er of the Syrians, (Judg. iv. 14,) 
one between Ahab and the Sy- 
rians, (comp. 1 Sam. xxix. I. 
1 Kings xx. 26,) another be- 
tween Saul and thePhilistines, 
(1 Sam. xxix. 1,) and another 
between Gideon and the Midi- 
anites. (Judg. vi. 33.) 

This plain is computed by 
modern travellers to be at least 
fifteen miles square, and con- 
tains five miserable villages, 
with scarcely a moving inha- 
bitant. One of them speaks of 
it as a chosen place for bat- 
tles and military operations in 
every age, from the time of 
Barak to that of Bonaparte; 
Jew, Gentiles, Egyptians, Sa- 
racens, Christian crusaders, 
and antichristian Frenchmen, 
Persians, Druses, Turks, and 
Arabs. Warriors out of every 
nation which is under heaven 
have pitched their tents upon 
the plains of Esdraelon, and 
have beheld the various ban- 
ners of their nation wet with 
the dews of Tabor and Her- 
mon. 

The soil is extremely rich ; 
and in every direction are the 
most picturesque views. The 
hills of Nazareth to the north ; 
those of Samaria to the south ; 
to the east the mountains of 
Tabor and Hermon ; and Car- 
mel to the south-west. " About 
four o'clock in the afternoon," 
says a traveller, " we arrived at 
the vil age of Gennyn, which 
is situated at the entrance of 



JOA 

one of the numerous vales 
which lead out of the plain of 
Esdraelon to the mountainous 
regions of Ephraim." 

"From the window of the 
khan where we are lodging 
we have a clear view of the 
tract over which the prophet 
Elijah must have passed, when 
he girded up his loins and ran 
before Ahab to the entrance of 
Jezreel. But, in the present 
day, no chariots of Ahab or ot 
Sisera are to be seen ; not even 
a single wheel-carriage of any 
description whatever." 

The plain opens about three 
miles from Nazareth, on the 
way to Jerusalem. 

Mr. Fisk, an American mis- 
sionary, was there in the au- 
tumn of 1823, and confirms the 
preceding account of the size, 
position, &c. of Esdraelon. So 
rich and fertile is the soil, that 
he thinks the plain, though 
less than fifteen miles square, 
would support thirty or forty 
villages, of 2000 or 3000 souls 
each. (See Omar, p. 118, by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

JOAB (2 Sam. ii. 18) was the 
nephew of David, and the com- 
mander-in-chief of his army. 
(lChron.ii.16; xi.6.) He was 
evidently a valiant man, but 
ambitious and revengeful. To 
revenge the death of his bro- 
ther Asahel, whom Abner had 
killed in self-defence, (2 Sam. 
ii. 23,) he treacherously assas- 
sinated this distinguished ge- 
neral. (2 Sam. iii. 27.) He 
brought about a reconciliation 
between Absalom and his fa- 
ther, after the murder of Am- 
non; but when Absalom re- 
belled. Joab adhered to his 
master; and under his gene- 
ralship, the troops of David, 
though much inferior in num- 
ber, obtained a complete vic- 
tory over the army which had 
been collected by this aban- 
doned and infatuated young 
man ; and, contrary to the ex 
press orders of David, he put 
356 



JOA 

nim to death with his own j 
hand, as he hung suspended j 
from the oak tree. (2 Sam. xviii. j 
14.) After this event, David j 
promoted Amasa to be his gene- 
ral -in-chief, by which Joab was j 
deeply offended, and secretly ' 
resolved on the death of his 
rival; and took the first oppor- 
tunity of assassinating him, as 
he had done Abner. (2Sam.xx. 
10.) David, after this, seems 
to have taken him again into 
favour. (2 Sam. xxiv. 2.) When 
David the kinsj had become 
old, however, Joab combined 
with Abiathar the priest, and 
others, to set Adonijah on the 
throne, in defiance of the will 
of David, who had, by divine 
direction, resolved to make 
Solomon king. (1 Kings ii. 28.) 
The plot was seasonably de- 
feated, and Solomon was 
proclaimed king the same 
day. But Joab now seemed to 
David so evidently an object of 
the divine displeasure, that he 
solemnly charged Solomon to 
punish him for all his enor- 
mous crimes, and especially 
for the murder of two valiant 
men, betterthan himself,Abner 
and 'Amasa. Joab, conscious 
that his life was forfeited, 
sought an asylum at the horns 
of the altar, which position he 
absolutely refused to relin- 
quish; and Benaiah, now ad- 
vanced to be the captain of 
the host, slew him by the altar, 
agreeably to the command of 
the young king. He was buried 
in his own house, in the wil- 
derness. (1 Kinss ii. 5—34.) 

JOANNA (Luke viii. 3) is 
mentioned as the wife of Chu- 
za, Herod's steward, or head- 
servant. She seems to have 
been the subject of some mira- 
culous cure by Christ, whom 
she followed, and to whom she 
ministered. (Luke xxiv. 10.) 

JOASH, 1. (2Kines xiii. 1,) 
or JEHOASH, (2 Kings xii. 1,) 
was the son and successor of 
Ahaziah; king of Judah. Je- 



JOA 

hosheba, (or JehoshabeatJi, 2 
Chron. xxii. 11,) the wife of 
Jehoiada the high-priest, his 
aunt, preserved him from the 
murderous designs of Athali- 
ah, his grand-mother, when 
he was but a year old, and 
kept him hid six years in a 
chamber belonging to the tem- 

Ele. (See Athaliah.) When 
e was seven years of age, 
Jehoiada entered into a solemn 
covenant with Azariah and 
others, to set up young Joash 
for their sovereign, and de- 
throne the wickea Athaliah. 
After preparing matters in the 
kingdom, and bringing the Le- 
vites, and such others as they 
could trust, to Jerusalem, they 
crowned him in the court of 
the temple with great solemni- 
ty. (2Kings xi.) Joash behaved 
himself well while Jehoiada 
the high-priest lived and was 
his guide; but no sooner was 
this good man removed, than 
he began to listen to the coun 
sels of his wicked courtiers. 
The worship of God fell into 
neglect, and idolatry prevail 
ed. Zechariah the priest, son 
of Jehoiada, warned him of 
his sin and danger; but as 
a reward of his fidelity, he 
was, by order of Joash, stoned 
to death, between the porch 
and the altar. When dying, he 
assured them that God would 
avenge his death. (2 Chron. 
xxiv. 20—22.) To which event 
our Saviour is supposed by 
some to refer, Matt, xxiii. 35. 
Hazael invaded the kingdom , 
but Joash, with a large sum cf 
money, including all" the trea 
sures and furniture of the tc-nv 
pie and palace, redeemed his* 
capital from plunder. (2 Kings 
xii. 18.) After suffering other 
injuries from the Syrians, and 
after being loaded with igno 
miny, he was murdered by his 
own servants, after a reign of 
forty-one years. (2 Chron. xxiv 
24—27.) 
2. (2 Kings xiii. 90 Son ano 
359 



JOB 

successor of Jehoahaz king of 
Israel, and grandson of Jehu, 
was for two or three years asso- 
ciated with his father in the 
government; and he reigned 
alone, after his father's death, 
fourteen years. 

He was a wicked prince, 
though he was successful in 
three campaigns against the 
Syrians, and recovered the 
cities which they took from his 
father, according to the predic- 
tion of Elisha. (2 Kings xiii. 

5—25.) He was also signally 
successful in a war with Ama 
ziah king of Judah, (see Ama 
ziah :) soon after the termina 
Ibn of which, he died. (2 Kings 

iv. 12—16.) 

JOB. (Job i. 1.) A man of 
singular piety and more singu- 
iar "trials, who is supposed to 
have lived in Idumea at a very 
early period of the world. Some 
have supposed that he was the 
same with Jobab, (1 Chron. i. 
44,) great-grandson of Esau; 
out others place him before 
Abraham's time. 

Book of. Considerable dif 
ference of opinion has prevail- 
ed as to the date and author of 
the book of Job. It is evidently 
of great antiquity, (probably 
earlier than the time of Moses,) 
and its genuineness appears 
from Ezek. xiv. 14, and James 
v. 11. From the whole current 
of tradition, and from the cha- 
racter, style, and contents of 
Ihe book itself, the prevailing 
opinion is, that the book was 
written by Job himself, or by 
one of his contemporaries. It 
presents some of the most im- 
portant evangelical doctrines 
of the Christian religion, in a 
very distinct and forcible man- 
ner. 

Perhaps no portion of the 
Holy Scriptures has suffered 
more by the modern division 
into chapters, than Job. The 
following arrangement of the 
•wok is prepared by a learned 
critic, and will be found of 



JOE 

great use to the student m 
preserving the connexion of 
the subject. 

I. Job's character and trials, 
ch. i— iii. 

II. First series of conversa- 
tions, or controversies, viz. 

Eliphaz's address, iv. v. 
Job's answer, vi. vii. 
Bildad's address, viii. 
Job's answer, ix. x. 
Zophar's address, xi. 
Job's answer, xii.— xiv. 

III. Second series of contro- 
versy: — 

Eliphaz's address, xv. 
Job's answer, xvi. xvii. 
Bildad's address, xviii. 
Job's answer, xix. 
Zophar's address, xx. 
Job's answer, xxi. 

IV. Third series of contro 
versy : 

Eliphaz's address, xxil. 
Job^s answer, xxiii. xxiv. 
Bildad's address, xxv. 
Job's answer, xxvi.— xxxi. 

V. Elihu's four speeches to 
Job, xxxii.— xxxvii. 

VI. Jehovah's first and second 
address to Job, xxxviii.— xli. 

VII. Humiliation of Job, and 
hi3 final prosperity, xlii. 
(See Evening Recreations, 

by Am. S. S. Union, vol. iii. 
pp. 10-21.) 

JOCHEBED. (Ex. vi. 20,) 
the mother or Aaron, Moses, 
and Miriam, was the wife and 
aunt of Amram, and the daugh- 
of Levi. (Num. xxvi. 59.) 

JOEL, prophecy of, is the 
twenty-ninth book of the Old 
Testament, and the fifth of the 
prophetic books in chronolo- 
gical order. It is supposed to 
have been uttered in the reign 
of Ahaz, and the author to 
have been contemporary with 
Isaiah, between b. c. 810 and 
700. It contains a remarkable 
prediction of the effusion of 
the Holy Spirit, which is sup- 
posed to have been fulfilled 
on the day of Pentecost. The 
burden of the prophecy of Joel 
is the dreadful temporal judff- 
360 



JOH 

ments which were to come ' 
upon the Jews, and which he 
figuratively describes as al- 
ready present. In view of 
these, the people are exhorted 
to repent and humble them- 
selves before God, that they 
may obtain forgiveness and 
find grace in the day of his 
merciful visitation. 

JOHN, the baptist. (Matt. 
ill. 1.) The prophet and fore- 
runner of our Saviour, and 
the Elias of the New Testa- 
ment. He was the son of Za- 
charias, the aged priest, and 
Elisabeth, (Luke i. 13.) and 
was born about six months 
before Christ. His birth and 
work were predicted by the 
angel Gabriel, (Luke i. 5 — 15,) 
and by Isaiah (Isa. xl. 3) and 
Malachi. (Mai. iv. 5.) He 
grew up in solitude ; and, when 
about thirty years of age, began 
to preach in the wilderness of 
Judea, and to call men to re- 
pentance and reformation. By 
divine direction, he baptized 
all who came unto him con- 
fessing their sins, with the 
baptism of repentance, (Luke 
iii. 3 ;) and many supposed he 
might be the Christ. (John i. 
19—28.) His manner of life 
was solitary, and even austere ; 
for he seems to have shunned 
the habitations of men, and to 
have subsisted on locusts and 
wild honey; while his dress 
was made of the coarse hair 
off camels, and a leathern gir- 
dle was about his loins. John, 
moreover, announced to the 
Jews the near approach of the 
Messiah's kingdom, called the 
kingdom of heaven. (Matt. iii. 
2.) Multitudes flocked to hear 
him, and to be baptized of him, 
from every part of the land ; and 
among the rest came Jesus of 
Nazareth, and applied for bap- 
tism. John at first hesitated, 
an account of the dignity of the 
person and his own unworthi- 
ness : but when Jesus told him 
that it was necessary, Jobn 
31 



JOH 

acquiesced; and while this 
solemn ceremony was in the 
course of performance, hea- 
ven was opened, and the Holy 
Ghost descended on him in the - 
likeness of a dove, and a voice 
was heard from heaven, say- 
ing, This is my beloved Softy 
in whom I am well pleased, 
(Matt. iii. 17.) By this, John 
knew most certainly that Je- 
sus of Nazareth was the Mes- 
siah ; and ? indeed, before he 
saw this sign from heaven, he 
knew that the Lamb of God 
who taketh away the sin of tha 
world was present, and pointed 
him out to his own disciples, 
and announced to the people 
that he was in their midst. 
(John i. 26.) John was a man . 
of profound humility ; and, al- 
though he foresaw that his 
fame would be eclipsed by the 
coining of Christ, as the bright- 
ness of the morning star is dim; 
med by the rising of the sun 
yet he rejoiced sincerely in 
the event, saying, He must in- 
crease, but I must decrease, . 
The testimony of John to the 
divine nature and offices of the 
Redeemer is full and distinct. 
(John i. 29; iii. 28—32.) The 
message he sent by his disci* 
pies while he was in prison, 
was for their sakes, and not for 
his own. (Matt. xi. 1—6.) The 
preachingof John seems to have 
been of a very awakening and 
alarming kind, and to have 
produced a lively impression 
on the minds of his hearers; 
but with most it was but tem- 
porary. They rejoiced in his 
light for a season. Among the 
hearers of John was Herod, 
the tetrarch of Galilee. This 
wicked prince not only heard 
him, but heard him with de- 
light, and reformed his con- 
duct in many points in conse- 
quence of his solemn wari. 
ings, (Mark vi. 20;) but ih*?,. 
was one sin which he would a y u 
relinquish. He had put aw?»Y 
his own wife, and had marriVdy 
361 



JOH 

Heroddas, the wife of his bro- 
ther Philip, he being alive. 
For this iniquity, John faithful- 
ly reproved the tetrarch, by 
which he was so much offended 
that lie would have killed the 
preacher, had he not feared 
an insurrection of the people; 
for all men held John to be a 
prophet.(Matt,.xiv.5.) He went 
so far, however, as to shut him 
up in prison. Theresentmentof 
Herod ias was still stronger and 
more implacable towards the 
man who had dared to reprove 
her sin. She therefore watched 
for some opportunity to wreak 
her vengeance on this excel- 
lent man. And it was not long 
before an occasion such as she 
desired offered itself; for on 
Herod's birthday, when all the 
principal men of the country 
.were feasting with him, the 
daughter of Herodias came in, 
and danced so gracefully be- 
fore the company, that Herod 
was charmed beyond measure, 
and declared with an oath that 
he would give her whatever 
she a6ked, even to the half of 
his kingdom. She immediately 
went to her mother, to get her 
advice what she should ask; 
who told her to request the 
head of John the.Baptist,which 
she accordingly did ; and He- 
rod, whose resentment against 
him seems to have subsided, 
was exceedingly sorry; but 
out of regard to his oath, as he 
said, and respect for his com- 
pany, he sent to the prison 
and caused John to be behead- 
ed; and his head was brought 
in a dish and presented to the 
young dancer, who immediate- 
y gave it to her mother. Thus 
Zerminated the life of one, con- 
cerning whom our Lord declar- 
ed^ that of those born of women 
a greater had not appeared. 
(Matt.xi. 11.) He also declared, 
that be was the Elijah predict- 
ed in the Scriptures; that is, 
a prophet who greatly resem- 
bled Elijah, and who came in 



JOH 

his power and spirit. Johni 
indeed, in answer to the ques- 
tions proposed by the deputa- 
tion from Jerusalem, asserted 
that he was not Elijah: but 
this was spoken in relation to 
the opinion entertained by the 
Scribes and Pharisees, that 
Elijah would come in person. 
(For a full account of this indi- 
vidual, with illustrative maps, 
see John the Baptist, bvAm. 
S. S. Union.) 

John's Baptism, (Acts xix. 
3,— Baptism of John, Matt 
xxi.25,) is in this passage taken 
for his whole ministry, because 
this was a prominent branch 
of it. What the baptism ot 
John was is a subject of con- 
troversy. The words of our Sa- 
viour, recorded in Matt xxviii. 
19, are allowed to be the foun- 
dation of this ordinance, to be 
administered in the Christian 
church; yet various opinions 
have been entertained respect- 
ing its origin. Whilst some 
maintain that it was never 
practised before the mission of 
John the Baptist, others affirm 
that we ought to look for its 
origin among the ancient cere- 
monies of the Jews. We may 
be allowed to remark, that as 
the baptism of Christ differed 
from that of John, at least in 
the form of expression, so both 
differed perhaps still more, 
from the washings which were 
called baptisms by the Jews. 
Some maintain, however, that 
a ceremony prevailed at the 
initiation of proselytes into the 
Jewish church, which bore a 
striking resemblance to bap- 
tism, and which might induce 
our Saviour to adopt it. If 
baptism had been altogethei 
unknown to the Jews, say they, 
would they not have contem 
plated John's conduct with that 
astonishment which noveltyal 
waysexcites? While they were 
so far from expressing any sur- 
prise, that they spoke of bap- 
tism as a familiar rite when 
362 



JOH 

they said to him, Why bap- 
tizes t thou, then, if thou art 
neither Christ nor Elias 7 
(John i. 25.) But it is not diffi- 
cult to trace the source of their 
ideas about baptism; for not 
only was Moses commanded 
to wash Aaron and his sons at 
their consecration, but no per- 
son who had contracted cere- 
monial impurity was admitted 
into the sanctuary till it was 
removed by washing; and so of 
turniture,&c. (Mark vii.4.) The 
conduct of Christ, in the insti- 
tution of the supper, also cor- 
responds to his conduct on 
.his occasion ? for as the Jews 
concluded their passover by 
giving to every person a piece 
of bread and a cup of wine, so 
Christ, though he set aside, as 
the natureofhis office required, 
the rites enjoined by Moses in 
that ordinance which he had 
been then commemorating, yet 
retained the bread and cup 
added by the Jews. 

JOHN, THE EVANGELIST, 

was the son of Zebedee and 
Salome, and was probably 
born at Bethsaida, and was a 
companion of Peter, Andrew, 
and Philip, who were all of 
Bethsaida. (Matt. iv. 18. 21.) 
His parents were probably 
in comfortable circumstances. 
(Mark i. 20. John xix. 27.) 

He was an adherent, and, as 
some think, a cousin of John 
the Baptist ; and when Christ 
came, he readily followed him. 
When they first met, he spent 
several hours with him, and 
afterwards obeyed his call. 
(Matt. iv. 21.) It is supposed 
that John abode at Jerusalem, 
and took care of the mother 
Df Jesus until her decease, as 
»hat was the last request of his 
Lord and Master. 

After the death of the apostle 
Paul, John preached in Asia 
Minor; and was banished to 
Patmos, in the Egean Sea, 
where he wrote theRevelation. 
iRev. i. 9.) He returned from 



JOri 

his exile, laboured in the gos 
pel at Ephesus, and died at 
the age of ninety, in the reign 
of Trajan. Jerome tells us, 
that when John was too in- 
firm to converse correctly, he 
was continually repeating the 
words, Little children, love one 
another; and when asked why 
he always repeated this sen- 
tence only, he replied, " Be- 
cause it is the commandment 
of the Lord, and if this is done 
it is enough." 

John was, in many respects, 
the most interesting of the apos- 
tles in his personal character. 
Among the earliest disciples of 
the Lord, he was distinguished 
not only by marks of the pe- 
culiar regard and confidence 
of his Master, but by a bold 
and unwavering attachment 
to his cause. Antiquity attri- 
butes to him great loveliness 
of temper and nigh personal 
attractions ; traits of character 
which, connected with his 
youth and relationship to the 
Redeemer, and his constancy 
of affection, may well account 
for his leing so much beloved. 
It is supposed by some that he 
had some prominent defects 
of natural character, and es- 
pecially that he was'inclined 
to harshness and selfishness. 
(Mark ix. 38; x. 35. Luke 
ix. 54. Comp. Matt. xx. 20.) 
We know that those sub- 
lime qualities of love, meek- 
ness, and humility, which 
afterwards distinguished him, 
were the fruits of the Spi- 
rit, by which he was rege- 
nerated and sanctified, and 
made peculiarly dear to the 
Redeemer. (John xiii.23; xix. 
26 ; xx. 2 ; xxi. 7.) John was 
of an ardent temperament, as 
appears by the frequent dis- 
play of zeal and devotedness 
to the cause he'had espoused. 
Sometimes, indeed, he was 
impetuous ; but, on the other 
hand, we find him foremost in 
action and fearless in danger 
363 



JOH 

His character is finely con- 
trasted with that of his bold 
and forward associate, Peter; 
for while he who was counted 
a rock shrunk away from his 
post and denied his Master, 
the amiable John was firm and 
undaunted ; nor did he forsake 
his Lord even at the cross, but 
stood by him, and amid all the 
violence and dismay of that 
dreadful hour, received his last 
message, and bore witness to 
the minutest events that oc- 
curred. 

After the resurrection, John 
was first, with Peter, in an- 
nouncing the gospel. His bold 
and zealous conduct on this 
occasion is worthy of admira- 
tion; and to the end of his 
long life, he was distinguished 
fey the ardour and affection 
with which he served his be- 
loved Lord. (For a full history 
of John the Evangelist, with 
illustrative maps and cuts, see 
Beloved Disciple, by Am. S. 
J3. Union.) 

JOHN, gospel of, is the 
fourth book of the New Testa- 
ment. It is supposed by many 
to have been written about the 
year 69; but there are some 
powerful reasons to believe 
that it was written as late as 
97. It was published in Asia. 
The particular design of it is 
expressed by the author to be, 
that those to whom it was writ- 
ten might believe that Jesus 
is the Christ the Son of God, 
and that believing they might 
have life througn his name. 
(John xx. 31.) Hence the sub- 

}"ects and discourses of this book 
lave special relation to our 
Lord's character and offices, 
and are evidently intended to 
establish his nature, authority, 
and doctrines, as divine. He 
probably nad the other gospels 
before him, or was familiar 
with their general contents. 
This fact affords substantial 
evidence of the genuineness 
of these writings, and also 



JOH 

accounts for the omission ol 
many important occurrences 
which are particularly stated 
by the other evangelists. 

This gospel is divided into 
twenty - one chapters ; and 
among the leading subjects 
are:— A plain declaration of 
the Redeemer's Godhead, (ch. 
i. 1-5; iv. 14; v. 17,18-23; 
x. 18. 30 ;) the nature and 
necessity of regeneration and 
redemption, (iii. 3—21;) the 
security of the people of God, 
(x. ;) the resurrection of the 
dead, (xi. ;) the descent of the 
Holy Spirit, (xvi.;) and the 
blessed relation of Christ and 
his true disciples, (xvii.) 

This whole gospel abounds 
with the most sublime and 
mysterious truths of our holy 
religion, expressed with great 
simplicity, and with the utmost 
zeal, affection, and veneration 
for the Divine author and 
finisher of our faith. (The first 
and second volumes of Union 
Questions, by Am. S.S.Union, 
embrace the gospel by John.) 

Epistles of, are three in 
number, and make the twenty- 
ty-third, twenty-fourth, and 
twenty-fifth books of the New 
Testament. The first has al- 
ways been attributed to John*, 
though his name is neither 
prefixed nor subscribed. It 
has been supposed to be intro- 
ductory, or a kind of dedication 
of the gospel. It was written 
not far from a. d. 70. Some 
have assigned to all three of 
these epistles a date as late as 
a. d. 96 or 97. It is addressed 
to Christians generally, and 
might more properly be called 
a discourse or treatise, though 
some have thought, it wa? de- 
signed particularly for th6 
church at Ephesus. The lead- 
ing objects of it are, to establish 
Christians in the faith of those 
things to which the author and 
his fellow-labourers had testi 
fied as eye-witnesses, and te 
JiwWuct them in the mystenei 
264 






JOH 

oi redeeming love, and in tne 
principles and duties which 
the relisrion of Christ enjoins, 
and to furnish them with cer- 
tain signs, or criteria,by which 
to determine the genuineness 
of their faith. 

The second epistle is ad- 
dressed to the elect (excel- 
lent, eminent, &c.) lady and 
her children. The elect lady 
is supposed to have been some 
honourable woman, distin- 
guished for piety, and well 
known in the churches as a 
disciple of Christ. Some, how- 
ever, have thought some parti- 
cular church and its members 
might be denoted. Those who 
adopt the latter opinion apply 
the term to the church at Jeru- 
salem, and the term elect sister 
(v. 13) to the church at Ephe- 
sus. These conjectures, how- 
ever, have generally yielded 
to the more natural conclusion 
that some eminently hospita- 
ble aiid pious woman and her 
sister, of like spirit, are de- 
noted. The title oi elder, which 
the author assumes, was proba- 
bly one of honourable distinc- 
tion in the primitive church, 
and indicative of the apostle's 
office or of his great age ; then 
not far from one hundred years, 
as it is supposed. The sub- 
stance of this letter is an ex- 
hortation to continual obedi- 
ence, and an admonition 
against deceivers, especially 
against a new form of error, 
that Christ was a man in ap- 
pearance only, and not in re- 
ality, and therefore his suffer- 
ings and death were not real. 

The third epistle, which is 
addressed to Gams, or Caius, a 
private individual, and is com- 
mendatory of his piety, was 
written about the same time 
with the others. There are at 
least five persons of this name 
mentioned in the Scriptures, 
but nothing is now known of 
their respective residence, nor 
of the other persons to whom 
31* 



JOK 

] allusion is made in the course 
! of this short letter. 

JOHN, (sumamed, or called 
also, MARK,) (Acts xii. .2,) 
was a nephew cr, some think, 
a cousin of Barnabas, (Col. iv. 
10,) and is often mentioned as 
the companion of the apostles. 
(Acts xii. 25 ; xv. 39. 2 Tim. i v. 
11. Philem. 24.) His mother 
was the Mary at whose house 
the apostles and first Christians 
usually met. (Acts xii. 12—16.) 

The same name (Marcus) 
is applied (IPet. v. 13) to an 
individual who is called by 
that apostle his son, (in the 
Lord.) It is doubtful by which 
of these persons the gospel (by 
Mark) was written, if, indeed, 
it was written by either. Many 
modern critics of deserved ce- 
lebrity consider all these pas- 
sages as relating to one and 
the same individual, and that 
to be the evangelist Mark. 

JOKNEAM (Josh. xii. 22) 
was a city of Zebulon. (Josh, 
xxi. 34.) It was situated south 
of Ptolemais, near the bay, and 
is called of Carmel, because it 
was at the foot of that moun- 
tain. 

JOKTHEEL. (2 Kings xiv. 
7.) The name given by Ama- 
ziah to Selah, or the modern 
Petra. It was the capital of 
Idumea, and one of the most 
magnificent of the ancient ci- 
ties. It was situated near the 
base of mount Hor, about three 
days' journey from Jericho,and 
the same distance from mount 
Sinai ; and must be regarded 
as the most singular spot in all 
Arabia, perhaps in the whole 
eastern world. Its remarkable 
character and history, which 
have been but recently dis- 
closed, ar d its close connexion 
with prophecy, require a more 
extended article than would 
otherwise be given to it. 

" This city appears to have 
been coeval with the birth of 
commerce ; and there is indu- 
bitable evidence that it was 
365 



JOK 

a flourishing emporium seven- 
teen centuries before the Chris- 
tian era. It was the point to 
which all the trade of northern 
Arabia originally tended ; and 
where the first merchants of 
the earth stored the precious 
commodities of the east. 

" With the decline and fall 
of the Roman power in the 
east, the name of Petra almost 
vanishes from the page of his- 
tory. About the period of the 
crusades, it was held in such 
esteem by the sultans of Egypt, 
on account of its great strength, 
that they made it the deposi- 
tory of their choicest treasures ; 
and, in the course of these reli- 
gious wars, its possession was 
strenuously contested by the 
Turks and Christians, who re- 
garded it as the key that open- 
ed the gates of Palestine. From 
that time it was known only as 
the seat of a Latin bishop. Its 
once crowded marts ceased to 
be the emporium of nations. 
The obscurity of nearly a thou- 
sand years covered its ruins. 
The very place where it stood 
became a subject of contro- 
versy. 

" The accounts of recent tra- 
vellers, who have discovered 
the ruins of this great city, tell 
us of the utter desolation which 
now reigns over those once 
celebrated regions, described 
by an inspired pen as the fat- 
ness of the earth. It is scarcely 
Sossible, they say, to imagine 
ow a wilderness so dreary 
and desolate could ever have 
been adorned with walled 
cities, or inhabited for ages by 
a powerful and opulent people. 
The aspect of the surrounding 
country is singularly wild and 
fantastic. On one side stretches 
an immense desert of shifting 
. sands, whose surface is covered 
with black flints, and broken 
by hillocks into innumerable 
undulations; on the other are 
ruggea and insulated preci- 
pices, among which rises 



JOK 

mount Hor, with its dark sum- 
mits, and near it lies the an- 
cient Petra. in a plain or 
hollow of unequal surface 
(Wady Mousa,) enclosed on 
all sides with a vast amphi- 
theatre of rocks. 

" The entrance to this cele- 
brated metropolis is from the 
east, through a deep ravine 
called El Syk; and it is not 
easy to conceive any thing 
more awful or sublime than 
such an approach. The width 
in general is not more than 
sufficient for the passage of 
two horsemen abreast ; through 
the bottom winds the stream 
that watered the city. As 
this rivulet must have been 
of great importance to the 
inhabitants, they seem to 
have bestowed much pains 
in protecting^ and regulating 
its course. The channel ap 
pears to have been covered by 
a stone pavement, vestiges of 
which still remain; and, in se- 
veral places, walls were con 
structed to give the current a 
proper direction, and prevent 
it from running to waste. Se- 
veral grooves or beds branched 
off as 'the river descended, in 
order to convey a supply u 
the gardens and higher parts 
of the city. On either hand ot 
the ravine rises a wall of per 
pendicular rocks, varying from 
four hundred to seven hundred 
feet in height, which often 
overhang to such a degree that, 
without their absolutely meet- 
ing, the sky is intercepted- 
scarcely leaving more light 
than in a cavern, for a hun- 
dred yards together. The side* 
of this romantic chasm, from 
which several small stream 
lets issue, are clothed with the 
tamarisk, the wild fig, the ule- 
ander, and the caper plant, 
which sometimes hang down 
from the cliffs and crevices 
in beautiful festoons, or grow 
about the path with a luxuri- 
ance that almost obstructs the 
366 



JOK 

passage. Near the entrance 
of the pass a bold arch is 
thrown across it at a great 
height. Whether this was the 
fragment of an aqueduct, or 
part of a road formerly con- 
necting the opposite cliffs, the 
travellers had no opportunity 
of examining ; but its appear- 
ance, as they passed under 
it, was terrific ; hanging over 
their heads between two rug- 
ged masses, apparently inac- 
cessible. Without changing 
much its general direction, 
this natural defile presents so 
many windings in its course, 
that the eye sometimes cannot 
penetrate beyond a few paces 
forward, and is often puzzled 
to distinguish in what direction 
the passage will open. For 
nearly two miles its sides con- 
tinue to increase in height as 
the path descends. The soli- 
tude is disturbed by the in- 
cessant screaming of eagles, 
hawks, owls, and ravens, soar- 
ing above in considerable 
numbers ; apparently amazed 
at strangers invading their 
lonely habitation. At every 
step the scenery discovers new 
and mo e remarkable features ; 
a stronger light begins to break 
through the sombre perspec- 
tive ; until at length the ruins 
of the city burst on the view 
of the astonished traveller in 
their full grandeur; shut in on 
every side by barren, craggy 
precipices, from which nume- 
rous recesses and narrow 
valleys branch out in all 
directions. 

"The entire face of the 
cliffs and sides of the moun- 
tains are covered with an 
endless variety of excavated 
tombs, private dwellings, and 
public buildings ; presenting 
altogether a spectacle to which 
nothing perhaps is analogous 
in any other part of the world. 
4 It is impossible,' says a travel- 
ler, ' tc give the reader an idea 
of the singular effect of rocks 



JOK 

tinted with the most extraordi 
nary hues, whose summits pre 
sent nature in her most savage 
and romantic form ; while theii 
bases are worked out in all 
the symmetry and regularity 
of art, with colonnades, and 
pediments, and ranges of corri- 
dors, adhering to the perpen- 
dicular surface.' The inner 
and wider extremity of the 
circuitous defile by which the 
city is approached is sculptur- 
ed and excavated in a singular 
manner; and these become 
more frequent on both sides, 
until at last it has the appear- 
ance of a continued street of 
tombs. 

" About half-way through 
there is a single spot, abrupt 
and precipitous, where the 
area of this natural chasm 
spreads a little, and sweeps 
into an irregular circle. This 
had been chosen for the site 
of the most elaborate, if not 
the most extensive, of all these 
architectural monuments. The 
natives gave it the name of 
Kazr Faraoun, the castle or 
palace of Pharaoh, though it 
resembled more the sepulchre 
than the residence of a prince. 
On its summit was placed a 
large vase, once furnished 
apparently with handles of 
metal, and supposed by the 
Arabs to be filled with coins ; 
hence they denominated this 
mysterious urn the Treasury 
of Pharaoh. Its height and 
position have most probably 
baffled every approach of ava- 
rice or curiosity; from above' 
it is rendered as inaccessible 
by the bold projection of the 
rough rocks, as it is from below 
by the smoothness of the po» 
lished surface. The front of the 
mausoleum itself rises in seve- 
ral stories to the height of sixty 
or seventy feet; ornamented 
with column3,rich friezes,pedi- 
ments, and large figures of 
horses and men. The interior 
consists of a chamber sixteen 
367 



JOK 

paces square and about twen- 
ty-five feet high; the walls 
and roof are quite smooth, 
and without the smallest deco- 
ration. The surprising effect of 
the whole is heightened by the 
situation and the strangeness 
of the approach. Half seen at 
first through the dim and nar- 
row opening, columns, statues, 
and cornices gradually appear 
as if fresh from the chisel, 
without the tints or weather- 
stains of age, and executed in 
Btone of a pale rose colour. 
This splendid architectural 
elevation has been so con- 
trived that a statue, perhaps 
of Victory, with expanded 
wings, just fills the centre of 
the aperture in front, which, 
being closed below by the 
ledges of the rocks folding over 
each other, gives to the figure 
the appearance of being sus- 
pended in the air at a consi- 
derable height ; the ruggedness 
of the cliffs beneath setting off 
the sculpture to the greatest 
advantage. No part of this 
stupendous temple is built, the 
whole being hewn from the 
solid rock ; and its minutest 
embellishments, wherever the 
hand of man has not purposely 
effaced them, are so perfect, 
that it may be doubted whe- 
ther any work of the ancients, 
except perhaps some on the 
banks of the Nile, has survived 
with so little injury from the 
lapse of time. There is scarce- 
ly a building in England of 
forty years' standing so fresh 
and well preserved in its 
architectural decorations as 
the Kazr Faraoun, which 
Burckhardt represents as one 
of the most elegant remains 
of antiquity he had found in 
Syria. 

"The ruins of the city itself 
open on the view with singu- 
lar effect, after winding two or 
three miles through the dark 
ravine. Tombs present them- 
selves not only in every ave- 



JOK 

nue within it, and on every 
precipice that surrounds I, but 
even intermixed almost pro- 
miscuously with its public and 
domestic edifices : so that Petra 
has been truly denominated 
one vast necropolis, or city of 
the dead. It contains above 
two hundred and fifty sepul- 
chres, which are occasionally 
excavated in tiers, one above 
the other ; and in places where 
the side of the cliff is so per- 
pendicular that it seems im- 
possible to approach the upper- 
most.no access whatever being 
visible. There are besides nu- 
merous mausoleums of colossal 
dimensions, and in a state of 
wonderful preservation. Near 
the west end of the wady are 
the remains of a stately edifice, 
the Kazr Benit Faraoun, or 
palace of Pharaoh's daughter, 
of which only a part of the 
wall is left standing. Towards 
the middle of the valley, on 
the south side, are two large 
truncated pyramids, and a 
theatre, with complete rows 
of benches, capable of contain- 
ing above 3000 spectators, all 
cut out of the solid rock. The 
ground is covered with heaps 
of hewn stones, foundations 
of buildings, fragments of pil- 
lars, and vestiges of paved 
streets,— the sad memorials of 
departed greatness. On the 
left bank of the river is a 
rising ground, extending west- 
ward/ for about three-quarters 
of a mile, entirely strewn with 
similar relics. On the right 
bank, where the ground is 
more elevated, ruins of the 
same description are to be 
seen. In the eastern cliff there 
are upwards of fifty separate 
sepulchres close to each other. 
There are also the remains 
of a palace and several tem- 
ples ; grottoes in vast numbers, 
not sepulchral ; niches, some- 
times excavated to the height 
of thirty feet, with altarn foi 
votive offerings, or with pyrar 
368 



JOK 

arids, columns, and obelisks; 
horizontal grooves, for the con- 
veyance of water, cut along 
the face of the rock, and even 
across the architectural parts 
of some of the excavations ; 
dwellings scooped out, of large 
dimensions, in one of which is 
a single chamber sixty feet in 
length and of a proportional 
breadth; many other habita- 
tions of inferior note, particu- 
larly numerous in one recess 
of the city, the steep sides of 
which contain a sort of exca- 
vated suburb, accessible only 
by flights of steps chiselled out 
of the rock. In short, the outer 
surface of the strong girdle that 
encircles the place iiPhollowed 
out into innumerable artificial 
chambers of different dimen- 
sions, whose entrances are va- 
riously, richly, and often fan- 
tastically decorated with every 
order of architecture; showing 
how the pride and labour of 
art has tried to vie with the 
sublimity of nature. The effect 
of the whole is heightened by 
the appearance of mount Hor, 
towering above this city of 
sepulchres, and perforated al- 
most to the top with natural 
caverns and excavations for 
the dead. 

" The immense number of 
these stupendous ruins corro- 
borates the accounts given, 
both by sacred and profane 
writers, of the kings of Petra, 
their courtly grandeur, and 
their ancient and long con- 
tinued royalty. Great must 
have been the opulence of a 
capitalf that could dedicate 
such mcnuments to the me- 
mory of its rulers. Its magni- 
ficence can only be explained 
by a reference to the immense 
trade of which it was the com- 
mon centre from the dawn of 
civilization. 

" These magnificent remains 
can now be regarded only as 
the grave of Idumea, in which 
its former wealth and splen- 



JON 

dour lie interred. The state 
of desolation into which it has 
long fallen is not only the 
work of time but the ful- 
filment of prophecy, which 
foretold that wisdom and un- 
derstanding should perish out 
of mount Seir; that Edom 
should be a wilderness; its 
cities a perpetual waste, the 
abode of every unclean beast. 
(Isa. xxxiv. 5. 10. 17.) Nowhere 
is there a more striking and 
visible demonstration ot the 
truth of these divine predic- 
tions than among the fallen 
columns and deserted palaces 
of Petra. The dwellers in the 
clefts of the rocks are brought 
low ; the princes of Edom are 
as nothing ; its eighteen cities 
are swept away, or reduced to 
empty chambers and naked 
walls ; and the territory of the 
descendants of Esau affords as 
miraculous a proof of the inspi- 
ration of Scripture history as 
the fate of tho children of 

JONADAB. (See Rechab- 

ITES) 

JONAH, (2 Kings xiv. 25,) or 
JONAS, (Matt- xii. 39, 40,) was 
the son of Amittai,and-was borr» 
at Gath-hepher. The only his- 
tory we have of him is given 
us in connexion with his pro- 
phecy. It seems he was com- 
missioned by God to go to the 
great city of Nineveh, and 
reprove the people for their 
abominable iniquities. Instead 
of doing this, he fled in the 
opposite direction to Joppa, 
and thence sailed for Tarshish. 
On the voyage they were over- 
taken by a violent storm,which 
threatened their destruction. 
They lightened the ship by 
throwing over part of the cargo, 
and betook themselves to pray 
er. Jonah was asleep ; but the 
captain awoke *im, and be- 
sought him to intercede foi 
their deliverance. Under the 
superstitious (though in this 
case correct) impression that 



JON 

such calamities were to be 
regarded as the visitation of 
God upon one or more particu- 
lar individuals, and that the 
lot would determine who they 
were, they cast lots to see on 
whose account the present 
judgment was sent The re- 
sult of the lot showed that 
Jonah was the ill-fated man. 
They earnestly begged him to 
tell them all his history, and 
what he had done to bring this 
distress upon the ship. He 
gave them a history of himself, 
and why he had taken the 
voyage. And upon their in- 
quiring what they should do 
with him to rid the ship of his 
presence, and so save them- 
selves from destruction on his 
account, he proposed that they 
should throw him overboard. 
This they were very reluctant 
to do, and made all possible 
effort to bring the ship to land, 
but in vain And so, after 
solemnly appealing to God for 
their justification in the act, 
they cast the prophet over- 
board ; and then the storm 
ceased, and they were deliver- 
ed from their danger. 

God had provided means, 
however, for the prophet's pre- 
servation. He was swallowed 
by a fish, within whose body 
he remained for three days 
and three nights, when he was 
thrown forth upon the shore. 

However extraordinary this 
event may appear, it is cer- 
tainly not more extraordinary 
nor more contrary to all hu- 
man experience and reason, 
than the events recorded in 
Matt. xiv. 25, and xvii. 27. 
They are all alike the result 
of Omnipotence. The supposi- 
tion that a boat is intended by 
the belly or bowels of the fish, 
(Jonah i. 17,) is entirely gratu- 
itous, and uiierly inconsistent 
with the account which Jonah 
gives us : The waters compass- 
eil me about, even to the soul : 
the depth closed me round 



JOJN 

about the weeds were wrapped 
about my head. I went down 
to the bottoms of the moun- 
tains ; the earth with her bars 
teas about me for ever: yet 
hast thou brought up my life 
from corruption, O Lord my 
God, (Jonah ii. 5, 6.) Of what 
conveyance would these ex- 
pressions be used, unless such 
a one as some monster of the 
deep might afford 1 The par- 
ticular species of fish is not 
stated in the sacred history; 
and though in a reference to 
the evenfrecorded, (Matt. xii. 
40,) a whale is mentioned, the 
original word there translated 
waale signifies any large fish. 

After im fish had thrown him 
out upon the shore,he was again 
directed to carry the message 
of the Lord to Nineveh; and 
he went and proclaimed the 
purpose of God to destroy that 
mighty city in forty days. His 
prediction was believed; and 
the whole people, of every class 
and age, clothed themselves in 
sackcloth, and devoted th em- 
selves toactsof penitence. Man 
and beast, herd and flock, ab- 
stained from food and drink, 
until God was pleased to sus- 
pend the threatened judgment. 
This was very irritating to Jo- 
nah, who was'afraid he should 
be regarded and treated as a 
false prophet ; and indeed this 
was the very reason of his 
attempted flight to Tarshish. 
(Jonah iv. 2.) "He was so much 
disappointed and vexed as to 
pray that God would take 
away his life; but God reproved 
his inhumanity by a significant 
miracle, and showed him the 
unreasonableness of his com- 
plaints,though with what effect 
we are not told. 

This incident in the life of 
Jonah was alluded to by our 
Saviour in a conversation with 
the scribes and Pharisees, (Mat 
xii. 39—41,) in which he signi 
fies to them that he should in 
lik<5 manner be three days and 
3?0 



JON 
three nights in the heart or 
Dowels of the earth. Of course 
whatever credit was or should 
have been given by the Nine- 
vites to the preaching of Jonas, 
on the ground of Ins having 
been three days and three 
nights in the bowels of a fish, 
and having then been thrown 
out alive oh the land, the like 
credit should the Jews give 
him, as he would in like man- 
ner be three days and three 
nights in the earth, and would 
then rise alive. If the Nine- 
vites repented at the preaching 
of Jonas, whose divine com- 
mission was attested by this 
sign, viz. his deliverance from 
the body of the fish; how 
great must be the condemna- 
tion of the Jews if they repent- 
ed not at the preaching of 
Christ, (so much greater than 
Jonas,) whose divine commis- 
sion was attested by a much 
greater sign, viz. his resurrec- 
tion from the dead. 

Jonah, prophecy of, is the 
thirty-second book of the Old 
Testament, and the ninth in 
the chronological order of 
the prophecies. The time at 
which it was uttered is uncer- 
tain. His prophecy respecting 
Jeroboam (2 Kings xiv. 25) is 
not extant, but is supposed to 
have been uttered in the reign 
of Jehoahaz, the grandfather 
of Jeroboam. (Comp. 2 Kings 
xiii. 3—7 with 2 Kings xiv. 26.) 
So that though he might be 
contemporary with Hosea, 
Amos, and Isaiah, he must 
have prophesied at an earlier 
period than that at which 
either of the prophecies now 
extant was uttered. We are 
safe perhaps in placing it be- 
tween b. c. 856 and 784. It 
respects the destruction of the 
city of Nineveh, the capital of 
the Assyrian empire, which 
God threatened, unless they 
would repent and turn to him ; 
and it is at once a wonderful 
record oi God's long-suifer- 



JOP 

ing and forbearance, and an 
abundant proof that he has no 
pleasure in the death of the 
wicked. 

JONATHAN (1 Sam. xiv. H 
was the son of Saul, and distin- 
guished for piety and valour. He 
and his armour-bearer, being 
encouraged by an intimation 
from God, attacked a Phil is* 
tinegarrison,slew twenty men, 
and put the garrison to flight. 
Having ignorantly violated a 
decree of his father, (the king,) 
that no man should stop, on 
pain of death, in the pursuit 
of the enemy, to taste of food. 
the people interposed and 
saved him from the penalty 
which his father was ready to 
inflict. (1 Sam. xiv. 37—45.) 

After David's defeat of the 
giant, Jonathan became ac 
quainted with him, and their 
friendship for each other was 
so remarkable as to be minute- 
ly described by the sacred his- 
torian. (1 Sam.xviii.l — 4; xix. 
2.) The opportunity to show 
their friendship for each other 
was greatly extended by the 
bitter and relentless hostility 
of Saul to David. (1 Sam. xix. 
xx., &c.) Jonathan fell with 
his father and two brothers in 
the battle of Gilboa. The la- 
mentation of David for his 
friend (2 Sam. i. 17—27) is just- 
ly regarded as inimitably pa- 
thetic and beautiful; and his 
treatment of Mephibosheth, Jo- 
nathan's son, shows the sin- 
cerity and strength of his 
affection for the father. (2 Sam. 
ix.) 

JOPPA, {Greek, 2Chron. ii. 
16,) or JAPHO, {Hebrew, Josh, 
xix. 46,) or JAFFA or YAFFA, 
as it is now called, is one of 
the oldest towns of Asia, situ- 
ated on a sandy promontory, 
jutting out from the eastern 
coast of the Mediterranean, 
between Cesarean. and Gaza, 
and thirty or forty miles north 
west of Jerusalem. Three of 
its sides are washed by th& 
371 



JOR 

iea. It was, an 3 still is, the 
principal seaport of the land 
of Judea, and of course of 
great commercial importance, 
(2 Chron. ii. 16. Ezra iii. 7. 
Jonah i. 3 ;) but its harbour is 
bad, and ships generally an- 
chor a mile from the town. 
Several interesting incidents 
in Peter's life occurred here. 
(Acts ix. and x.) It was also 
a prominent place in the 
history of the crusaders, and 
in the Egyptian campaign 
of Bonaparte. The modern 
city is surrounded by a wall 
twelve or fourteen feet high, 
and contains from 4000 to 5000 
inhabitants, chiefly Turks and 
Arabs, and perhaps six hun- 
dred nominal Christians. 

Messrs. Fisk and King, Ame- 
rican missionaries,lodged there 
in the spring of 1823, and in 
the house occupied by the Bri- 
tish vice-consul, which stands 
on or near the spot where tra- 
dition says Simon the tanner 
lived. (Acts ix. 43. See Selu- 
miel, pp. 15, 16, by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

JORAM, (2 Kings viii. 16,) or 
JEHORAM, (2 Kings iii. 1,) 
successor to Ahaziah, king of 
Israel, was the second son of 
Ahab. Though he put away 
the worship of Baal, he was 
still a very wicked king. 
(2 Kings iii. 3.) After the death 
of Ahab, the king of Moab re- 
fused to pay the annual tribute 
to the king of Israel, which he 
had been accustomed to pay ; 
and Joram determined for this 
cause to wage war with him. He 
secured the'aid of Jehoshaphat 
king of Judah, and they went 
up through Edom, whose king 
also joined the expedition. 
After seven days' march, they 
found themselves likely to be 
cut off by a severe drought. 
In this extremity, they be- 
sought the herp of Elisha the 
prophet, who had followed the 
4 army, (probably under a divine 

influence.) Elisha at first re- 



JOR 

ferred him to the gods or Ahab, 
his father, and his mother, Je« 
zebel, for succour; but finally 
for the sake of Jehoshaphat, 
he consented to interpose for 
their relief, and received a 
command from God to make 
the valley full of ditches. 
This was done, and then, 
without wind or rain, at a 
particular hour of the next 
morning, water came, not from 
the springs, into which they 
dug, but from Edom, and sup- 
plied the army and the country 
with an abundance of water. 
(2 Kings iii. 20. Comp. Ex. xvii. 
5, 6.) 

The Moabites had in the 
meantime assembled their 
forces, and were ready for bat- 
tle on the border of their land, 
when they saw the streams 
of water at a distance, appa- 
rently red as blood. This 
appearance might have been 
occasioned by the reflection 
of the sun's rays, or perhaps 
by the soil through which the 
water flowed. At any rate, the 
Moabitss flattered themselves 
that the army of Israel and its 
allies had fallen out by the 
way, and had fought a despe- 
rate battle among themselves. 
Encouraged by this conjecture, 
they hastened to fall on them ; 
but when they came to the 
camp of Israel, they were met 
by the full strength of the allied 
army, and were" defeated with 
great slaughter. The king of 
Moab tried to the utmost to 
rally his forces, but did not 
succeed; and his kingdom was 
completely desolated by the 
enemy. 

Joram was at last wounded 
at the siege of Ramoth-gilead, 
and was lying ill at Jezreel. 
Jehu being sent thither as an 
instrument of God's vengeance 
upon the wicked house of Ahab, 
Joram went out to meet him 
ana was shot dead in his cha- 
riot, and his body was thrown 
out into the field of Nabotb 
372 



JOR 

the Jezreelite, according to the 
prediction. (1 Kings xxi. 18— 
29. For an interesting sketch 
of the life of Joram, see Life 
op Elisha* ch. iii., by Am. S.S. 
Union.) 

JORDAN, 1. River, (Josh. i. 
11,) sometimes called simply 
THE RIVER, (Gen. xxxi. 21,) 
was the eastern boundary of 
Judea. The name Jordan is 
compounded of Jor, or Yar, and 
Dan, (the river of Dan,) because 
its rise was in the vicinity of 
Dan. It rises at the foot of 
mount Lebanon, in the little 
lake Phiala, and, having run 
southerly, under ground, some 
miles, to Cesarea Philippi, it 
oreaks out, and, receiving two 
or three considerable streams, 
it passes on fifteen miles far- 
ther south, where it expands 
into the marshy lake Merom, 
now Houle, (see Merom ;) a 
Short distance south of which 
is a stone bridge, called the 
bridge of the sons of Jacob, in 
allusion toGen.xxxii. 10. After 
running about twelve miles 
from lake Merom, the Jordan 
passes through the midst of the 
sea of Tiberias, in a current by 
itself, and thence onward to the 
Dead Sea, into which it emp- 
ties. It probably continued its 
course to the Red Sea, through 
the valleys of mount Seir, until 
it was checked by the convul- 
sions attending the overthrow 
•f Sodom and~ Gomorrah, and 
&e filling up of the valley 
with sand, &c. The whole 
course of the river is computed 
at one hundred and fifty or 
one hundred and sixty miles, 
but in a direct line does not 
exceed ninety or one hundred 
miles. The ordinary breadth 
af the Jordan, opposite Jericho, 
end near where the Israelites 
are supposed to have crossed, 
is said * by travellers to be 
sixty feet, about six or seven 
feet deep, and with a current 
so strong as to be resisted with 
great difficulty. It has, how- 
32 



JOR 

ever, two banks on each side. 
The first, or inner one, is that 
of the river in its natural state ; 
and the second, or outer one, 
about the eighth of a mile dis- 
tant, is its bank when it over- 
flows. This overflowing is oc- 
casioned by the melting of the 
snow on Lebanon and Hermon, 
in March and April, which was 
the time of the Jewish harvest. 
(Josh. iii. 15. 1 Chron. xii. 15.) 
It was at this season when the 
Jordan was at its height, that 
the passage of the Israelites 
took place ; and hence the 
miracle, on that occasion, was 
the more stupendous. At the 
point of their passage, the 
pilgrims now collect for the 
purpose of bathing. The an- 
nual procession for this purpose 
takes place soon after Easte*. 
Multitudes of pilgrims, under 
the protection of the governor 
of Jerusalem and his guards*, 
visit this spot, plunge into the 
stream, and, taking a bottle 
of water with them, return to 
Jerusalem. For this privilege, 
each pilgrim pays a tax to the 
Turkish government. Where 
the Jordan leaves the sea of 
Tiberias, (near the ruins of 
Tarichea,) it is one hundred 
and twenty feet across, but 
fordable by horses; and its 
course for several miles is 
through a deep, rich valley, 
shaded with thick groves, 
which, from its beauty and 
fertility, is called the pride of 
Jordan. (Zech.xi. 3.) The Job- 
dan is said to be th« only river 
of Judea that continues to flow 
the year round. The space 
between the natural bank and 
the freshet mark is marshy, 
and abounds with tall grass, 
reeds, willows, and shrubs, af- 
fording hiding places for wild 
beasts"; whence they were dri- 
ven by the rising of the waters 
(called the swelling of Jordan, 
Jer. xlix. 19; 1. 44,) to seek 
food for their famishing bodies. 
Hence the allusion of Jeremy 
373 



JOS 

ah, above cited. There were 
several fording places in the 
river; one of which {the fords 
ef Jordan) was seized by 
Ehud to intercept the Moab- 
ites. (Judg. iii. 28.) 

The valley of the Jordan is 
from four to six (and some say 
ten) miles wide, and the ave- 
rage breadth of the current, as 
given by different travellers, 
varies from sixty to one hun- 
dred feet. It is, however, very 
rapid, and rolls a vast body of 
water into the Dead Sea.' 

The waters of the Jordan 
are turbid, but when drawn 
off become clear and bright, 
pleasant to the taste, and re- 
markable for the length of 
time during which they will 
retain their freshness. 

2. The plain op Jordan, 
(2Chron. iv. 17,) or the region 
round about Jordan, (Matt. 
iii. 5,) or the plain south of 
Cinneroth, (Josh. xi. 2,) or 
simply the plain, (2 Kings 
xxv. 4,) is, strictly speaking, 
so much of the country as bor- 
ders on the Jordan, between 
Tiberias and the Dead Sea. 
The modern name of the lower 
portion of this valley is El 
Ghor. The first of the above 
names was sometimes applied 
to the whole extent of country 
watered by the Jordan, from 
the foot of Lebanon to the wil 
derness of Paran. 

For the most part, this place 
is a barren waste, hot and un- 
wholesome, inhabited only by 
Bedouins, and by them only in 
the cold season. (See Even- 
ing Recreations, by Am. S. 
S. Union, vol. ii. pp. 17—23.) 

JOSEPH, (Gen. xxx.24,) son 
of Jacob and Rachel, was born 
in Mesopotamia, a. m. 2256. 
He and his brother Benjamin 
were the children of Jacob's 
old age ; and his fondness for 
Joseph particularly seems to 
have been the source of mucn 
of his trouble. 

When Joseph was about se- 



JOS 

venteen years of age, he gave 
offence to his brethren, and 
was cruelly sold by them to 
a company of trading Ishma- 
elites, who carried him into 
Egypt, where he became the 
property of Potiphar, captain 
of the royal guard. Perceiving 
that the young man had extra- 
ordinary wisdom and purity 
of character, and that his pre- 
sence brought with it a bless- 
ing upon the whole household, 
Potiphar at once advanced 
Joseph to the highest trust. In 
this situation, he was falsely 
charged by Potiphar's wife 
with the grossest offence, and 
was for this cause cast into 
prison. Here again he won 
the confidence of all around 
him by his upright and amia- 
ble conduct, and was entrusted 
with the principal care of the 
other prisoners. 

Among those confined with 
Joseph were two persons who 
had held the offices of but- 
ler and baker in the king's 
household, and who for some 
offence against the king, were 
cast into prison. These two 
men had each a remarkable 
dream, which Joseph inter- 
preted to mean that the but- 
ler should be restored to his 
place in the court, and the 
baker should be hung. And 
the event was according to 
this interpretation. Two years 
after this, Pharaoh had a 
significant dream, and after 
trying in vain to obtain an 
interpretation of it from the 
magicians and wise men of 
Egypt, the butler told him of 
Joseph, and related what had 
taken place in prison Toseph 
was immediately sent lor , and 
after hearing the dream, in- 
terpreted it to signify the 
approach of a seven years' 
famine immediately succeed- 
ing the same period of plenty, 
and, at the same time, he re 
commended to the king the 
appointment of a suitable per- 



JOS 

san to make provision for the 
season of want, by laying by 
one fifth of the annual pro- 
duce of the land during the 
season of plenty. The sugges- 
tion was adopted, and Joseph 
was forthwith appointed to 
this important and responsible 
post, and so became, at thirty 
years of age, second only to 
the king in dignity and au- 
thority. He also married the 
daughter of one of the priests 
or princes of Egypt, and had 
two children, Manasseh .and 
Ephraim. 

When the seven years of 
famine came, it spread dis- 
tress through all the countries 
around Egypt, in which no 
provision had been made ; and 
among them was the land of 
Canaan, where Joseph's father 
and brethren still lived. It was 
soon known abroad thatprovi- 
sions were to be had in Egypt, 
and ten of Jacob's sons went 
down thither to obtain a sup- 
ply, leavingBenjaminathome, 
as hi3 father feared some mis- 
chief might befall him if he 
should go with them. 

It was necessary for appli- 
cants to appear personally be- 
fore the governor and procure 
an order ; and so the sons of Ja- 
cob went in before Joseph and 
made known their errand. In- 
stead of receiving the expected 
order, they were charged with 
being spies, and with having 
come thither for an evil pur- 
pose. This they denied, de- 
claring briefly the history of 
the family, and the honesty of 
their purpose. After a series 
of expedients which were de- 
signed to awaken their con- 
sciences and lead them to re- 
pent of their sin, J>seph dis- 
closed himself to his brethren, 
and immediately made the 
most liberal arrangements for 
the removal of his aged father 
and the whole family to Egypt, 
and their comfortable settle- 



30S . 

ment in a province by them* 
selves. 

Joseph's political forecast 
and integrity were displayed 
when, in the sixth year of the 
famine, the Egyptians were 
obliged to sell their lands, and 
even themselves, to pay for 
the corn they bought. (Gen. 
xlvii. 1—22.) 

At the death of Jacob, seven- 
teen years after his removal 
to Egypt, Joseph was present 
and received the patriarch's 
prophetic blessing. (Gen. xlix. 
22—26.) His treatment of his 
brethren after their father died 
illustrates his kindness and 
generosity. (Gen. 1. 15—21.) 

Fifty-four years passed away, 
and he already saw his poste- 
rity to the third and fourth 
generation. When at the age 
of one hundred and ten years, 
he died, leaving it in charge 
with his countrymen to take 
his bones with them, when 
they should leave Egypt; an 
event of which he doubtless 
had divine intimation. (See 
Jacob, Hebrews. See also 
for maps and other illustra- 
tions in great variety, Life op 
Jacob and his son Joseph, 
by Am. S. S. Union.) 

2. Joseph op Arimathea. 
(Matt, xxvii. 57. 59.) A wealthy 
citizen, probably residing in 
the vicinity of Jerusalem, and 
a man of eminent wisdom and 
piety. (Mark xv. 43. Luke 
xxiii. 51.) He was a disci- 
ple of Christ, though he did 
not appear openly as such. 
(John xix. 38.) 

It is said that the Jews, as 
a mark of ignominy, did not 
allow the bodies of those exe- 
cuted as malefactors to be de- 
posited in the tombs of their 
fathers, except the flesh had 
been previously consumed. It 
was to prevent this use of the 
body of Christ, that Joseph so 
early asked leave to remove 
it and place it in his own vamb. 
375 



JOS 

3. (Matt. i. 18.) The husband 
of Mary, the mother of Christ, 
was by occupation a carpen- 
ter, (Matt, xiii. 55 ;) at which 
trade some have supposed 
(though without warrant) our 
Lord himself laboured until he 
entered on his public ministry. 
(Mark vi. 3.) 

Joseph is called a. just many 
(Matt. i. 19 ;) which, in this con- 
nexion, may imply his kind- 
ness and tenderness, as well 
as his integrity, which is its 
usual import. He was inform- 
ed by an angel that Mary was 
to be the mother of the pro- 
• mised Messiah,and had accom- 
panied her to Bethlehem to 
be registered in the tax-books, 
according to the law of the 
country, when Christ was born. 
When the babe was forty days 
aid, Joseph and his wife went 
with him to Jerusalem, in ob- 
servance of the law of Mo- 
ses, and when about return- 
ing home to Bethlehem, he 
was divinely admonished to go 
into Egypt, for Herod the king 
was resolved to destroy the 
infant Redeemer, if he could 
get him into his power. After 
the death of Herod, they set 
out again for home ; but appre- 
hensive that the king's suc- 
cessor, Archelaus, might be 
equally cruel, they thought it 
safer to go into Galilee ; and 
they took up their abode at 
Nazareth. When Jesus was 
twelve years of age, Joseph 
and Mary took him with them 
•when they went up to Jerusa- 
llem to celebrate the feast of 
the passover ; and after that we 
find nothing more of Joseph 
in the sacred history. It is 
generally supposed he died 
before Christ began his public 
ministry, as he is not mention- 
ed with Mary, and as Christ 
commended her to the care 
of one of the disciples. (John 
xix. 25—27.) 

JOSES (Mark xv. 40) was 
the son of Alpheus, or Cleo- 



JOS 
pas as he is called, John xix. 
25, and brother of James the 
less. (See James.) 

JOSHUA (Josh. i. 1) was the 
son of Nun. and is called the 
minister of Moses (Ex. xxiv.13) 
from the lact that he assisted 
him in the execution of his 
office. The original name was 
Oshea, (Num. xiii.8;) and he 
is also called Hoshea. (Deut 
xxxii. 44.) Joshua is a con- 
traction of Jehoshua, (Num. 
xiii. 16,) and Jeshua, or Jesus, 
is the Greek mode of writing 
Joshua, as in Acts vii. 45, 
and Heb. iv. 8 ; in which 

Passages, the Hebrew word 
oshua ought to have been re- 
tained. Joshua is introduced 
to us at the time the Israelites 
were about to contend with 
the Amalekites at Rephidim. 
He was appointed by Moses 
to command the forces of Israel 
on that occasion. (Ex. xvii. 9.) 
He was then about forty-four 
years of age, though considered 
a young man. (Ex.xxxiii.il.) 
In prospect of the death of 
Moses, Joshua was set apart to 
succeed him, as the leader and 
deliverer of God ? s chosen peo- 
ple. (Num. xxvii.16— 18. Deut. 
xxxi. 7—14; xxxiv. 9.) And 
at the age of eighty-four, (a. m. 
2553,) he passed over the Jor- 
dan, at the head of the hosts 
of Israel, and entered the land 
of promise. Then commenced 
a series of wars with the Ca- 
naanites, in which Joshua and 
the people of Israel were mere, 
ly the instruments of God's 
righteous judgments on these 
wicked nations, the cup of 
whose iniquity was now com- 
pletely full, and whose impi- 
ous and abominable deeds 
loudly cried to heaven for di 
vine vengeance. Jericho, the 
city nearest to them, and the 
one first attacked, was sub 
dued without a contest. It was 
expressly forbidden to the Is- 
raelites to touch the spoil of 
this city; for it was utterly 
376 






JOS 

devoted to destruction, with 
all its wealth. But Achan 
coveted and took part of the 
spoil, and concealed it in his 
tent. In consequence of this 
act, the host of Israel were 
unsuccessful in their first at- 
tempt on Ai, and great distress 
and discouragement seized the 
whole multitude ; and even Jo- 
shua lay all night upon the 
ground in mourning and sup- 
plication, for now the Israel- 
ites, being once repulsed with 
loss, appeared no longer to be 
invincible. (Josh. vii. 6.) The 
crime of Achan was brought 
to light by recourse to the lot, 
and he and all his family suf- 
fered an exemplary punish- 
ment. (See Achan.) 

The Gibeonites, who lived 
near, fearing that destruction 
was at hand, made use of a 
stratagem to preserve their 
^ives and their city. They sent 
messengers to Joshua,who were 
to pretend that they came 
from a very remote people; and 
to confirm their story, they 
showed that their bread was 
mouldy ; their wine bottles of 
fkin, old and patched ; and 
iheir shoes and garments very 
much worn. On'this occasion, 
Joshua neglected to apply to 
the Lord for direction; and, 
deceived by the false appear- 
ances above mentioned, en- 
tered into a solemn league 
with the Gibeonites, which, 
although obtained by fraud, he 
did not think it expedient to 
break. The other cities of 
Canaan, with their kings, now 
entered into a formidable com- 
bination utterly to destroy the 
Gibeonites, because they had 
made peace with Joshua ; and 
a mighty army, led. on by many 
kings, were actually drawing 
near to Gibeah, when they, in 
all haste, sent messengers to 
Joshua to come instantly to 
their relief. He did not delay 
to comply; and marched all 
night, as well as day, and im- 
32* 



JOS 

mediately attacked and de- 
feated this mighty army ; and 
the day not being sufficient for 
the pursuit and destruction of 
the Canaanites, Joshua com- 
manded the sun and moon to 
stand still, which they did for 
the period of one whole day, 
by which means he was able 
utterly to destroy those whom 
God had devoted to death. 
This was indeed a stupendous 
miracle, but required only the 
power that creates the hea- 
venly bodies, and maintains 
them in their orbits. (Josh. 
ix. x.) 

Joshua was employed about 
sixteen years in the conquest 
of Canaan ; after which, the 
men of war belonging to the 
tribes of Gad, Reuben, and the 
half-tribe of Manasseh, were 
permitted to return to their 
families, and to the inherit- 
ance which Moses had given 
them on the other side of Jor- 
dan, where the land of the 
Amorites had been, at their 
own request, assigned to them. 
(Josh, xxii.) Of those who 
came out of Egypt in adult 
age not one survived to enter 
Canaan, but Joshua and Caleb, 
according to the word of the 
Lord. 

When the war was termi- 
nated, Joshua lived in retire- 
ment and peace, in a posses- 
sion which the children of 
Israel assigned him in Tim- 
nath-serah, of mount Ephraim. 
(Josh. xix. 50.) When he found 
that his end was approaching, 
he assembled the Israelites, 
rehearsed to them the history 
of the providence of God to- 
wards tnem, and finally put it 
to them to choose that day, 
whether or not they would 
serve the Lord, professing his 
full purpose to continue in the 
service of God as long as he 
lived. (Josh, xxiv 15.) Joshua 
died at the age of one hun- 
dred and ten years, (Josh. xxiv. 
29;) having been a witness of 
377 



JOS 

more of the wonderful works 
of God than any man who ever 
lived, except perhaps his com- 
panion Caleb. 

2. (Zech. vi. 11.; Was the 
high-priest of the Jews when 
they returned from Babylon. 
He assisted Zerubbabel in re- 
building the temple. (Ezra v. 
1 ? 2. Hag. i. 1 ; if. 4.) Zecha- 
riah saw him represented as 
standing before the Lord in 
filthy garments, and Satan 
standing at his right hand to 
accuse and resist him ; but an 
angel rebuked the devil, and 
arrayed Joshua in other rai- 
ment. (Zech. iii. 1— 4.) Not 
long after, Zechariah was di- 
rected to make a golden crown 
for him. (Zech vi. 10—14.) 

Book of, is the sixth in the 
arrangement of the books of 
the Old Testament. It em- 
braces the period between b. c. 
1451 and 1425, and is a histo- 
ry of the Israelites, under the 
government of Joshua, the suc- 
cessor of Moses. It is supposed 
to have been written by Joshua, 
(except the last five verses,)and 
it records the accomplishment 
of God's promises to his people, 
and his judgments upon the 
idolatrous nations of Canaan. 
The conquest of the promised 
land is related, ch. i.— xi. ; the 
division of it among the tribes, 
ch. xii.— xxii. ; and the coun- 
sels and death of Joshua, ch. 
xxiii. xxiv. 

It has been remarked, that 
the book of Joshua bears the 
same relation to the Penta- 
teuch, or five books of Moses, as 
the Acts of the Apostles bears to 
the four gospels. The Penta- 
teuch contains a history of the 
acts of the great Jewish legis- 
lation under the immediate 
authority and direction of God, 
and the laws on which his 
ancient church should be esta- 
blished ; and the book of Jo- 
shua shows us the end of these 
laws, and how the church was 
established in Canaan. The 



JOS 

analogy between this and the 
relation of Acts to the Gospels, 
is sufficiently obvious. (For 
an analysis of this book, see 
Union Questions, vol. iv. less, 
xxv.— xl., with Teacher's As- 
sistant in the use of the 
same, both by Am. S.S. Union.) 

JOSIAH, (2 Kings xxi. 24,) 
the son and successor of Amon 
king of Judah, began to reign 
when he was but eight years 
of age, and was remarkable 
for his integrity and piety. He 
gradually abolished the idola- 
trous customs of his predeces- 
sors, (2Chron. xxxiv. 3;) and, 
in the eighteenth year of his 
reign, began a thorough repair 
of the temple. In the progress 
of this work. Hilkiah the nigh- 
priest, found a complete copy 
of the law of Moses ; a rare 
treasure in those days of dege- 
neracy and corruption, when 
God and his institutions weA 
forsaken and contemned on 
every side. Josiah himself 
was but imperfectly acquaint- 
ed with its contents uitfil they 
were read to him by one of 
his officers ; and then he was 
overwhelmed with grief to fine 
how far they and their fathei 
had departed from the right 
way. He, however, humbled 
himself before God, and re- 
ceived the most precious pre 
mises of the divine favour. 
(2Chron. xxxiv. 26—28.) He 
then assembled the people 
and published the law in their 
hearing; and they all united 
with the king in a solemn vow 
of obedience. After this, he 
utterly destroyed every vestigt 
of idolatry, both images and 
temples, and then, by divine 
command, caused the feast of 
the passover to be celebrated 
with unusual solemnity. (2 Chi 
xxxv. 3—18.) 

This pious king seems to 
have beer\ accessary to his 
own premature death ; for the 
king of Egypt, who was march 
ing with a great army against 
378 



JOS 

the king of Assyria, assured 
him that he entertained no 
hostile design against him or 
his kingdom, and entreated 
him notto interfere with him 
in his contest with the king of 
Assyria; and, to influence Jo- 
siah, Necho pretended to have 
received a communication 
from heaven, by which the 
king of Judah was expressly 
forbidden to meddle with him 
in his expedition. But Josiah, 
thinking it a dangerous prece- 
dent to permit a large army to 
march through his territories, 
or, more probably, being in 
league with the king of Assy- 
ria, he could not consistently 
comply with the demand of 
the king of Egypt ; and even 
if he wished to remain entirely 
neutral in the war, he could not 
allow one of the contending 
parties a free passage through 
his territory, without forfeiting 
his neutrality. Whatever might 
have been the motive, Josiah 
attempted to oppose the Egyp- 
tian army, and a battle was 
fought at Megiddo, in which 
he was mortally wounded, and 
was carried out of the field in 
his carriage, and brought to 
Jerusalem, where he died, and 
was buried in one of the sepul- 
chres of his fathers. No king, 
perhaps, was ever more de- 
servedly beloved ; and cer- 
tainly we know of none who 
was more sincerely and ten- 
derly bewailed by his people. 
Indeed, his death was the end 
of prosperity to the kingdom 
of Judah. Jeremiah the pro- 
phet was greatly affected by 
it, and composed an elegy on 
the occasion, (2Chron. xxxv. 
25 ;) and all those accustomed 
to celebrate in song the worth 
and achievements of men of 
great eminence, both men and 
women, mourned for Josiah for 
ages after his death. Indeed, 
the mourning was such as to 
become proverbial. (Zech.xii. 
'!.) He was only thirty-nine 



JOU 

years of age when he died. (Set 
Necho. SeealsoELisAMA,pp. 
36-41, by Am. S. S, Union.) 

JOT, (Matt. v. 18,) or Yod, 
(in Greek Iota.) This is the 
name of the letter i in the ori- 
ginal language in which it is 
used, and this letter in that 
language is the least of all the 
letters of the alphabet, being 
shaped not unlike our comma, 
( > ). It was proverbially used 
by the Hebrews to signify the 
least thing imaginable ; and 
hence the text expresses the 
idea that not the least require- 
ment of the commandment? 
of God shall in any wise be 
dispensed with; they shall all 
stand to the very letter. 

JOTHAM. 1. (Judg. ix. 5.) 
The youngest son of Jerubbaal, 
or Gideon, the only one who 
escaped from the massacre at 
Ophrah; and this he did by 
concealing himself. (See Aei- 
melech.) 

2. (2 Kings xv. 32.) The son 
and successor of Uzziah, or 
Azariah, king of Judah. He ac- 
tually reigned forty-one years, 
being associated with his fa- 
ther for twenty-five years be- 
fore his death. " His sole admi- 
nistration of the government 
was only for sixteen years. 
(Comp. 2 Kings xv. 30. 32, 33.) 
His example was holy; his 
reign was peaceful and pros- 
perous, and of course benefi- 
cial to the kingdom. (2 Chron. 
xxvii. 2—6.) 

JOURNEYINGS of Israel. 
(Num. ix. 20.) The habitation 
of the Hebrews, in Egypt, was 
in Goshen, which is "supposed 
to have extended from a poin> 
above Cairo to the Mediterra- 
nean, including the land on 
both sides of" the eastern 
branch, by which the Nile 
discharged its waters ; and 
bounded on the east by the 
wilderness, and on the south 
by the mountains which sepa- 
rate the waters of the Red Sea 
from those of the Nile. Their 
379 



JOU 

journeyings commenced on 
the fifteenth day of the first 
month, (about the middle of 
our April.) Their first journey 
was from Rameses, ten miles 
north-west of Suez, to Succoth ; 
which last, (as the name sig- 
nifies booths,) was probably 
nothing more than a conve- 
nient encampment. The dis- 
tance between these two places 

s estimated at thirty miles. 

Their course must have been 

little north of east, to pass 

ound the end of a mountain 
which stood in their way. From 
Succoth to Etham, in the edge 
of the wilderness, was a long 
march, the stages being at 
least sixty miles apart ; but 
they were flying from an ene- 
my, and there was not one 
sick or feeble among them, 
and their God bore them as 
on eagles' wings, so that it is 
not impossible "that they pass- 
ed over this distance in twen- 
ty-four hours. The distance 
to the Arabian Gulf may, how- 
ever, have been twelve or fif- 
teen miles less, anciently,than 
at present, as there are clear 
indications that the water has 
receded about that distance. 
Now they received an order 
from God to change their 
course, and, instead of going 
eastward in the wilderness, in 
a direct line, to turn southward 
and pass along the coast of the 
Red Sea, keeping it on their 
left, and the mountains alrea- 
dy mentioned on their right. 
Pursuing this route for about 
thirty-two miles from Etham, 
which was formerly on the 
northern point of the Arabian 
Gulf, or twenty miles south of 
Suez, now occupying the land 
at the end of one arm of the 
Red Sea, they arrived at a 
place where there seems to 
have been a gap or opening in 
the mountains towards Egypt, 
and a creek or estuary which 
obstructed their further pro- 
gress to the south. Here at 



JOU 

Migdol, over against Baal Z 
phon, and near Pihahiroth, 
when enclosed on every side 
but one, they were overtaken 
by the chariots and horsemen 
of Pharaoh, and must have 
been utterly destroyed, had not 
God miraculously interposed, 
and opened for them a passage 
through the sea ; and still the 
Egyptian host would soon have 
overtaken them, but they were 
overwhelmed by the sudden 
reflux of the waters to their 
former channel. Niebuhr and 
some other learned men have 
declared in favour of Suez as 
the place of their passage; but 
to this there are two weighty 
objections. In the first place, 
there was nothing here to shut 
up or entangle them, so as to 
need a miraculous dividing of 
the waters; they might have 
marched around as easily as 
through this extreme end of 
the gulf; but, in the next place, 
the "channel here is not wide 
enough to admit of the suppo- 
sition that the whole Egyptian 
army, marching in file could 
have been drowned by the re- 
turn of the waters. Bryant, 
Bruce, and Burckhardt have 
nearly agreed, that the place 
called Clysma, twenty miles 
south of Suez, and by the Ara- 
bians, JRas 31usa, the Cape of 
Moses, must have been the 
place where this great event 
occurred. 

Having crossed the gulf, 
they went forward into the 
wilderness, a journey of three 
days, and came to Marah, 
whose bitter waters were mi- 
raculously rendered sweet, for 
their use. Marah corresponds 
with the well now called 
Hawara, whose waters are 
bitter. The next journey was 
to Elim, " where were twelve 
wells of water, and threescore 
and ten palm trees." This 

Elace, as Niebuhr and Burk- 
ardt agree, is now called 
Wady Gharendei. about ten 
880 



JOU 

miles from Hawara. There is 
at this place now a copious 
spring, and water may be ob- 
tained any where around by 
digging for it ; so that we need 
not expect to find the precise 
number of wells which existed 
in the time of Moses. Hitherto 
their march was parallel to 
die sea, and at no great dis- 
tance from it; but now the 
coast changes from south-east 
to south, and the straight 
course to Sinai leaves it more 
tp the right. From Elim, they 
journeyed through Dophkah 
and Alush to Rephidim, where 
water was first obtained by 
smiting a rock with the rod of 
Moses ; and here the Israelites 
were first attacked by their 
implacable enemies, the Ama- 
lekites. (Ex. xvii. 3—8. 1 Sam. 
xv.2.) Their next encampment 
was in the desert of Sinai, 
where they remained eleven 
months, having spent between 
two and three months in com- 
ing from Egypt to this place. 
Here they received the laws 
and institutions of Jehovah; 
and here the tabernacle was 
erected and consecrated, and 
the whole ceremonial service 
enacted. On the twentieth day 
of the second month of the 
second year, the pillar of cloud 
and fire arose from the taber- 
nacle, where it had rested for 
some time, and by its course 
led them into the wilderness 
of Paran, called the great and 
terrible wilderness. (Num. x. 
12.) When they came to Kib- 
rothHattaavah, they provoked 
God to destroy many of them 
for their inordinate lusting, 
and for their ungrateful re- 
bellion. (Num. xi. 34.) This 
place is also called Taberah : 
both names being derived from 
the fearful destruction of the 
people which occurred here. 
From this place, where they 
remained long, they march- 
ed northward through Haze- 
roth, Rithma, Rimmon-parez, 



JOU 

Libnah and Kadesh-barnea, 
whence the spies were sent to. 
explore the land. On the re- 
bellion of the people, occa- 
sioned by the report of the 
spies, they were ordered to get 
them into the wilderness of 
the Red Sea. (Num. xi v. 25.) 
Now their march was retro- 
grade, and they came into 
the same wilderness of Paran 
which they had passed some 
time before, but by a different 
route. How much time they 
spent in the wilderness, before 
they reached^ Ezion-geber, a 
port on the eastern arm of tho 
Red Sea, is unknown ; but fif 
teen stations are distinctly 
named. Probably they were 
sometimes stationary for a 
long period; but in all their 
marches and restings, they 
were under the direction of 
the pillar of cloud and fire 
which went before them. (Num. 
ix. 22.) For many days they 
encompassed mount Seir, and 
then turned northward to the 
desert of Zin, and journeyed to 
mount Hor, where Aaron died 
and was buried. (Num. xx, 20 
—28.) Being disappointed in 
obtaining a passage through 
the country of Edom, they re- 
turned to Ezion-geber, and 
passed round the south side of 
mount Seir. At length they 
arrived at the brook Zared, or 
Benthammed, in the thirty- 
eighth year after the time of 
their leaving Kadesh-barnsa, 
and the fortieth from their de- 
parture from the land of Egypt. 
From Zared they made" one 
march across the Arnon, now 
Mudjeb, to Dibon, the ruins of 
which place are still visible 
about four miles from the Arnon 
Thence they proceeded by se- 
veral stages to the mountains 
of Abarim, on the east of Jor- 
dan, which chain of mountains 
they crossed at Pisgah, from 
the summit of which Mosofl 
was indulged with a view of 
the land of Canaan, which he 
381 



JOU 

was not permitted to enter; 
and here also terminated his 
useful and laborious life. De- 
scending from these moun- 
tains, they came to Beth-jesi- 
moth and Abel-shittim, where 
they encamped on the banks 
of the Jordan, which river they 
crossed as the> had done the 
Red Sea, on dry ground. When 
the Israelites departed from 
Egypt, the number of males 
above twenty years of age was 
603,550; when they arrived in 
sight of Canaan, it was 601,730 ; 
so that the decrease of their 
number, during the forty years' 
wandering in the wilderness, 
was 1820 ; but it is remarkable, 
that while some of the tribes 
greatly increased in popula- 
tion, others lost half their ori- 
ginal number, which is not 
very easily accounted for by 
the facts recorded in the sacred 
history. As all who were above 
twenty years of age when they 
left Egypt perished in the wil- 
derness, it is evidentjthat when 
they entered Can*an,there was 
not a man in all the host above 
threescore, except Caleb and 
Joshua; so that all the men 
were effective, and fit for mili- 
tary service. In respect to the 
fact recorded Deut. viii. 4; 
xxix. 5, concerning the clothes 
of the Hebrews during their 
journeyings, it may be proper 
to say that the history does 
not necessarily imply that the 
clothes which they had on at 
the outset were miraculously 
preserved, or that they grew 
with the growth of their child- 
ren and youth. They had 
sheep, and goats, and cattle, 
on their march; and they un- 
derstood the arts by which 
these animals were made sub- 
servient to their necessity and 
comfort. Thus they were en- 
abled always to procure sea- 
sonably good and sufficient 
clothing, and were saved from 
all suffering and inconvenience 
on this score. (See Hebrews, 



JUD 

Moses, Joshua. See also Map 
of the Journeyings of Isra- 
el, on cloth,UNiON Questions, 
vol. iv., with map, and Teach- 
er's Assistant in the use of 
thesame,all byAm.S. S.Union. 
See Map to article Red Sea.) 

JOY (1 Sam. xviii. 6) is an 
agreeable affection of the soul, 
arising from the possession or 
prospect of good. (Ezra vi. 16. 
Esth. viii. 16.) It is reckoned 
among the fruits of the Sjnrit, 
(Gal. v. 22,) and is chiefly 
used by the sacred writers, 
especially of the New Testa- 
ment, to signify a religious 
emotion. That which springs 
from a sense of pardoned sin 
and a union of the soul to 
Christ is pure, (Luke xv. 10.) 
certain, (John xvi. 22,) un- 
speakable, (1 Pet. i. 8,) and 
eternal. (Isa. lxi. 7.) 

JUBILEE. (See Feasts.) 

JUDAH, (Gen. xxix. 35,) the 
fourth son of Jacob and Leah, 
was born inMesopotamia about 
a. m. 2249. The tribe, of which 
he was the head and represen- 
tative, wa3 the most powerful 
of the twelve. (Num. i. 27,) and 
had the first lot in the division 
of the promised land. 

The prophetic blessing which 
his father pronounced on him 
(Gen. xlix. 8—12) is very re- 
markable. It describes the war- 
like character and gradually 
increasing strength of the tribe, 
(comp. Num. ii. 3; Josh.xiv.ll; 
xv. 1. Judg. i. 1, 2. 1 Chron. 
xiv.17.Ps. xviii. 40. Isa.xxix.l, 
where Judah is called Ariel— 
lion of God. Rev. v. 5,) the 
duration of its power, viz. until 
the coming of Christ, when 
Judea became a province of 
Rome, (comp. Luke ii. 1—7. 
John xviii. 31. Acts v. 37,) and 
the destructionof theircity , a.d. 
70, when the Christian dispen- 
sation had become establish- 
ed, (comp. Matt. xxiv. 14. Acts 
ii. 8. Rom. x. 18,) in the glory 
and triumph of the Messiah. 

Tribe of, took the southern 
382 



JUD 

section of Canaan, extending 
across from the Jordan to the 
Mediterranean Sea, and north- 
wardly to the territory of Ben- 
jamin and Dan. (Josh. xv. 
1-63) 

In the catalogue of the cities 
of this tribe, we have the utter- 
most cities, or those nearest 
Edom, on the south ; cities in 
the valley, that is, on the low- 
lands, near the coast ; cities 
in the mountains, that is, up 
n the interior ; and cities in 
the wilderness, or along the 
shore of the Dead Sea. (Josh, 
xv. 21. 33. 48. 61.) 

Of the cities of Judah, seve- 
ral continued in the possession 
of the natives, (aiSAshdod,Gaza, 
Askelon, and Ekron,) or, if con- 
quered, were afterwards reco- 
vered. 

JUDAH, land of. (See Ca- 
naan.) 

JUDAH, or JUDEA, moun- 
tains op, (Josh, xx.7,) included 
so much of the mountainous 
chain as extended from the 
borders of Benjamin south to 
Edom and east to the valley of 
the Jordan. This was formerly 
called the mountain of the 
Amorites. (Dent. i. 20.) 

Wilderness of, (Matt. iii. 
1,) was a wild, uneven region 
on both sides of the Jordan, ex- 
tending on the west from Jeri- 
cho to the Dead Sea. It is also 
called the country about Jor- 
dan. (Luke iii. 3.) It is describ- 
ed by travellers as abounding 
with caverns and cells, or 
grottoes of the most forbidding 
character. Even now they are 
the abode, to some extent, of 
hermits ; and amidst the rocks 
and mountains, neither shade, 
nor tree, nor herbage, nor even 
moss, is found. It was called 
the wilderness pre-eminently. 
;Matt. iv. 1.) 

JUDAS ISCARIOT (Matt. 
X. 4) was one of the twelve 
chosen disciples of our Lord. 
Nothing ; s certainly known 
of his birthplace or parentage. 



JUD 

I It is supposed by some that 
I the word Iscariot signifies of 
I Carioth, a small town on the 
east of Jordan. He is called 
' the son of Simon, John vi. 71 ; 
! whence some have supposed 
he was the son of Simon the 
I Canaanite, another of the 
I twelve. He is almost uniform- 
i ly mentioned with the infa- 
! mous distinction of the man 
i who betrayed Christ. The 
! principal fact related of him 
• by the evangelists, previously 
j to the commission of the dread 
ful crime into which he fell, 
was a marked displeasure at 
Mary for expending upon out 
Lord so much precious oint 
ment, which might have been 
sold for much and given to the 
poor. The truth, however, was, 
that he cared not for the'poor, 
but he held the purse of the 
company; and if this money 
had been deposited with him 
for the poor, he would have 
had it in his power to apply it 
to his own use. The reproof 
which he received from his 
Master on this occasion was 
probably the immediate cause 
of his determination to betray 
him. The sacred history re- 
presents him as going immedi- 
ately, and agreeing with the 
chief priests and elders to de- 
liver him into their hands. 
After this, however, he had 
the impudence to return again, 
and was present at the last 
interview between Christ and 
the other disciples. Here our 
Lord announced in the hearing 
of all, that one of his disciple 
would betray him, and pointed 
out Judas as the person; on 
which he seems to have left 
the table in displeasure, and 
abruptly; perhaps before the 
Lord's supper was instituted. 
Being now fully under the 
power of the devil, he be 
came the leader of a banu 
of soldiers, sent to apprehend 
Jesus. The impious man knew 
where his Master would be 
383 



JUD 

that evening; and he had the 
effrontery to intrude upon him 
in his hours of devotion; and 
had agreed to make known 
the proper person to the sol- 
diers by the usual sign of friend- 
ship and love : therefore, when 
he led the band into the se- 
questered garden of Gethse- 
niane, he went up to Jesus 
and kissed him, saying, Hail, 
Master; and received from the 
meek Saviour no other reproof 
than, Judas, betray est thou the 
Son cfvian with a kiss ? His 
service was now done, and he 
had the stipulated price of 
his iniquity in his possession. 
It is probable, therefore, that 
he did not accompany the sol- 
diers back to the chief priests 
and elders. But as soon as his 
mind had opportunity for re- 
flection, remorse seized upon 
him ; and, covetous as he was, 
he could no longer bear about 
with him the price of innocent 
blood Having learned that 
his Master was condemned, 
he returned to the temple, and 
finding the persons from whom 
he had received the money, he 
cast it down, and, unable to 
bear the burden of his misery, 
he went and hanged himself. 

We are told in Acts i. 18, 
tliat, falling headlong, he burst 
asunder in the midst, and all 
his bowels gushed out. The 
passages are not irreconcila- 
ble with each other; for it is 
evident that a man might be 
hung, and that he might fall, 
and that the parts of his body 
misrht be torn asunder in the 
fall: but how the effect was 
produced which is described 
in the above-cited passage can 
be only matter of conjecture. 
It rnayhave been that he hung 
himself over a precipice, or 
from some very elevated posi- 
tion, and that his body was 
mutilated in that manner by 
the fall ; or his body might 
possibly have remained un- 
discovered until, being par- 



JDD 

tially decayed, it had, uy 
its own weight, fallen,' und 
presented this horrible spec- 
tacle. To support the first 
of these positions, it may be 
enough to say, that the spot 
which tradition designates as 
the potter's field was visited by 
Messrs. Fisk and Kins, Ameri- 
can missionaries, in 1§23; and 
they tell us, that in the vicinity 
of the field are trees near the 
brink of huge cliffs, on which, 
if he hung himself and fell, 
he must have been dashed in 
pieces. 

The fact that Judas was with 
our Saviour in public and pri- 
vate, and had the confidence 
of the band of disciples, con- 
nected with his strong testi- 
mony to his innocence, under 
such extraordinary circum- 
stances, is altogether inexplv 
cable upon any" other suppose 
tion than that the Messian was 
what he claimed to be,— the 
Son -f God and .the only Sar 
viour of sinners. 

JUDAS of Galilee. (Acts v. 
37.) An insurgent against the 
Reman government, who ex- 
cited the Jews to resist the en* 
rolment and taxation of their 
people, as a province of Rome. 

JUDE (Jude i. 1) was one of 
the apostles, and the brother 
of James the less. He is called 
Judas, Matt. xiii. 55. John xiv. 
22. Acts i. 13; and elsewhere 
Lebbeus, (Matt. x. 3,) and 
Thaddeus. (Mark iii. 18.) 

Epistle of, occupies the 
last place but one in the a*. 
rangement of the books of the 
New Testament. It was writ- 
ten, as many have supposed, 
about a. n. 65. but it is by no 
means certain. It seems to 
have been intended to guard 
believers against prevalent er- 
rors, and to urge them to con- 
stancy in the faith. This i$ 
done by a vivid exhibition of 
the terrors of God's judgments 
upon the wicked, and by a 
recurrence to that great prin- 



JUD 
eiple of our religion, depend- 
ence on Christ alone to keep 
us from falling. 
JUDEA. (See Canaan.) 
JUDGES. (Acts xiii. 20.) 
This was the title of a class of 
magistrates among the Israel- 
ites. They were appointed 
originally by Moses, at the sug- 
gestion of his father-in-law, to 
relieve him of a part of the 
duties of the chief magistracy. 
The judges spoken of in the 
above-cited passage, and whose 
history is given in the book of 
Judges, were a class of men 
raised up in extraordinary 
emergencies, and invested with 
extraordinary powers ; such as 
the archons of Athens, and the 
dictators of Rome. (See He- 
brews.) We are told that they 
were given to the Israelites 
about the space of four hundred 
and fifty years, until Samuel 
the prophet. A chronological 
difficulty has occurred to some 
in the reading of this passage 
hi Acts ; but it is sufficient for 
us that, if there is a difficulty, 
Paul's statement is in accord- 
ance with the received chro- 
nological tables of his day, as 
Josephus conclusively shows. 

List of judges and probable 
term of service. 

Tears. 
Oihniel, about B. C. 1400 - - 40 

Under Eglon 18 

Ehud.&c • 80 

Under the Fnilistines • unk. 

unk. 

20 

40 

7 

40 

3 

23 

18 

18 



mgar 

Under Jabin 
Deborah and Barak 

Under Midian 
Gideon • 
Abimelech 

Tola . . . - 
Jair .... 

Under the Ammonitei 
Jephthah ... 



Elon - • 

Abdon • • 

Under the Philistines 40 

Samson? • 
Eli (-..-• 40 

Under the Philistines - 
Samuel, about .... 12 
Saul, the first king, B. C. 1091. 

Book op. The seventh in 
33 



JUD 

the arrangement of the books 
of the Old Testament, and the 
seventh also in chronological 
order, derives its title from the 
fact *,hat it gives us the history 
of the Israelites, under the ad- 
ministration of fifteen judges, 
viz. from eighteen or twenty 
years after the death of Joshua, 
or about b. c. 1564, to the time 
of Saul, or about b. c. 1110; a 
period of more than four hun- 
dred and fifty years. (Acts xiii. 
20. See preceding article.) It 
was one of the provisions of 
the Jewish constitution, thai 
judges or chief magistrates 
should be appointed in every 
city, whose qualifications and 
jurisdiction are sufficiently de- 
fined in Deut. xvi. 18. and xvii. 
8—10. (See also Biblical An- 
TiauiTiES, by Am. S. S. Union, 
vol. i. ch. ix. § 2.) At an early 
period after they left Egypt, a 
rank of judges was established, 
the lowest of which were ap- 
pointed over ten men, and pro- 
bably amounted to60,000 ; then 
those of fifty, one hundred, and 
one thousand men; the final 
jurisdiction, in all cases of di£ 
ficulty, being reserved to Mo- 
ses himself. (Ex. xviii. 21—26.) 
After they became settled in 
their respective districts of the 
promised land, this judiciary 
system underwent considera- 
ble modification. Judges were 
then appointed for the cities 
or chief towns ; but it does 
not appear how they were ap- 
pointed, nor that there was a 
regular succession of them. 
The law to be administered 
being most familiar to the 
Levites, and they being, by 
force of circumstances, more 
conversant with such subjects, 
it came to pass that the judicial 
office generally devolved on 
them. The book of Judges b 
supposed to have been written 
by Samuel after the establish- 
ment of the royal government, 
and it forms a connecting link 
between Joshua and Samuel. 
385 



JUD 

JUDGMENT, JUDG- 
MENTS. (Ex. vi. 6j» xii. 
12.) These are words of fre- 
quent occurrence in the sa- 
cred Scriptures, and the sense 
of them is generally determin- 
ed by the connexion. "When 
God's judgments are spoken of, 
the term may denote either 
the secret decisions of the di- 
vine will, (Ps. x. 5 ; xxxvi. 6,) 
or the declarations of God's 
will revealed in the Scriptures, 
(Ex. xxi. 1. Deut. vii. 12. Neh. 
ix. 13,) or the inflictions of 
punishment on the wicked. 
(Prov. xix. 29. Ezek. xxv. 11.) 

JUDGMENT HALL. (John 
xviii. 28.) A room or office 
in the palace of the Roman 
governor, where causes were 
tried and justice administer- 
ed. The Jews declined to 
enter it when they were pro- 
secuting their murderous pur- 
pose against the Redeemer,' 
lest they should be defiled by 
an approximation to the person 
of a heathen. 

The judgment-seat (Matt, 
xxvii. 19) was an elevated 
place in the hall of judgment, 
from which sentence was pro- 
nounced. 

Breastplate op judgment. 
(See Breastplate.) 

Judgment of Urim. (See 
Urim.) 

Day op judgment. (Matt.x. 
15.) That important day which 
is to terminate the present dis- 
pensation of grace; when time 
shall be no more, and the eter- 
nal state of all men be un- 
changeably fixed. That such 
an event is necessary to vin- 
dicate the justice of God, (Luke 
xvi. 25,) and that such a day is 
appointed, is abundantly evi- 
dent. (Eccl. xi. 9. Matt. xii. 36. 
Actsxvii.31. 2Thess. i.7— 10. 
Heb. ix. 27. 2 Pet. ii.9; iii. 7. 
1 John iv.17.) That Jesus Christ 
will officiate as Judse is also 
evident. (Matt. xxv. 31, 32; 
xxvi. 64. John v. 22. Actsxvii. 
31. Rom. ii. 16. 2 Cor. v. 10.) 



JUP 

That the judgment will be 
universal, appears from Eccl. 
xii. 14. John v. 28, 29. Rom. 
xiv. 10, 11. 2 Cor. v. 10. Rev. 
xx. 12, 13. That its decisions 
will be final and irreversible, 
admitting the righteous to the 
joys of Christ's kingdom, and 
dooming the wicked to cuter 
darkness and eternal despair, 
appears from the foregoing 
Scriptures, and also from Matt. 
xxv. 14-46. 1 Cor. xv. 52—57. 
1 Thess. iv. 14—17. Heb. vi. 2. 
2 Pet. iii. 7. 

JULIUS. (Acts xxvii. 1.) 
The captain of the Roman 
guard, to whom Festus, govern- 
or of Judea, committed Paul, 
to be conveyed to Rome. Julius 
appears to have had great re- 
gard for Paul . He suffered him 
to land at Sidon, and to visit 
his friends there; and in a 
subsequent part of the voyage, 
he opposed the violence of thfc 
soldiers, directed against the 
prisoners generally, in order to 
save the apostle. (Acts xxvii. 
43.) 

JUNIPER. (Job xxx. 4.) A 
well known tree, of the cedar 
family. Probably by the word 
rendered juniper, in the pas- 
sage from Job, is intended the 
broom tree, which is still com- 
mon in the deserts of Arabia, 
That such substances were 
sometimes used for food is very 
evident. (2 Kings iv. 38, 39. 
Amos vii. 14. Luke xv. 16.) 

Coals of juniper. (See 
Armour.) 

JUPITER. (Acts xiv. 12.) 
The chief of the heathen gods, 
having power over all the rest. 
The people of Lycaonia, when 
they saw the impotent man at 
Lystra instantly healed, were 
disposed to regard the apostles 
as gods in the likeness of men , 
and as there was a tradition 
among them that their pro- 
vince was once visited by Ju- 
piter and Mercury, they were 
inclined to regard this as a 
repetition of the favour. So 
3i>G 



JUS 
they called Barnabas Jupiter. 
and Paul (who was the chief 
speaker, and probably quite 
eloquent) Mercury. To carry 
the superstition out, the priest 
who was accustomed to sacri- 
fice to Jupiter, the tutelar deity 
of the city, whose image or 
temple was before the gates, 
brought the usual sacrifices, 
decked out for the altar, and 
would have joined the people 
in the religious worship of the 
apostles, had they not been 
persuaded to desist by their 
solemn warnings. 

The image of Diana at Ephe- 
sus was safd by the town clerk 
to have fallen from Jupiter. 
Probably this expression refers 
to some prevailing supersti- 
tious notion, that this image 
itself, or the worship paid to it, 
had some peculiar sanctity or 
virtue imparted to it directly 
from Jupiter. 

JUSTICE. (Ps. lxxxix. 14.) 
One of the glorious and incom- 
prehensible attributes of the 
Supreme Being, denoting the 
infinite righteousness of his 
nature, of his law, of his go- 
vernment, and of all his deal- 
ings and proceedings with his 
creatures. 

JUSTIFY, JUSTIFICA- 
TION. (Jobix. 20. Rom. iv. 



JUS 

25.) These terms involve one 
of the fundamental principles 
of the Christian faith. They 
stand opposite to condemn and 
condemnation. In their evan- 
gelical use, they denote that 
act of God's sovereign grace, 
by which he accepts and re- 
ceives, those .who believe in 
Christ as just and righteous. 
When God has pardoned a 
sinner, he treats him as right- 
eous, or as if he had never 
sinned. This is called justi* 
ncation. And because ther 
is no way of being pardoned 
except by believing and trust- 
ing in the Lord Jesus Christ, 
it is called justification by 
faith. For His sake, such 
persons are accounted just or 
righteous, and will not be pu- 
nished for their sins. (The 
epistle to the Galatians is 
chiefly on this subject, and 
Ns analyzed in Union Ques- 
tions, vol. viii., by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

The expression, Wisdom is 
justified of her children, (Matt, 
xi. 19,) is supposed to mean, 
either that the fruits or off- 
spring of wisdom justify all her 
claims, or that the children of 
God are taught and inclined 
by divine grace to justify all 
his ways. 



KAD 

KAB, or CAB. (See Mea- 
sures.) 

KABZEEL, (Josh. xv. 21,) 
or JEKABZEEL, (Neh. xi. 25,) 
was a city in the northern sec- 
tion of the inheritance of Judah, 
;ust west of the southern extre- 
mity of the Dead Sea. It was 
the birthplace of Benaiah. 
(2 Sam. xxiii. 20.) 

KADESH, (Num. xiii. 26,) 
probably the same with Ka- 
desh-bamea, (Num. xxxiv. 4,) 
originally called En-mishpat, 
(Gen. xiv. 7,) was a city in the 
desert of Paran, near the south- 



KAD 

em bounds of the tribe of Ju- 
dah, and between twenty and 
thirty miles south of Hebron. 
It was a royal city of the Ca 
naanites ; and the spies were 
sent there to explore the pro- 
mised land. 

2. (Num. xx. 1.) A place 
east of the above, in the desert 
of Zin, from whence messen- 
gers were sent to ask of the 
Edomites permission to pass 
through their territory, and 
from whence, too, the Israelites 
went up on mount Hor to bury 
Aaron 



KEN 

KANAH. (Josh. xvi. 8.) A 
river or brook, which formed 
the boundary line between 
Ephraim and Manasseh, and 
falls into the Mediterranean a 
few miles south of Cesarea. It 
is now called Nahr el Kasab. 
There was also a town of this 
name in the tribe of Asher. 
(See Cana.) 

KEDAR. (Gen. xxv. 13.) A 
son of Ishmael, whose descend- 
ants settled in the southern 
part of Arabia. Probably Ke- 
dar's posterity were the most 
numerous and powerful of the 
family of Ishrnael; whence 
the whole of that country is 
sometimes called Kedar, (Isa. 
xxi. 16,17; lx.7. Jer.xlix 28;) 
and the Ishmaelites generally 
are called the men of Kedar. 

KEDESH,(Josh. xx.7,)called 
Kadesa by Jewish historians, 
was situated in upper Galilee, 



ty or thirty miles south-east 
of Tyre. It was the residence 
of Barak, and one of the cities 
of refuge, and is called Kedesh 
Naphtali, (Judg. iv. 6,) to dis- 
tinguish it from another place 
of the same name in the tribe 
ofJudah. (Josh. xv. 23.) 
KEDRON. (See Kidron.) 
KENATH. (Num. xxxii. 42.) 
A city of Manasseh, east of 
Jordan, the supposed ruins of 
which are called Kahuat. It 
is situated on a brook of the 
same name, and there are in- 
dications of its having been 
once a splendid city. 

KENITES. (Gen. xv. 19.) 
One of the tribes or nations 
who had possession of Canaan 
in the time of Abraham. It 
appears that they were driven 
from Canaan; and are after- 
wards spoken of as dwelling 
in the highlands, near the Am- 
monites and Moabites. (Num. 
xxi v. 21, 22.) In the time of 
Saul, they were found dwelling 
among or near the Amalekites. 
Jethro, the father-in-law of 
Moses, was of this nation. 



£1D 
(Judg. i. 16;) and for his sake, 
the Kenites were saved from 
the destruction which came 
upon the Amalekites. (1 Sam. 
xv. 6. See Rechabites.) 

KEY. (Judg. iii. 25.) The 
keys of ancient days were of 
very inconvenient size, and 
shaped not unlike a reaping 
hook. As they were generally 
of wood, they must be some- 
what bulky, or their strength 
would be insufficient. The 
gates of Grand Cairo are fast- 
ened with ponderous, wood en 
locks and keys, even at this 
day. In modern times, in 
transferring the government 
of a city, the keys of the gates 
are delivered as an emblem 
of authority. (Rev. iii. 7.) 

A late traveller among the 
Moors says it is common to see 
a man of authority marching 
along with a large brass key 



in the tribe of Naphtali, twen-''on his shoulder. One cornei 



of a kerchief is tied to the cir 
cular part, and hangs down in 
front; and by this the key is 
balanced as it rests on the 
shoulder. This fact forcibly 
illustrates Isa. xxii. 22. 

KID, (Judg. xiv. 6,) or the 
young of the goat, was among 
the luxuries of the ancients, 
(Gen. xxvii. 9; xxxviii. 17. 
Judg. vi. 19. 1 Sam. xvi. 20,) 
and is now esteemed a great 
delicacy by eastern nations as 
food. Kids were among the 
sacrificial offerings. (Num. vii 
11-87.) 

KIDRON, (1 Kinss ii. 37,) or 
CEDRON. (John xviii. 1.) A 
brook running through the val- 
ley which separates Jerusalem 
from the mount of Olives, and 
forming the eastern boundary 
of the ancient and modern city. 
About nine months in the year 
the channel of the brook is dry. 
It is on an average nine feet in 
width. When swollen by the 
rains, the current is deep and 
rapid. It empties into the 
Dead Sea. (See Selumiel, pp. 
129—135, by Am. S. S. Union.) 
388 



KIN 

KINE (Gen. xli. 2) is 
used by the sacred writers as 
the plural of cow. The word 
is used figuratively by the pro- 
phet,concerning the Israelites, 
to describe the feebleness, idle- 
ness, and luxury which cha- 
racterized them. They were 
like the fatlings of Bashan, 
feeding carelessly and secure- 
ly in rich pastures, only to 
prepare them for the slaughter. 
(Ezek. xxxix. 18.) 

KING. (Gen. xiv, 18.) The 
title of a ruler. It is applied 
in Scripture to the chief of a 
tribe or to the ruler of a single 
town or city ; and, of course, 
we need not be surprised at 
the number who were often 
defeated in a single campaign. 
(Josh. xii. 24. Judg. i. 7. IKings 
xx. 1. 16.) This fact also ex- 

Blains Gen. xxxvi, 31, and 
>eut. xxxiii. 5. The title is 
applied to Jehovah and to our 
blessed Saviour. (1 Tim. i. 17 ; 
vi. 15.) The ceremony of coro- 
nation is described 2 Kings xi. 
12. (See Anoint, Hebrews.) 
KINGDOM. (Luke xii. 32.) 
The precise import of this term 
can usually be determined by 
its connexion. In the New 
Testament, it generally de- 
notes either the spiritual reign 
of Christ over the hearts of 
individuals or over his church 
collectively. (John xviii. 36.) 
Kingdom op God, (1 Cor. 
xv. 50,) Kingdom of Heaven. 
(Matt. iii. 2.) These terms 
sometimes denote the state of 
glory beyond the grave. (2 Pet. 
i. 11.) More generally, they 
denote tne gospel dispensation 
under the government of the 
Messiah, in distinction from 
the typical kingdom of the 
Jews. (Matt. iii. 2; xxi. 43; 
xxv. 1. Luke x. 9. 11.) And 
sometimes they signify the gos- 
pel exerting a reigning power 
over the hearts and minds of 
men. (Luke xvii. 21. John iii. 
3.5. Rom. xiv. 17.) 
KINGS, books of. (1 Chron. 
33* 



KIN 

| ix.l.) The eleventh and twelfth 
' books of the Bible are call- 
ed the first and second books 
of Kings. Jn old versions, 
the books of Samuel and 
Kings are called the four 
books of Kings ; and hence the 
titles of these books in our 
Bibles is, the first book of Sa- 
muel, otherwise called the first 
book of Kings, and the first 
book of Kings, otherwise called 
the third book of Kings. The 
four books contain the history 
of the Jewish nation under the 
kings of Israel and Judah. The 
first two are called Samuel, 
because that prophet com- 
menced them, and wrote the 
first twenty-four chapters. Na- 
than and Gad finished them. 
(1 Chron. xxix. 29.) These 
embrace a period of about one 
hundred and twenty years, viz. 
from the birth of Samuel to 
the close of the reign of David. 
The first book contains an ac- 
count of Eli and his sons ; of 
Samuel, as prophet and judge ; 
and of Saul, the first king of 
Israel. The second book re- 
cords the prosperity of David's 
kingdom, his sin, and suffer- 
ings, and his restoration to the 
throne and to the favour of 
God. The third and fourth 
books, supposed to have been 
compiled by Ezra from the 
public records, embrace a pe- 
riod of about four hundred and 
twenty-five years, viz. from the 
commencement of Solomon's 
reign to the destruction of Je- 
rusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 
Of these, the former gives us 
an account of the building and 
dedication of the temple, the 
reign of Solomon, the division 
of the nation, the fall of the 
glory of Israel, and the extra- 
ordinary ministry of the pro- 
phet Elijah. 

The latter continues the his- 
tory of the kingdoms of Israel 
and Judah, interming^d, til 
they were both destroyed, an* 
the people carried inte capti 



KIN 

vity. It informs us of the trans- 
lation of Elijah, the ministry 
of Elisha, and the destruction 
of Jerusalem. 

The following catalogue of 
the successive kings may be 
regarded as approximating to 
a correct chronology : 

Of the whole nation. 

Began to reign. Reigned. 



Saul 


B.C. 


1091 


• 40 years. 


David 


. 


1051 


- 401 " 


Solomon ■ 


. 


1010 


. 40" « 


Rehoboam 


• 


971 


. i « 


O/Judah alone. 


Rehoboam 


• 


972 


• 16 " 


Abijam 


• 


954 


. 3 " 


Asa - • 


. 


951 


. 41 " 


Jehoshapha 


t - 


910 


• 25 « 


Jehoram • 


. 


885 


. 4 « 


Ahaziah 


• 


891 


• 1 " 


Interval 


. 


£80 


. 6 « 


Joasb 


. 


874 


. 40 « 


Amaziah 


. 


835 


. 29 « 


Uzziah, or < 
Aziriah J 




806 


- 52 « 


Jotham 


. 


754 


. 16 « 


Ahaz 


. 


738 


. 16 " 


Hezekiah ■ 


. 


722 


• 29 « 


Manasseh • 


• 


694 


. 55 « 


Anion 


• 


639 


. 2 « 


Josiab 


- 


637 


- 31 » 


Jeboahaz 


• 


606 


S ^,or3 
< m'ths. 


Jeboiakim 


• 


606 


• 11 years. 


Jehoiacbin 


• 


594 


5 £,or3 
I m'ths. 


Zedekiab 


. 


594 


- 11 years. 


Captivity 


• 


583 




Of Israel alone. 


Jeroboam • 


. 


971 


. 22 " 


Nadab 


. 


930 


- 2 « 


Baasba 


. 


949 


. 24 " 


Elah 


. 


926 


. 2 " 


Zimri 


. 


925 


- 7 days. 


Omri 


• 


925 


. 12 years. 


Ahab 


> • 


914 


. 22 « 


Ahaziah 


. . 


S93 


. 2 « 


Jehoram 


. . 


892 


. 12 « 


Jehu 


• 


880 


. 28 « 


Jeboahaz 


. 


852 


. 17 « 


Joasb, or > 
Jehoash ) 


• 


835 


- 16 « 


Jeroboam I 


L • 


819 


41 " 


Zachariah 


- 


778 


C 6 m. or 
\ 10 years. 


Shallum 


> ■ 


768 


1 month. 


Menahem 


. 


767 


• 10 years. 


Pekaiah 


p m 


757 


. 2 « 


Pekah 


m 


755 


• 20 " 


Interval - 


m 


734 


. 9 " 


Hoshea 


• 


725 


. 9 " 


Captivity 


- 


716 




(For i 


tn analysis 


of these 


books » ai 


id a map of the coun- 



KIR 

tries mentioned in them, se* 
Union Questions, by Am. S. 
S. Union, vol. vii.) 

KIR. (Isa.xxii.6. Amos ix. 
7.) A country north of Media 
and Assyria, lying along the 
river Cyrus, now Kur, between 
the Black and Caspian seas. 
Anciently it was called Alba- 
nia and Iberia, at present Geor- 
gia. Thither the Damascenes, 
conquered by Tiglath-pileser, 
were sent into exile. (2 Kings 
xvi. 9. Amos i. 5.) 

Kir of Moab. (Isa. xv. 1.) 
The bulwark or principal for- 
tress of Moab, called Kirhare- 
sheth, (Isa. xvi. 7,) and Kirhi*- 
resh, (Isa. xvi. 11,) and Kirhe- 
res. (Jer, xlviii. 31.) Kerek, or 
Karak, (the modern name of 
the same place,) is found south 
of the Dead Sea. Many of the 
ruins of the ancient fortress 
are discernible ; and a travel- 
ler, who was there in 1822, tells 
us that the population consist- 
ed of four hundred Turks and 
one hundred and fifty nominal 
Christians. 

KIRJATH, (Josh, xviii. 28,) 
called a.\?,oExrjath-jearim,Kir- 
jath-baul, and Baalah, (Josh, 
xv. 9. 60. 1 Chron. xiii. 6,) was 
on or near the boundary line 
between Judah and Benjamin, 
and is therefore mentioned in 
the above passages as a city of 
both tribes; though in Judg. 
xviii. 12, and 2 Sam. vi. 2, it is 
called a city of Judah. This 
was the native place of Urijah 
the prophet, (Jer. xxvi. 20;) 
and it was here that the ark 
remained many years. (1 Sam. 
vii. 1,2. 2 Sam. vi. 2.) 

KIRJATIIAIM. (Josh. xiii. 
19.) One of the oldest towns 
eastward of Jordan. It was 
once the possession of the 
Emims, and was then called 
Shaveh (or, the plain of) Kiri- 
athaim, (Gen. xiv. 5 ;) and is 
afterwards spoken of as a city 
of Moab. (Jer. xlviii. 23.) There 
was a town of this name in 
Naphiali. (1 Chion. vi. 76.) 
390 



KIT 

KIRJATH-ARBA. (See He- 

BRON.) 

K1RJATH-SEPHER, KIR- 
JATH-SANNAH. (SeeDEBiR.) 

KISHON. (Judg. iv. 7. 13.) 
An ancient river, (Judg. v. 21,) 
rising at the foot of mount 
Tabor, and winding southerly 
of that mountain, through the 
plain of Jezreel, about thirty- 
miles, to Ptolemais, where it 
falls into the Mediterranean. 
It is called the waters of Me- 
giddO) (Judg. v. 19,) because 
Megiddo was built upon its 
margin. It is famous for the 
battle between Sarak and Si- 
sera, and for the destruction 
of Baal's prophets. (1 Kings 
xviii. 40.) It is called the river 
before Jokneam, (Josh, xix.ll,) 
and formed the boundary be- 
tween Zebulon and Issachar. 

Mr. Fisk, an American mis- 
sionary, was there in the au- 
tumn of 1823, and tells us that 
it is a considerable stream, 
even in summer. 

KISS. (Gen. xxvii. 26.) A 
kiss was a mode of salutation 
signifying reverence, (Ps. ii. 
12^ Prov. xxiv. 26,) natural 
affection, (Gen. xxxi. 55. Luke 
xv. 20,) and religious affection. 
(Rom. xvi. 16. 1 Thess. v. 26.) 
The eastern mode of honouring 
a writing from a sovereign is 
by kissing it, and then putting 
it to the forehead. Kissing the 
idol was a part of heathen 
worship, (1 Kings xix. 18 ;) and 
when the objects of their idola- 
trous regard were out of reach, 
they were accustomed to kiss 
the hand in token of adoration. 
(Job xxxi. 27.) 

The expression in Ps. ii. 12, 
refers to a custom at the coro- 
nation of kings. After the 
crown had been imposed, and 
the king had taken his cove- 
nants, the nobles pledged their 
allegiance with the kfss of ho- 
mage, or, as the Jews call it, 
the kiss of majesty. (1 Sam. 
x. 1.) 

KITE. (Lev jci.14.) A rapa- 



KOR # 
cious bird, of the hawk specie**, 
unclean by the ceremonial law. 
The term rendered wild beasts 
of the islands, in Isa. xiii. 22; 
xxxiv. 14; and Jer. 1. 39, is 
supposed by some to denote 
this bird; but the prevalent 
opinion is, that it refers to 
jackals. 

KNEADING TROUGHS. 
(See Bread.) 

KNOP. (Ex. xxv. 31.) A 
tufted top or projection, used 
in architecture for ornament. 

KORAH (Num. xvi. 1) was 
the great-grandson of Levi. 
Being jealous of the authority 
of Moses and Aaron, he entered 
into a conspiracy with Dathan, 
Ablram, and On, to put them 
down; and associating with 
themselves two hundred and 
fifty princes or leading men of 
the Levites, they went to Mo. 
ses, and made known their 
grievance. Moses reasoned 
with them upon the folly and 
presumption of their com- 
plaint. Dathan and Abiram 
made other charges, and re- 
fused to respect the authority 
of Moses. Moses proposed to 
test the reasonableness of their 
complaint by reference to God 
himself; and, after separating 
all the rest of the people from 
them, he said that if Korah 
and his party should die a na- 
tural death, then he would 
agree that he was not a true 
messenger from God; but if 
they should be destroyed in an 
extraordinary manner, which 
he particularly described, then 
it should be admitted that they 
had provoked God. The dread- 
ful event showed that Korah 
and his companions were in 
the wrong; for they, and all 
that appertained to them, were 
swallowed up alive, in a mo- 
ment, by the earth, which open- 
ed to receive them, and at the 
same time a fire was sent and 
consumed the two hundred 
and fifty princes. (Num. xvi 
2. 35.) 

391 



LAC 



LAM 



LABAN. (Gen.xxviii.2.) The 
brother of Rebekah, and 
the father of Jacob's wives, 
Rachel and Leah. His con- 
duct towards his kinsman Ja- 
cob, evinced an avaricious and 
overbearing disposition. It is 
supposed that the valuable 
ornaments which had been 
given to Rebekah by the stran- 
ger, and which Laban saw 
upon her hands, excited his 
cupidity, and made him so 
anxious to have the stranger 
entertained. Afterwards, he 
grossly deceived Jacob, and 
obtained from him, fraudulent- 
ly, seven years' service, in ad- 
dition to seven which he had 
agreed to serve, that he might 
obtain Laban's daughter, Ra- 
chel. In other ways he oppress- 
ed and abused his nephew, 
notwithstanding his faithful 
and unremitted service, until 
he was compelled to flee. La- 
ban pursued him, doubtless 
with hostile intentions; but he 
received an intimation from 
God which changed his course, 
and their differences were ami- 
cably adjusted. The interview 
between them took place on 
what was afterwards known as 
mount Gilead, (or Galeed, the 
heap of witness ;) a name de- 
rived from the circumstance 
that a heap of stones was col- 
lected as a monument or wit- 
ness of their treaty. (SeeJACOB. 
For a full history of these trans- 
actions, with illustrative maps 
and cuts, see Jacob and his 
Son Joseph, ch. iii. and iv., by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

LACHISH. (Josh. x. 3.) A 
city of Judah, lying south of 
Jerusalem, and towards the 
border of Simeon. It was one 
of the Canaanitish. cities,which 
was subdued by Joshua, but it 
was afterwards rebuilt by Je- 
roboam, (2Chron. xi. 9,) and 
sustained a severe and fruitless 
siege by the AssyriaRS. (2Kins:s 



xviii. 17;xix.8. 2Chron xxxii. 
9. Jer. xxxiv. 7.) 
LA-HAIROI. (See Beer-la- 

HAIROI.) 

LAISH, or LESHEM. (See 
Dan.) 

LAKE. (Luke v. 1.) The 
principal lakes mentioned in 
the Bible are Tiberias or Gen- 
nesaret, the Salt or Dead Sea, 
and Merom. {See these arti* 
cles.) The place of final pun- 
ishment is called the lake of 
fire, (Rev. xix. 20,) the lake 
which burnetii, &c. (Rev. xxi. 
8. See Hell.) 

LAMB. (Ex. xii. 3.) The 
young of the sheep, though the 
original word means also the 
kid or young of the goat ; and 
by the Jewish law it is ex- 
pressly provided that the sacri- 
fice at the passover might be a 
lamb, either of the sheep or 
goat. (Ex. xii. 5.) Sundry pe- 
culiar enactments are contain- 
ed in the same law, respecting 
the qualities of the animal. 
(Ex. xxii. 30; xxiii. 19. Lev. 
xxii. 27.) 

The prophet represents 
Christ as a lamb led to the 
slaughter, (Isa. liii. 7;) and the 
sarns figure is employed by 
John when he announced the 
approach of Jesus to his com- 
panions. (John i. 29. 36.) It 
may denote the meekness and 
gentleness of the Messiah's 
character, but still more ex- 
pressively designates him as 
the great sacrifice for sin. 
Hence the frequent allusions 
to the Lamb, the Lamb thai 
was slain, the blood of the 
Lamb, &c. (Rev. v. 6 ; vii. 9. 
14. 17; xii. 11 ; xiv. 1. 4; xvii. 
14; xxi. 23-27.) 

LAMECH. 1. (Gen. v. 25- 
31.) The son of Methuselah, 
and the father of Noah. He 
died about five years before 
the flood. 

2. (Gen. iv. 18.) A descend- 
ant of Cain, and notorious as 
39-2 



LAM 

the person who introduced 
into the world the sin of poly- 
gamy. The speech he made 
to his wives (Gen. iv. 23, 24) is 
supposed to have been design- 
ed to relieve any apprehension 
they might have as to his per- 
sonal safety, as a descendant 
of the first murderer, who had 
been accursed. 

The words of Lamech are 
thus rendered by some critics : 

' And Lamech said unto his wives, 
Adah and Zillah, hear ye my voice ; 
Wives of Lamech,hearken to my speech: 
Have I slain a man, that I should be 

wounded ? 
Or a young man, that I should be 

bruised ? 
If Cain should be avenged seven-fold, 
Also Lamech seventy and seven.' 

That is, if God hath guarded 
Cain, the murderer, by a threat 
of dreadful punishment on such 
as slay him, how much more 
will he guard me, who am in- 
nocent of the blood of all men. 

Others render the fourth and 
fifth lines thus : 

I have slain a man who wounded me ; 
Tea, a young man who smote me j' 

and suppose that Lamech had 
slain a man in self-defence; 
that his wives were alarmed 
lest the kindred of the de- 
ceased should seek his life; 
and, to quiet their fears, he 
tells them, that if he who took 
the life of Cain, a wilful mur- 
derer, should suffer a seven- 
fold (or great) punishment, 
surely he who should kill La- 
mech, who had slain a man 
in self-defence, should suffer 
seventy -seven -fold (or still 
greater) punishment. 

These are two of many con- 
structions which have been 
put upon the passage, and all 
of them may be erroneous. 

LAMENTATIONS OF JE- 
REMIAH, the book of. The 
Hebrews were accustomed to 
compose lamentations, or 
mournful songs, on the occur- 
rence of private and public 
calamities. Such was David's 
lament on the death of Absa- 



LAM 

lom and Jonathan. The pro 
phet Jeremiah thus laments 
over the ruin of the holy city 
and the temple, the destruction 
of the state, and the calamitous 
condition and prospect of his 
countrymen. In the original 
language, the first four chap- 
ters of this book are written so 
that every verse or couplet be- 
gins with a letter of the Hebrew 
alphabet, in regular order. The 
first and second chapters con- 
tain twenty-two verses each, 
according to the letters of the 
alphabet. In these, and in the 
fourth chapter, the city and 
church of God are presented 
to us in personified form, and 
their calamities are described 
in the most pathetic and touch- 
ing language. The third chap- 
ter has sixty-six verses, and 
therefore every triplet begins 
with a Hebrew lettejvin order. 
In this chapter, a single Jew 
speaks in the manner of a 
cnorus of his countrymen, as 
in ancient dramatic writings, 
and describes their state and 
prospects. The fifth chapter 
contains the united pleadings 
and supplications of the whole 
people. The peculiar mode of 
versification above mentioned 
was designed, as it is supposed, 
to assist the memory. 

It seems to be the prevailing 
opinion, that this book refers 
to events past, and has not a 
prophetic character. 

LAMP. (1 Sam. iii. 3.) The 
lights of the east are of various 
kinds ; not only oil, but pitch, 
naphtha, and wax are used to 
maintain the flame. Some- 
times strips of cotton cloth, 
soaked in these combustible 
substances, supply the place 
of lamps; and in the Indies 
particularly, it is customary to 
carry a pot of oil in one hand, 
and a lamp full of oily rags in 
the other. The form of oriental 
lamps was fanciful and often 
elegant, as appears from the 
following cuts 

393 



LAft 



LAN 




The lamps of the Hebrews, it 
is probable, like those of Aleppo^ 
and Egypt at the present day, 
were suffered to burn all night; 
and this occasioned no great 
expense in a country so rich 
in oil. We are told that this 
was considered so indispensa- 
ble to the comfort of a family, 
that the poorest people would 
rather deny themselves food 
than neglect it. The putting 
out of tjfp light denoted the 
ruin and extinction of the fa- 
mily, and the desertion of the 
house. This gives force to the 
words in Job xviii. 5, 6 ; xxi. 
17 ; xxix. 3 : The light of the 
wicked shall be put out ; the 
light shall be dark in his ta- 
bernacle, and his candle shall 
be put out with him. How oft 
is the candle of the wicked put 
out. (Jer.xxv. 10,11. Prov. xx. 
20.) Also in Prov. xiii. 9, The 
light of the righteous rejoiceth, 
but the lamp of the wicked 
shall be put out ; and of the 
prudent wife. Her candle goeth 
not out by night. (Prov. xxxi. 
18.) 
LANCE. (See Armour.) 
LANDMARK. (Prov. xxii. 
28.) It was the manifest inten- 
tion of Jehovah, in bringing 
his people into Canaan, to 
make them a nation of agri- 
culturists. For this purpose, 
every citizen had allotted to 
him a piece of ground, which 
he was to cultivate and leave 
to his descendants. This he 
could not entirely alienate; 
for even if sold, it returned to 



him or his natural heirs at the 
next jubilee. (See Jubilee.) 
He also had a right to reclaim 
or redeem land thus sold when 
he was in straitened circum- 
stances, even before the jubilee. 

The importance of preserv- 
ing accurately the boundaries 
of individual or family posses- 
sions is very obvious ; and 
hence the severe penalty 
threatened for their removal. 
(Deut. xix. 14; xxvii. 17. Prov, 
xxiii. 11.) 

Subsequently to the ordi- 
nances given by Moses, the 
land was divided by lot and 
measurement among the tribes, 
families, and individuals of 
the nation, under Joshua. For 
this purpose, a cord or measur- 
ing line was used. (Ps. lxxviii- 
55.) This measuring line is 
often used in figurative lan- 
guage, when the providential 
assignment of man's lot or con- 
dition is mentioned. (Ps.xvi.6. 
See Lines.) 

LANGUAGE. (Gen. xi. 1.) 
It is generally supposed that 
Adam was endued with the 
power of speech, and furnish- 
ed *with a language, at his 
creation, and that it was suffi- 
ciently perfect and compre- 
hensive for all the purposes 
of his being. This was the 
language of the whole earth 
for nearly 2000 years, or until 
about a century after the flood. 
It was then that the tower of 
Babel was erected; and,forthe 
purpose of confounding that 
presumptuous enterprise, God 



LAI 

caused a confusion of lan- 
guages, so that the various 
companies or tribes should be 
incapable of understanding 
each other, and of course in- 
capable of prosecutins their 
plans. This caused a division 
and dispersion of mankind 
over the face of the earth. 
Many learned men suppose 
that the Hebrew was the origi- 
nal language given by God to 
Adam, and that all the other 
languages are derived from 
that as the root. 

LANTERNS. (Johnxviii.3.) 
Probably some kind of covered 
torch. 

LAODICEA. (Rev. i. 11.) A 
city of Phrygia, upon the river 
Lycas, near Colosse, and about 
forty miles east of Ephesus. 
Eski-hissar is the name of the 
town uDon or near the curious 
and magnificent ruins of this 
once proud and flourishing 
city. 

There was a church here, to 
which Paul sent affectionate 
messages, and wished the Co- 
lossians would let them see his 
letter, which was addressed to 
them, when they had done 
with it. (Col. iv. 13—16.) And 
it was this church that was so 
severely reproved by Christ. 
(Rev. iii. 14—22.) Of its rejec- 
tion and abandonment, accord- 
ing to the inspired declaration 
in these passages, travellers 
furnish abundant evidence. 

"It is even more solitary 
than Ephesus," says one, "sit- 
ting in widowed loneliness, its 
walls grass-grown, its temples 
desolate, its~very name perish- 
ed! Its crime was pride, its 
punishment desolation. The 
threatening is accomplished; 
it now stands rejected of God, 
and deserted of man ; its glory 
a ruin, its name a reproach !" 

LAPPETH. (Judg. vii. 5.) 
We ar# told that the eastern 
people are accustomed to take 
up water in the hollow of the 
hand, and that they do it with 



LAV 

surprising agility. It is infer- 
red that when Gideon's army 
came to the water side, they 
drank of it with the hand as 
fast as they could, to be ready 
without delay to follow Gide- 
on; while the thousands of 
faint-hearted, that were sent 
away, either stooped down to 
drink, or, at all events, drank 
with so much tardiness and 
ceremony,a£ to show that their 
hearts were not with Gideon 
in his contemplated enterprise. 
The three hundred showed 
themselves men of alacrity 
and promptness, and therefore 
fit for the work. 

LAPWING. (Lev. xi. 19.) A 

very beautiful but filthy bird, 

unclean by the Levitical law. 

The lapwing of the Bible is 

supposed, however, to be the 

hoopoe of modern days. It is 

about the size of a pigeon. 

LASEA. (See Crete.) 

LATCHET. (See Clothes.) 

LATTICE. (See Dwell. 

INGS.) 

LAUGH, LAUGHTER. 
(Gen. xviii. 13. Ps. lix. 8; 
cxxvi. 2.) These terms are 
employed by the sacred wri. 
ters to denote joy, insult, mock- 
ery, assurance, admiration, &c 
The meaning can usually be 
determined by the connexion. 
When they are used concern- 
ing God, as in Prov. i. 26, they 
signify that he despises or pays 
no regard to the person or sub- 
ject. 

LAYER. (Ex. xxx. 18.) A 

circular vessel, used in the 

■ tabernacle service, and formed 

| of the polished brass which 

, served for looking-glasses, (Ex. 

xxxviii. 8,) and which was 

: presented for the purpose by 

the devout women who attend 

ed at the doorof the tabernacle. 

I The laver stood between the 

1 altar and the tabernacle, a 

little to the south; and the 

priests washed their hands in 

it before they officiated. (See 

I Temple.) 

395 



LAW- 
LAW. (Ps. xix.7.) This word 
has various significations. The 
psalmist used it generally to 
denote the whole will of God. 
It is applied to the Mosaical 
institutions, in distinction from 
the gospel, (Heb. x. 1—18,) and 
sometimes to the ritual, strictly 
speaking. (Eph. ii. 15.) It de- 
notes the ten commandments 
given to the Israelites, (Ex. 
xx.,) and confirmed by Christ, 
(Matt. v. 17,) and opened and 
explained in their infinite com- 
prehension and spirituality, by 
Him and his apostles, through- 
out the New Testament. (Luke 
x.27. Rom. iii. 20. Gal. iii. 10. 
13. 19-25.) 

The term is also used to sig- 
nify the five books of Moses. 
(Luke xxiv. 27. 44. Acts xiii. 
15.) This was what was read 
in the synagogues ; and a copy 
of it was deposited in the side 
of m the ark to preserve it from 
injury. (Deut. xxxi. 26. See 
Ark op the Covenant.) 

When it is said of believers 
that they are not under the 
law, but under grace, (Rom. 
vi. 14,) the meaning is, that 
they do not depend on obedi- 
ence to the law for justification 
before God, but on the grace of 
God as revealed in the gospel. 
The ceremonial or ritual 
law, which stood in meats and 
drinks and carnal ordinances, 
(Heb. ix. 10,) was abolished by 
the introduction of the gospel ; 
but the law, properly speak- 
ing, is eternal and unchange- 
able in its obligations and 
sanctions. It was fulfilled ra- 
ther than abrogated by the 
gospel ; and obedience to it is 
made by the gospel the only 
evidence of justifying faith. 
(Matt. v. 17, 18. Rom. iii. 28; 
vi. 15, 16. James ii. 18. 26. 

LAWYERS, (Luke vii. 30,) 
or DOCTORS OF THE LAW, 
(Luke v. 17,) were a class of 
men who devoted themselves 
to the study and interpretation 
•' the Jewish iaw. They are 



LAZ 

supposed to have been charged! 
with transcribing the law, and. 
in many instances, with the 
decision of questions arising 
under it; whence they are 
called scribes. (Ezra vii. 6.11.) 
Many of them were members 
of tne sanhedrim. Their influ- 
ence was great, and they are 
often mentioned, under the 
name of scribes, in connexion 
with the chief priests and 
elders. 

LAZARUS. 1. (John xi. 1.) 
A citizen of Bethany, residing 
with his two sisters, in whose 
family Christ was a frequent 
guest. He was raised from the 
grave by the power, of Christ, 
in sight of the city of Jerusa- 
lem, in the presence of the 
family and a number of Jews, 
after he had been dead four 
days. This is one of the most 
stupendous and interesting mi- 
racles which our divine Sa- 
viour wrought, as it proved his 
complete power over death and 
the grave, which was after- 
wards so fully corroborated in 
his own person. So incensed 
were the Jews at this indispu- 
table exhibition of Christ's 
power, that they sought not 
only to kill him, but Laza- 
rus himself, because in conse- 
quence of the miracle so 
many believed. 

The history of this transac- 
tion, as given us by the sacrec 
historian, is intensely interest- 
ing On no occasion, perhaps, 
were the sympathy, dignity, 
and power of Christ, in his hu- 
miliation, more conspicuous; 
and the domestic scenes which 
are connected with the story are 
related with beautiful simpli- 
city. (See Susan Ellmakeb, 
pp. 72— 74, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

2. (Luke xvi. 20.) In the 
parable by which our Saviour 
illustrates the retributions of 
eternity, one of the parties is 
named Lazarus. • 

Tne word Lazarus, in the 
original, signifies a poor, needi 



LEA 

man\ and the probability is, 
that the story is designed to 
illustrate a general truth by a 
natural arrangement and issue 
of circumstances constantly oc- 
curring on all sides of us. 

It i3 worthy of observation, 
in this parable, (1.) That no 
positive sin is charged upon 
the rich man; nor does it ap- 
pear that he was guilty of any 
particular neglect of the poor 
man ; for he was not a beggar, 
(as our translation has it,) but 
simply in need, and he was 
laid at the rich man's gate to 
excite the sympathy of those 
who should pass in and out. 

(2.) That while the rich man 
was buried probably with much 
pomp,the poor man suffers that 
utmost disgrace (as the Jews 
esteem it) of being without bu- 
rial. (See Burial.) 

(3.) To be with Abraham 
was, to the Jew, to be blessed 
indeed, (Matt. iii. 9;) and to 
be in his bosom imported the 
greatest intimacy. (See Bo- 
som.) 

(4.) The word hell denotes 
a place where the wicked suf- 
fer intolerable anguish, with- 
out the least mitigation, for 
ever and ever. 

(5.) The amazing contrast 
between the respective condi- 
tions of the righteous and the 
wicked in this world and their 
respective conditions in the 
world to come. A comparison 
of the various circumstances 
in the history of each, as they 
are set down in the parable, 
puts this feature of the story in 
a most striking light. 

LEAD. (Job xix. 24.) A very 
heavy metal, known to the an- 
cients from a very early pe- 
riod, (Ex. xv. 10. Num. xxxi. 
22. Zech. v. 6—8,) and abound- 
ing in the western parts of 
the United States. Lead was 
formerly used in the process 
of refining gold and silver. 
Hence the figurative allusions, 
34 



LEA 

Jer. vi. 29, 30. Ezek. xxii. 17 
-22. 

LEAF. (Isa. lxiv. 6.) The 
bright fresh colour of the leaf 
of a tree or plant shows that it. 
is richly nourished by a good 
soil. Hence it is emblematical 
of prosperity. (Ps. i. 3. Jer. 
xvii. 8. Ezek. xlvii. 12.) A 
faded leaf, on the contrary, 
shows the lack of moisture 
and nourishment, and becomes 
a fit emblem of adversity and 
decay. (Job xiii. 25.) 

LEAH. (Gen.xxix. 16.) The 
wife of Jacob, and eldest daugh- 
ter of Laban. Jacob desired to 
marry Rachel, Leah's sister, 
and served her father seven 
years that he might obtain her 
as his wife. When the period 
was accomplished, Leah was 
imposed upon him instead of 
Rachel, and he was compelled 
to serve seven years longer for 
her. (See Jacob and Joseph, 
chap\ iii., and History op the 
Patriarchs, § xvii., both by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

LEASING. (Ps. iv.3.) Lies 
or falsehoods. 

LEAVEN. (Ex.xii. 15.) Fer- 
ment mixed with dough to 
make it light; or a piece of 
dough or bread thus mixed and 
used to lighten a larger mass. 
It makes a thorough change 
in the whole ; and hence tfe 
force of the parable, (Matt. xiii. 
33,) by which the silent influ- 
ence of the gospel on the heart 
of man isbeautifully illustrated. 
And so also it figuratively de- 
notes the influence of false and 
corrupt doctrines, (Matt. xvi. 
6,) as well as the evil passions 
of the depiaved and unregene- 
rate heart. (1 Cor. v. 7, 8 .") 
The disuse of it on certain o c- 
casions was an important p.- trt 
of the Jewish ritual. (Ex. : cU. 
15. 19.) 

Dough-kept until it is gro wn 

sour is used in eastern cr »un 

tries as a ferment for fi *esa 

dough ; and it is said tha i ua 

397 



LEB 

the wine countries the lee3 
of wine are used as we use 
yeast. 

LEBANON. (Isa. xxxiii. 9.) 
A celebrated range of moun- 
tains in Syria, north of Pales- 
tine, running north-east and 
south-west, m two parallel 
chains, in crescent form, and 
pursuing nearly the course of 
the shore of the Mediterranean. 
The south-eastern chain is 
called Anti-Libanus, opposite 
toLibanus, or Lebanon proper. 
Between these ranges is Cmle- 
Syria, or the valley of Lebanon. 
(Josh. xi. 17.) Some of its east- 
ern and north-eastern branch- 
es were called Hermon, (Deut. 
iii. 9,) Sion, (Deut. iv. 48,) and 
Amana. (Sol. Song iv. 8.) Its 
summits (which some travel- 
lers have stated to be higher 
than the Alps or Pyrenees) and 
ravines are covered with snow 
during the year, and its rock 
is a white limestone, from 
which issue pure, limpid 
streams. (Jer. xviii. 14.) It is 
described by travellers as a 
multitude of mountains, sepa- 
rated by deep ravines, and co- 
vered pretty thickly with pine 
and fruit trees, although not so 
densely as the forests of Ame- 
rica. Its ascent is steep and 
rocky. Its cedars are now 
found principally at the foot of 
one mountain, covering a space 
three-fourths of a mile in cir- 
cumference, and amount to 
nearly four hundred ; some of 
them forty feet round, and. 
nearly one hundred in height. 
The balsamic odour of these 
cedars is alluded to, Hos. xiv. 
6. Sol. Song ir. 11; and so 
many of them were used in 
building Solomon's palace, as 
to give it the name mentioned 
1 Kings vii. 2, and x. 17. The 
same timber was used for ship- 
building. (Ezek. xxvii. 5. See 
Cedar.) 

Mr. Fisk, an American mis- 
sionary, who ascended mount 
Lebanon in the autumn of 1823, 



LEB 

informs us that eTen the few 
cedars that remain may by 
called the glory of Lebanon. 
Their fine shade, conical form, 
beautiful symmetry, and lofty 
height fully justify the figura- 
tive language of the Bible. 
(Ps. lxxx. 10. Amos ii. 9.) He 
found snow upwards of two feet 
deep, that had lain through the 
hot months. 

Another traveller thus de- 
scribes the mountain and its 
scenery: The highest eleva- 
tion of the mountains of Leba- 
non is to the south-east of Tri- 
poli, and their summits, capped 
with clouds and covered with 
snow, are discerned at the dis- 
tance of thirty leagues. The 
Orontes, which flows from the 
mountains of Damascus, and 
loses itself below Antioch ; the 
Kasmia, which from the north 
of Balbeck takes its course 
towards Tyre; the Jordan, 
which sends its waters towards 
the south, all prove the altitude 
of the region from which they 
derive their source. Lebanon, 
which gives its name to the 
extensive range of the Kes- 
ruan, and the country of the 
Druses, presents to the travel- 
ler the spectacle of its majestic 
mountains; at every step he 
meets with scenes in which 
nature displays beauty or gran- 
deur, sometimes romantic wild- 
ness, but always variety. When 
he lands on the coast of Syria, 
the loftiness and steep ascent 
of this magnificent rampart, 
which seems to enclose the 
country, the gigantic masses 
which shoot into the clouds, 
inspire astonishment and reve- 
rence. Should he climb these 
summits which bounded his 
view, and ascend the highest 
point of Lebanon, the Sannin, 
the immensity of space which 
he discovers becomes a fresh 
subject of admiration. On 
every side he beholds an hori- 
zon without bounds ) while in 
clear weather the sight is lost 



LEB 
over the desert which extends 
to the Persian Gulf, and over 
the sea which washes the 
coasts of Europe; the mind 
seems to embrace the world. 
A different temperature pre- 
vails in different parts of the 
mountain. Hence the expres- 
sion of the Arabian poets, that 
" the Sannin bears winter on 
his head, spring upon his 
shoulders, and autumn in his 
Dosom, while summer lies 
sleeping at his feet." 

This description of the moun- 
tains of Lebanon enables us 
to perceive the reason why 
mention is so often made of 
them in the writings of the 
prophets. Lebanon and Car- 
mef, being the most remarka- 
ble among the mountains of 
Palestine, are frequently cele- 
brated in the sacred poetry. 
The one remarkable as well 
for its height as for its mag- 
nitude, and the abundance 
of the cedars which adorned 
its summit, exhibiting a strik- 
ing and substantial appear- 
ance of strength and majesty: 
the other, rich and fruitful, 
abounding with vines, olives, 
and delicious fruits, in a most 
flourishing state both by nature 
and cultivation, and display- 
ing a delightful appearance of 
fertility, Deatrcy, and grace. 
The different form and aspect 
of these two mountains are 
most accurately denned by 
Solomon, when he compares 
manly dignity with Lebanon, 
and the beauty and delicacy 
of the female with Carmel. 
(Sol. Song v. 15 ; vii. 5.) Each 
of them suggests a different 
general image, which the He- 
brew poets adopt for different 
purposes, expressing that by 
a metaphor which more timid 
writers would delineate by 
a direct comparison. Thus 
Lebanon is used, by a very 
bold figure, for the whole peo- 
ple of the Jews, or for the 
state of t£e church, (Isa. xxxv. 



LEG 

2Hos.xiv. 5;) for Jerusalem, 
(Isa. xxxvii.24. Jer. xxii.6.23;) 
for the temple, (Zecn. xi. 1 ;) 
for the king of Assyria, (Isa.x. 
34;) for whate ver in a word is 
remarkable, august, and sub- 
lime, (Isa. lx. 13. Ezek. xxxi. 
3—8. 15, 16.) Hence what- 
ever possesses much fertility, 
wealth, or beauty, is called 
Carmel. (Isa. xxxv. 2. Jer. 
xlvi. 18. Mic.vii. 14.) 
Its population is from 100,000 
to 150 ; 000,consisting of Syrian 
and Armenian Catholics, 
Greeks, and Greek Catholics, 
Druses, and Maronites. The 
wine of Lebanon (Hos. xiv.7) 
is still celebrated, and its air 
pure, and its prospects en- 
chanting. Some of Isaiah's 
most elegant imagery is de- 
rived from this mountain and 
its appurtenances. Moses 
mentions, (Deut. iii. 25—27,) 
as a reason for wishing to go 
over Jordan, his desire to see 
this delightful region. (See 
Ev. Recreations, by Am. S. 
6. Union, vol. i. pp. 8 — 11.) 

LEBBEUS. (See Jude.) 

LEEK. (Num.xi.5.) A bul- 
bous vegetable like the onion, 
a particular species of which 
has been cultivated in Egypt 
from a very early period. In 
the passage cited, it is sup- 
posed that lettuce, salads, or 
savoury herbs generally, may 
be intended, as the original 
word in the Old Testament is 
twelve times rendered grass y 
and once herb. 

LEES. (Tsa. xxv. 6.) The 
dregs of wine settled to the 
bottom. Hence the expres- 
sion icine an the lees denotes 
old and pure wine. It is used 
figuratively for indolence and 
sin. (ZeDh. i. 12.) 

LEGION. (Matt. xxvi. 53.) 
A band of soldiers in the Ro- 
man army, consisting of from 
6000 to 7000 men : the origi- 
nal number was 6200 foot and 
730 horse. In this passage, and 
309 



LEP 

also in Mark v. 9. 15, it means 
a large but indefinite number. 

LEHABIM. (SeeLYBiA.) 

LENTILES. (2 Sam. xxiii. 
11.) A species of pulse not 
unlike the pea in its general 
appearance. It is still a com- 
mon article of food in Egypt, 
being dressed like beans, or 
stewed with oil and garlic, 
and forming what is called 
red pottage. (Gen. xxv. 29, 30.) 
Probably they grew wild, and 
were found in fields of grain. 
(Comp. 2 Sam. xxiii. 11, with 
1 Chron. xi. 13.) 

LEOPARD. (Isa. xi. 6.) An 
animal of the cat tribe, which 
it is supposed abounded in the 
countries of the Bible, from the 
fact that it is so often men- 
tioned by the sacred writers. 
The Hebrew name is nimrah. 
(.Num. xxxii. 3.) Beth-nim- 
rah (Num. xxxii. 36) means 
the house of the leopards ; and 
in Sol. Song iv. 8, are men- 
tioned the mountains of the 
leopards. Allusions to the leo- 
pard's character and habits 
are often made in the Bible, 
especially by the prophets ; its 
manner of watching for its 
prey, (Jer. v. 6. Hos. xiii. 7 ;) 
its fleetness. (Hab. i. 8;) its 
fierceness and cruelty, (Isa. 
xi. 6 ;) and in Dan. vii. 6, it is 
made the emblem of power. 

LEPER, LEPROSY. (Lev. 
xiii. 42. 45.) The leprosy is a 
loathsome and infectious dis- 
ease, still prevalent throughout 
all Syria, and corresponding in 
its general characteristics with 
that of former ages. It is call- 
ed distinctively the stroke or 
wound of the Lord. It com- 
mences internally, and often 
lies concealed for years, or is 
secretly spreading before there 
is any outward indication of it ; 
and after it breaks out, the 
sufferer often lingers for years 
before it reaches a crisis, and 
then years sometimes elapse 
before the leper is released by 
death. The bones and the 



LEP 

marrow are pervaded with the 
disease, so that the joints of 
the hands and feet lose their 
power, the limbs of the body 
fall together, and the whole sys- 
tem assumes a most deforn ed 
and loathsome appearance. 
The progress and effects of the 
disease are supposed to be de- 
scribed in Job li. 7, 8. 12, and 
vi. 2, and vii. 3—5, and xix. 
14—21. 

There were various kinds 
of leprosy; but in whatever 
form it appeared, it was re 
garded as a judgment from 
the hand of God. We know 
it was frequently employed for 
this purpose, as in the cases 
of Miriam, (Num. xii. 10,) Ge- 
hazi, (2 Kings v. 27,) and Uz- 
ziah, (2 Chron. xxvi. 16—23;) 
but whether it ordinarily dif- 
fered from other diseases and 
calamities in this respect we 
have reason to doubt. 

Although the laws respect- 
ing this disease Which we find 
in the Mosaic code are exceed- 
ingly rigid, it is by no means 
clear that the leprosy was 
contagious. The horror and 
disgust which was felt towards 
a disease so foul and loath- 
some might be a sufficient 
cause for such severe enact- 
ments. (For a particular ac- 
count of the leprosy, its symp- 
toms, treatment. &c. see Bib- 
lical Antiquities, by Am. S. 
S. Union, vol. i. chap. vii. $ 1.) 
With respect to the leprosy 
of houses and clothes, (Lev. 
xiv. 55,) some have supposed 
that the expression was only 
analogical— the spots and dis- 
figurations which appeared 
upon the walls and articles 
of clothing resembling the 
leprous spots. Others suppose 
it was a species of mould or 
mildew, indicating a great de- 
gree of dampness, corruptrng 
the air, injurious to health, and 
often the occasion and pre- 
cursor of fatal diseases. The 
expressions of the sacred his- 
400 



LET 

lory are hardly borne out, 
however, by such an inter- 
pretation as the last. 
LESBOS. (See Mitylene.) 
LESHEM. (See Dan.) 
LETTER. (2 Sam. xi. 14.) 
The letters mentioned by the 
sacred writers were in the form 
of rolls, not unlike those of 
the present day. Niebuhr tells 
us that the Arabs roll up their 
letters, and then flatten them 
to the breadth of an inch, and 
paste up the end of them, in- 
stead of sealing them; and 
the Persians, we know, make 
up their letters in the form of 
rolls, about six inches long, 
and paste a bit of paper around 
it with gum, and seal it with 
an impression of ink. When 
sent to inferiors, they were 
often sent open, (Neh. vi. 5 ;) 
but when sent to equals or 
superiors, they were enclosed 
in a purse or bag, as in the 
cut. (See Seal.) 




A modern traveller mentions 
having seen a letter from the 
ting of Persia to the governor- 
general of India. The letter 
was in the form of a roll, en- 
34* 



LEV 

closed in a bag woven with 
gold thread and crimson silk. 
It was tied at the neck with 
gold lace, which, after being 
knotted, passed through an 
immense red seal, four inches 
in diameter, and about an inch 
thick of red wax. The seal 
was entirely covered with Per- 
sian characters, supposed to be 
titles of the king. To preserve 
the seal the bag was opened 
at the bottom; but the usual 
way is to melt the wax, or cut 
the lace between the wax and 
the bag. 

LEVI. (Gen. xxix. 34.) Third 
son of Jacob and Leah. He was 
concerned in a bloody affair 
with the Shechemites, which 
occasioned the denunciatory 
and prophetic language of his 
father respecting him, (Gen. 
xlix. 5—7,) and which was fully 
verified in the history of his 
posterity. The opposition of 
his descendants to the idol-wor- 
ship, which was practised by 
others, was the occasion of the 
mitigation of their curse. (Ex. 
-- 26-29. Deut 



XXXll 

His descendants 



xxxiii. 9.) 
are called 



Levites. (See Levites, ana 
Matthew.) 

LEVIATHAN. (Job xli. 1.) 
The Hebrew name of an ani- 
mal minutely described in 
this chapter, but not known 
to modern naturalists. The 
description answers most near- 
ly to the crocodile. Probably 
he was the monster of the sea, 
as behemoth, described in the 
preceding chapter, was the 
monster of the land. The object 
of the sacred writer evidently 
is, to represent to us an ex- 
ceedingly strong and intracta- 
ble animal, utterly beyond the 
reach and control of man, and 
yet created, preserved, and 
destroyed at God's pleasure; 
thence he infers the weakness 
and insignificancy of man, and 
the folly of his calling in ques 
tion the righteous judgments 
of God. What is man, (even 
401 



LEV 

in comparison with some of 
the inferior works of creation,) 
that God should be mindful of 
him 7 

The leviathan is figuratively 
mentioned as an emblem of 
strength and destructiveness. 
(Ps. lxxiv. 14. Isa. xxvii. 1. For 
a fuller description of this ani- 
mal, and an account of the 
various opinions respecting 
him, and illustrative cuts, see 



LEV 

Youth's Friend for Nov. and 
Dec. 1826, by Am. S. S. Union.) 
LEVITES. (Ex. iv. 14.) All 
the descendants of Levi may 
be comprised under this name ; 
but chiefly those who were 
employed in the lower ser- 
vices in the temple, by which 
they were distinguished from 
the priests, who were of the 
race of Levi by Aaron, and 
were employed in h'gher of, 




LEV 

flees. The Levites were the 
descendants of Levi by Ger- 
Bhom, Kohath, and Merari, 
excepting only the family of 
Aaron ; for the children of Mo- 
ses had no part in the priest- 
hood, and were only common 
Levites. God chose the Le- 
vites instead of the first-born 
of all Israel for the service of 
his tabernacle and temple. 
(Num.iii.6,&c.) They assisted 
the priests in the ministrations 
of the temple, and sung and 
played on instruments in the 
daily services, &c. They stu- 
died the law, and were the or- 
dinary judges of the country; 
but subordinate to the priests. 
God provided for the subsist- 
ence of the Levites, by giving 
to them the tenth of corn, fruit, 
and cattle; but they paid to 
the priests the tenth of all they 
received; and as the Levites 
possesse'd no estates in land, 
the tithes which the priests 
thus received from them were 
considered as the first-fruits 
which they were to offer to the 
Lord. (Num xviii.21— 24.) The 
preceding cut shows the dress, 
occ. ot a Levite. 

God assigned for the habita- 
tion of the Levites forty-eight 
cities, with fields, pastures, and 
gardens. (Num. xxxv.) Of 
these, thirteen were given to 
the priests, six of which were 
cities of refuge. (Josh, xx.7— 9; 
xxi. 19, &c.) While the Le- 
vites were actually employed 
in the temple, they were sup- 
ported out of the provisions 
Kept in store there, and out 
of the daily offerinss. (See 
Deut. xii. 18, 19; xviii. 6—8.) 

The Levites were divided 
into different classes ; the Ger- 
•homites, Kohathites, Merar- 
jtes, and the Aaronites, or 
oriests; to each of which 
were assigned specified du- 
ties. (Num. ill- 14, &c.) They 
were not to enter upon their 
service at the tabernacle till 
they were twenty-five years 



LIB 

of age. (Num. viii. 24.) But 
David fixed the time of service 
at twenty years. The priests 
and Levites waited, by turns 
weekly in the temple. (lChron. 
xxiii. 24. 2Chron. xxiii. 4— 8 
xxxi. 17. Ezra iii. 8.) 

There is much of deep inte- 
rest in the history, office, &c. 
of this order of Jewish eccle- 
siastics; for a particular ac- 
count of which see Biblical 
Antiquities, by Am. S. S. 
Union, vol. ii. c\. iv. § 1 and 2. 

LEVITICUS, book of, the 
third book of the Bible, was 
written by Moses, and con- 
tains twenty-seven chapters, 
divided into four principal sec- 
tions,— (1.) The laws concern- 
ing sacrifices ; (2.) The conse- 
cration of the high-priests; (3.? 
Purification, &cT (4.) Sacred 
festivals. It is called Leviti 
cus, because the Levites were 
the divinely appointed minis- 
ters by whom these sacred 
services were in part con- 
ducted. 

It contains, also, many of the 
laws by which the civil depart- 
ment of the government was 
to be administered, besides 
many remarkable prophecies. 
(See Union Questions, vol. 
iv. less, xii., and Teacher's 
Assistant in the use of this 
volume, pp. 119—131, both by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

LEWDNESS. (Acts xviii. 
14.) This word is not used 
here in its present common 
acceptation, but rather denotes 
the daring, flagrant offence ol 
one who is skilled in deeds of 
iniquity, or an old offender. 

LIBERTINES. (Acts vi. 9.) 
A Jewish sect, said to be com- 
posed of such as were prose- 
lytes or free citizens of Rome; 
but whether called libertine* 
from some circumstance in 
their history and civil rela. 
tions, or from the town or pro- * 
vince which they inhabited, 
is uncertain. They had a place 
of worship at Jerusalem foi 
403 



LIC 

the accommodation of those of 
their sect who might be dwell- 
ing in the city. (See Alexan- 
drians.) 

L1BNAH. (Josh. xxi. 13.) A 
city in the western part of Ju- 
dah, (Josh. xv. 42.) assigned to 
the priests, and a city ofrefuge. 
(I Chron. vi. 57.) Its inhabit- 
ants revolted from Joram, 
(2 Kings viii. 22,) and were 
defeated by the Assyrians. 
02 Kings xix. 8.) Another Lib- 
nah was situated near mount 
Sinai, (Num. xxxiii. 20;) and 
a third in the country of Asher, 
(Josh. xix. 26,) called there 
Shihor-Libnath. 

LIBYA. (See L^bia.) 

LICE. (Ex. viii. 16.) The 
third plague of the Egyptians 
was the turning of the dust 
of the land into lice; and 
when it is considered how 
universally the Egyptians ab- 
horred vermin, anal especially 
now strongly their contact 
was deprecated by the priests, 
the affliction will appear the 
more severe. 

The Jewish commentators, 
and most of the Christian, ren- 
der the original word by this 
term ; and learned biblical 
critics have exhausted their 
ingenuity to prove that this is 
the correct interpretation. The 
Septuagint' translators, how- 
ever, were in favour of gnats, 
as the animal designated by 
Moses among the plagues of 
Egypt; and Jerome Tollows 
them in both passages where 
the word is used; and, in 
thingsofthis kind, the ancients 
are much more worthy of con- 
fidence than the moderns. The 
learned men above named 
offer several weighty, if not 
conclusive, objections to this 
rendering; as, (1.) These in- 
ects originated, not from the 
water, as do gnats or mos- 
tiuitoes, but from the dust. 
(2.) They were on both men 
and cattle, but gnats do not 
take up their residence on 



LIG 

any animal. (3.) The He* 
brew word signifies to be.fixed 
or jirm< which does not agree 
to gnats, which are ever on the 
wing. (4.) And, finally, the 
plague of flies came afterwards, 
in which gnats would be in- 
cluded. Others, however, dis- 
sent from both these opinions, 
and are disposed to think the 
tick is the animal here signi- 
fied, which sticks its claws 
into man and beast, so fast, 
that it never lets go its grasp 
but by leaving them in the 
flesh. In some parts of the 
United States, there is a spe- 
cies of tick so small as to be 
almost invisible, and so nu- 
merous that millions are often 
grouped on a single spire of 
grass. 

LIEUTENANTS. (Ezra viii. 
36.) A general name for depu- 
ties. 

LIGHT. (Gen. 1.2-4.) The 
element by means of which 
objects and their shape, size, 
and colour are discerned. Its 
motion is extremely quick, and 
is estimated to be about ten 
millions of miles in a minute. 

Whether light really ema- 
nates from the sun, or whether 
it is a fluid universally diffused 
through the universe, which 
the suit causes to radiate, or to 
exercise a vibratory motion, is 
not agreed. Light was created 
on the first day, although the 
celestial luminaries did not 
appear until the fourth. There 
is every reason to suppose that 
the sun was created as early 
as any part of the planetary 
system. Light is an emblem 
much used, in the language 
of Scripture. Christ is often 
called a light, and God is said 
to dwell in light, which no 
man can approach ; yea, God 
is light, and in him is no dark- 
ness at all. (1 John i. 5.) It is 
constantly used as the emblem 
of knowledge and of joy. The 
holy lives of Christians are 
also represented by light- The 
404 



LIM 

following references show a 
variety of figurative uses of the 
word :— Ps. iv. 6, and xxvii. 1. 
Prov. iv. ia Ecci. xi. 7. Isa. 
ii. 5, and x. 17. Hos. vi. 5. Matt. 
iv. 16; v. 16. Eph. v. 8. Col. 
i. 12. 

LIGHTNING. (2Sam.xxii. 
25.) The terrors of the divine 
wrath are often represented 
by thunder and lightning ; and 
thunder, on account of its awful 
impression on the minds of 
mortals, is often spoken of in 
Scripture as the voice of the 
Lora. (Job xxviii. 26 ; xxxvii. 
4, 5'; xxxviii. 25 ; xl. 9.) 

LIGN-ALOES. (See Aloes.) 

LIGURE. (Ex. xxviii. 19.) 
This was one of the precious 
stones in the breastplate of the 
Jewish priests. It is said to 
have resembled the carbuncle, 
but it is not among any class 
of gems known in modern 
science. 

LILY. (Matt. vi. 28.) A beau- 
tiful flower, of a great variety 
of species, the most beautiful 
of which are found in eastern 
countries, and are often men- 
tioned by travellers. Their 
gorgeous appearance is alluded 
to in the passage above cited, 
as is also the fact that the dry 
stalks were used as fuel. 

In Sol. Song ii. 1, reference 
!j3 probably made to some spe- 
cies of the lily that grew spon- 
taneously in the fields, and 
was seldom admired because 
seldom noticed; and in Sol. 
Song v. 13, reference is sup- 
posed to be had to the Persian 
lily, within whose flower-cup 
is found a collection of fluid 
not unlike myrrh. The lily 
afforded a pattern for much 
of the ornamental work of the 
temple. (IKinssvii. 2Chron. 
iv.) 

LIME. (Isa. xxxiii. 12.) A 
well known substance, obtain- 
ed by burninglimestone, bones, 
shells, &c, and used for plas- 
ter or the cement of brick- 
work, &c. It is inferred from 



LIO 

the above passage, and from 
Amos ii. 1, that the modern 
mode of manufacturing this 
article was known to the an- 
cients. Untempered mortar is 
that which is so imperfectly 
or unskilfully mixed that it 
cannot be worked. (Ezek. 
xiii. 10, 11.) It is by no means 
certain that lime was a com- 
ponent part of the plaster men- 
tioned Deut. xxvii. 2. 

LINEAGE. (Luke ii. 4.) Fa- 
mily or race. 

LINEN. (Lev. xiii. 47.) A 
cloth made of flax. It was 
much valued and used in 
ancient as it is in modern 
times. Fine white linen is, 
in Scripture, the emblem of 
innocence, or moral purity. 
(Rev. xv. 6.) 

The best linen was ancient- 
ly made in Egypt, as their 
country afforded the finest 
flax, (Prov. vii. 16 ;) but, it is 
said, the most of their linen 
was coarse; and Solomon, it 
seems, bought linen-yarn in 
Egypt. (1 Kings x. 28.) It is 
supposed that linen was an- 
ciently used for writing on, 
and the letters formed with a 
pencil. 

This cloth, so celebrated in 
ancient times, is still found 
wrapped around mummies, 
and appears to be of the qua- 
lity of the common cotton 
sheeting. (See Flax.) 

LINES. (Ps. xvi. 6.) This ex- 
pression refers to the mode of 
measuring land with a cord or 
line, and is the same as if it was 
said, * My portion is in a plea- 
sant place.' (See Measures.) 

LION. (Gen. xlix. 9.) A wild 
and ferocious animal, too well 
known to require particular 
description. Lions formerly 
inhabited the marshy banks 
of the Jordan, and when driven 
thence by the annual freshet, 
were much enraged. (Jer. 
xhx. 19; 1. 44.) "Figurative 
allusions to the qualities and 
habits of this animal abound 
405 



LOC 

In the Bible, but are so obvious 
in their application that they 
need not be explained. In 
the Hebrew there are several 
different names for the lion, 
expressing the differences in 
his age and character, as, the 
lion's whelp, (Deut. xxxiii. 22. 
Ezek. xix. 2 ;) the young lion, 
Ps. xxxiv. 10 ; xcl 13. H03. 
v. 14 ;) the grown and vigorous 
Hon. (Num. xxiii. 24. 2 Sam. 
xvii. 10. Nah. ii. 11, 12.) For 
beautiful engravings of the lion 
and a minute description, see 
art. Lion in Nat. Hist, of the 
Bible, and Portfolio of Ani- 
mals, pp. 1 — 4, both by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 

LIPS. (Lev. xiii. 45.) This 
word has various peculiar sig- 
nifications in the Scriptures: 

L'nclean lips (Isa. vi. 5) 
are lips polluted by sinful 
words. 

Calves of our lips. (See 
Calves.) 

Burning lips. (Pro v. xxvi. 
23.) Lips through which the 
expressions of malice, envy, 
and other malignant passions 
are continually passing, (Acts 
ix. 1 ;) or, as it is oftener inter- 
preted, burning with false pro- 
fessions of piety and friend- 
ship ; as the potsherd, covered 
with silver dross, appears with 
burning brightness, though it 
is in truth but a potsherd. 

Covering the lip (Ezek. 
xxiv.22) or chin with the outer 
garment was a tonen of mourn- 
ing. 

LIZARD. (Lev. xi. 30.) It 
is quiie uncertain what spe- 
cies of the animal known to 
modern naturalists - by this 
name is intended by the sa- 
cred writers. The original 
would indicate that which 
adheres closely to the earth. 
Ii was unclean by the cere- 
monial law. 

LOCK. (Judg. iii.23.) The 
doors of the ancient Hebrews 
were secured by bars of wood 
3r iron, though the latter were 



LOC 

almost entirely appropriated 
to the entrance of fortresses, 
prisons, and towns. Thus we 
find it mentioned in 1 Kings 
iv. 13, as something remark- 
able concerning Bashan, that 
there were threescore great 
cities, having walls and bra- 
zen bars. See also Isa. xlv. 2. 
These were almost the only 
locks known in early times, 
and they were furnished with 
a large and clumsy key, which 
was applied to the bar through 
an orifice from the outside, by 
means of which the bar or bolt 
was slipped forward as in 
modern locks. There were 
smaller contrivances for inner 
doors, (Judg. iii. 24,) and pro 
bably projecting pieces by 
which to shove the bolt with 
the hand. (Sol. So. v. 4, 5. See 
Dwellings, Key.) 

LOCUST. (Nah. ii . 15.) An 
insect of the grasshopper spe- 
cies, remarkable for numbers 
and voraciousness, and hence 
one of the most dreadful 
scourges of eastern countries. 
The eighth plague upon Pha 
raoh was in the form of locusts. 
(Ex. x. 4—15. Ps. lxxviii. 46 1 
cv. 34,) and thev are frequently 
alluded to as instruments of 
divine judgment. (Deut. xxviii. 
38-42. lldngsviii.37.2Chron. 
vi. 28.) Many facts have been 
related by travellers and his- 
torians of veracity, to show the 
immensity of the numbers of 
locusts which have been ob- 
served to pass over some coun- 
tries. In 873, in Germany, 
clouds of locusts came from 
the east, and continued to 
darken the air for two months: 
and in one hour would con- 
sume every green thing on a 
hundred acres of land; and 
when driven back into the 
sea by the wind, they occa- 
sioned a dreadful pestilence. 
Even the heathen viewed the 
locusts as a dreadful judg- 
ment from heaven. Pliny 
says, "This plague is consi- 
406 



LOC 

dered a manifestation of the 
wrath of the gods; by their 
number ^ey darken the sun, 
and the nations view them 
with anxious surprise; their 
strength is unfailing, so that 
they cross oceans, and pervade 
immense tracts of land. They 
cover the harvest with a dread- 
fu. cloud; their very touch de- 
stroying the fruits of the earth, 
and their bite utterly consum- 
ing every thing." The cele- 
brated traveller Volney un- 
designedly illustrates the sa- 
cred Scriptures in relation to 
this plague, as he does respect- 
ing many other things : " Sy- 
ria, as Egypt and Persia," says 
he, " and almost all the south 
of Asia, is subject to a calamity 
not less dreadful than that of 
volcanoes and earthquakes, 
I have mentioned; I mean 
those clouds of locusts so often 
mentioned by travellers. The 
quantity of these insects is 
incredible to all who have not 
themselves witnessed their 
astonishing numbers. The 
whole earth is covered with 
them for the space of several 
leagues. The noise they make 
in browsing on the trees may 
be heard at a great distance. 
The Tartars themselves are 
less destructive than these lit- 
tle aaimals. One would ima- 
gine that fire had followed their 
progress. Wherever their 
myriads spread, the verdure 
of" the country disappears: 
trees and plants stripped of 
their leaves give the appear- 
ance of winter to the spring. 
When clouds of them take 
their flight, the heavens are 
literally obscured by them." 
The prophet Joel, under a 
figurative prediction of the 
invasion of Judea by the Chal- 
deans, describes with wonder- 
ful exactness the movements 
and deoredationsof this insect. 
(Joel ii. 1— 11.) It is supposed 
that the palmer-worm, canker- 
worm, and caterpillar, (Joel i. 



LOC 

4,) are only various species of 
the locust. To illustrate the 
above passage, the following 
extract from the journal of an 
eastern traveller is in point :— 
" The locusts, properly so 
called, which are so frequently 
mentioned by sacred as well 
as profane authors, are some- 
times gregarious beyond ex- 
pression. Those which I saw 
were much bigger than our 
common grasshoppers, and had 
brown spotted wings, with legs 
and bodies of a bright yellow. 
Their first appearance was 
towards the latter end of 
March, the wind having been 
some time from the south. 
In the middle of April, their 
numbers were so vastly in- 
creased, thai in the heat of the 
day they lormed themselves 
into large and numerous 
swarms, flew in the air like 
a succession of clouds, and, as 
the prophet Joel expresses it, 
they darkened the sun. When 
the wind blew briskly, so that 
these swarms were crowded 
by others, or thrown one upon 
another, we had a lively idea 
of that comparison of the 
psalmist, (Ps. cix. 23,) of being 
tossed up and down as the 
locust. In the month of May, 
when the ovaries of these in- 
sects were ripe and turgid, 
each of these swarms began 
gradually to disappear, and 
retired into the Metijiah and 
other adjacent plains, where 
they deposited their eggs. 
These were no sooner hatched, 
in June, than each of the 
broods collected itself into a 
compact body of an eighth of 
a mile square, and marching 
afterwards directly forward 
towards the sea, they let no- 
thing escape them ; eating up 
every thing that was green 
and juicy, not only the lesser 
kinds of vegetables, but the 
vine likewise, the fig tree, the 
pomegranate, the palm, and 
the apple tree, even all the 
407 



LOG 

trees of the fields (Joel i. 12;) 
in doing which, they kept their 
tanks like men of war, climb- 
ing over, as they advanced, 
every tree or wall that was 
in their way; nay, they en- 
tered into our very nouses and 
bed-chambers like thieves. 
The inhabitants, to stop their 
progress, made a variety of 
pits and trenches all over their 
fields and gardens, which they 
filled with water; or else they 
heaped up therein heath, stub- 
ble, and such like combustible 
matter, which were severally 
set on fire upon the approach 
of the locusts. But this was 
all to no purpose, for the trench- 
es were quickly filled up, and 
the fires extinguished by infi- 
nite swarms succeeding one 
another, whilst the front was 
regardless of danger, and the 
rear pressed on so close, that a 
retreat was altogether impos- 
sible. A day or two after one 
of these broods was in motion, 
others were already hatched 
to march and glean after them, 
gnawing off the very bark and 
the young branches of such 
trees as had before escaped 
with the loss only of their fruit 
and foliage. So justly have 
they been compared by the 
prophet to a great army ; who 
further observes, that the land 
is as the garden of Eden before 
them, and behind them a deso- 
late wilderness." 

Another says, " While seated 
in our tents about noon, we 
heard a very unusual noise, 
tnat sounded like the rustling 
of a great wind at a distance. 
On looking up, we perceived 
an immense cloud, here and 
there semi-transparent, inother 
parts quite black, that spread 
itself all over the sky, and at 
intervals shadowed the sun. 
These we soon found to be 
locusts, whole swarms of them 
falling about us. These were 
of a red colour, and I should 
suppose are the red predatory 



LOC 

locusts, one of the Egyptian 
plagues; they are also the 
great grasshopper, nfcntioned 
by the prophet Nahum ; no 
doubt in contradistinction to 
the lesser. (Nah. iii. 17.) A* 
soon as they appeared, the 
gardeners and husbandmen 
made loud shouts, to prevent 
their settling on their grounds. 
It is to this custom that the 
prophet Jeremiah, perhaps, 
alludes, when he says, Surely 
I will Jill thee with men, as 
with caterpillars, and they 
shall lift up a shout against 
thee. (Jer. li. 14.) They seem- 
ed to be impelled by one com- 
mon instinct, and moved fh 
one body, which had the ap- 
pearance of being organized 
by a leader. (Joel ii. 7.) Theii 
strength must be very great, 
if we consider what immense 
journeys they have been known 
to make." 

Some species of the locust 
are eaten at this day in east- 
ern countries, and are even 
esteemed a delicacy when 
properly cooked. (Comp. Lev. 
xi. 22. Matt. iii. 4.) After tea*- 
ing off the legs and wings, and 
taking out the- entrails, they 
stick them in long rows upon 
wooden spits, roast them at the 
fire, and then proceed to de- 
vour them with great zest. 
There are also other ways of 
preparing them. For exam- 
ple: they cook them and dress 
them in oil ; or, having dried 
them, they pulverize them, 
and when other food is scarce, 
make bread of the meal. The 
Bedouins pack them with salt, 
in close masses, which they 
carry in their leathern sacks. 
From these they cut slices as 
they may need them. It ie 
singular that even learned 
menhave suffered themselves 
to hesitate about understand* 
in>( these passages of the lite- 
ral locust, when the fact thai 
these are eaten by the orienv- 
i als is so abundantly proved 



LOC 

by the concurrent testimony 
of travellers. One of them 
says, they are brought to mar- 
ket on strings in all the cities 
of Arabia, and that he saw an 
Arab on mount Sumara, who 
had collected a sack full of 
them. They are prepared in 
different ways. An Arab in 
Egypt, of whom he requested 
that he would immediately eat 
locusts in his presence, threw 
them upon the glowing coals ; 
and after he supposed they 
were roasted enough, he took 
them by the legs and head, 
and devoured the remainder 
at one mouthful. When the 
Arabs have them in quantities, 
they roast or dry them in an 
oven, or boil them and eat 
them with salt. The Arabs 
in the kingdom of Morocco 
boil the locusts; and the Be- 
douins eat locusts, which, are 
collected in great quantities in 
the beginning of April, when 
they are easily caught. After 
having been roasted a little 
upon the iron plate on which 
bread is baked, they are dried 
in the sun, and then put into 
large sacks, with the mixture 
of a little salt. They are never 
served up as a dish, but every 
one takes a handful of them 
when hungry. 

In the book of Revelation 
we have a literal description 
of the symbolical locust, which 
gives us a terrific impression 
of their power, and which 
is curiously illustrated by a 
passage from an eastern tra- 
veller. An Arab from Bagdad, 
he says, compared the head 
of the locust to that of the 
horse; its breast to that of 
the lion; its feet to those of the 
camel ; its body to that of the 
serpent ; its tail to that of the 
scorpion ; and so of other parts. 
In like manner, the Italians 
still call locusts little horses; 
and the Germans call them 
hay-horses. (For cut and de- 
scription, see Youth's Friend, 
3o 



LOR 

for October, 1828, and Bedotjm 
Arabs, pp. 33 — 43. 85 ; both by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

LOD. (See Lydda.) 

LO-DEBAR. (2 Sam. ix. 4 ; 
xvii. 27.) A place in the tribe 
of Gad, not far from Mahana- 
im, north of the Jabbok. Here 
dwelt Machir the Ammonite, 
who assisted David when he 
retired from Absalom's usurpa- 
tion, in whoje house lived Me- 
phibosheth, Jonathan^ lame 
son, who sat at David's table, 
and received from him all tha 
pertained to Saul and hi 
house. Some suppose it to 
be the same with Debir. (Josh, 
xiii. 26.) 

LODGE. (See Garden.) 

LOG. (See Measures.) 

LOINS. (1 Kings xviii. 46.) 
The dress of the oriental na- 
tions being loose, it was neces- 
sary when they were travel- 
ling or working, to gird up 
their garments.and fasten them 
about the loins; (see Clothes;) 
hence the expression is figura- 
tively U3ed (1 Pet. i. 13) to 
denote restraint or abstinence 
from worldly cares, thoughts, 
and pursuits, whereby the soul 
would be entangled or hin- 
dered. 

LOOKING-GLASS. (Job 
xxxvii. 18.) What is thus 
translated was in fact a plate 
of metal, polished so finely as 
to produce a very perfect re- 
flection of objects. 

LORD. (Gen. xxxix. 2.) 
This word, though sometimes 
applied as a term of reverence 
and respect, usually denotes 
the Supreme Being ; and in 
this last sense it is applied in- 
discriminately to the Father 
and the Son, (Acts x. 36- Rev. 
xix. 16,) especially in the epis- 
tles of Paul. In the common 
English translation of the Bi- 
ble, the word LORD, when it 
stands for Jehovah, is printed 
in capitals. 

Lord's-day, (Rev. i. 10,) or 
the Christian Sabbath, was dis- 
409 



LOT 

tinguished by this name from ' 
the Sunday of the Pagans, and 
the Sabbath of the Jews. The 
early Christian writers gene- 
rally made this distinction ; 
and the Christian emperors 
used the term Lord's-day, or 
Sunday, according to the per- 
sons they addressed, a. e. whe- 
ther they were Pagans or Chris- 
tians Lord's-day was the fa- 
vourite name of the day in the 
times of the apostles and first 
Christians; and Sunday was 
used only in accommodation 
to the popular usage of the 
Pagans around them. (See 
Feast.) 

Lord's supper. (1 Cor. xi. 
20.) The night preceding his 
crucifixion, the Lord Jesus, 
after eating the paschal sup- 
per with his disciples, present- 
ed each of them with a portion 
of broken bread, and a portion 
of the fruit of the vine; and 
declared to them that as often 
as they should eat of that bread 
and drink of that cup in re- 
membrance of him, they would 
show forth or illustrate his 
death and their faith in its 
atoning efficacy, till he should 
come. The great majority of 
Christians hold this ordinance 
to be binding on the church 
till the end of the world ; and 
that it is the privilege and duty 
of all the disciples of Christ to 
observe it. (See Communion.) 

LOT. 1. (Gen. xi. 31; xix. 
37, 38.) The son of Haran, and 
nephew of Abraham. (See 
Abraham.) 

2. A portion or share of any 
thing, particularly an inherit- 
ance. (Josh. xv. 1. Ps. cxxv. 
3. lsa. xvii. 14; lvii. 6. Acts 
viii. 21.) 

3. (Prov. xviii. 18.) A me- 
thod used to determine chances 
or preferences, or to decide a 
debate. The decision by lot 
was often resorted to in former 
times, but always with the 
strictest reference to the inter- 
position of God; as in the 



LOT 

choice of the apostle Matthias, 
(Acts i. 26,) and in the cases 
of Saul and Jonathan, and 
Jonah and his companions, to 
determine who had oifended 
God, (1 Sam. xiv. 41, 42. Jonah 
i. 7;) and in the division of the 
promised land among the tribes 
of Israel, the use of the lot was 
expressly commanded by God 
himself, it being understood 
that the extent of territory 
she tild be proportioned to the 
poj ulation of each tribe. (Num. 
xxvi. 55.) So the selection of 
the scape-goat was to be deter- 
mined by lot. (Lev. xvi. 8.) 
Property was divided in the 
same way. (Ps. xxii. 18. Matt. 
xxvii. 35.) The orders of the 
priests and their daily service 
were also assigned by lot. 
(1 Chron. xxiv. xxv.) 

As to the manner of casting 
lots, we have no certain infor- 
mation. • It is supposed by 
some that the stones or marks 
which were used in determin- 
ing the lot were thrown toge- 
ther into the lap or fold of a 
garment, or into an urn or 
vase, and that the person 
holding them shook them vio- 
lently, so that there should 
be a perfect mingling of the 
whole contents, to prevent all 
preference by the hand of hinf 
who should draw ; so that the 
passage, Prov. xvi. 33, is para- 
phrased thus : ' In a lot- vase 
the lots are shaken in all di- 
rections ; nevertheless, from 
the Lord is the whole decision 
or judgment.' 

The use of lots, without a 
distinct reference to the provi - 
dence of God in determining 
the matter,or in any case where 
the solution of doubt is possi- 
ble in any other way, is con- 
demned, as much by reason as 
by religion. A case can scarce- 
ly be imagined at the present 
day, in which a reference of 
any matter to a decision by 
lot would be justifiable. At 
any rate, recourse to the use 
410 



LUD 

of lots, or any similar mode of 
determining rights or claims, 
must always imply the most 
solemn appeal to the disposer 
of all events, or an entire and 
criminal disregard and denial 
of his particular providence. 

Lot's wife. (Luke xvii. 32.) 
The allusion in this passage to 
the history of Lot's wife, refers 
either to the attempt to re- 
turn, (which some suppose she 
made,) or to the mere looking 
back with a desire to return. 
For her offence, it is said she 
was turned into a pillar of salt. 
She was probably made a mo- 
nument of the divine displea- 
sure, but in what precise form 
is not known. (See Salt.) 

LOVE. (Uohn iv. 8.16.) 
This term signifies one of the 
constituent principles of our 
nature; and in the perfect 
exercise of it is comprehended 
the whole of our duty to God 
and to our fellow-creatures. 
(Matt. xxii. 37—40. Rom. xiii. 
8. 10. Gal. v. 14. James ii. 8.) 
Hence it evidently compre- 
hends all holiness of heart and 
life. The highest and mcst 
glorious display of the divine 
character which has ever been 
made to man, is the love of 
God in Jesus Christ, (Rom. v. 
8,) and the great principle 
and fruit of both faith and obe- 
dience consist in the posses- 
sion and exercise of love. 
(John xiii. 34, 35.) 
LUBIM. (See Lybia.) 
LUCIFER. (Isa. xiv. 12.) 
This word, signifying light 
giver, occurs but once in our 
Bible, and is then applied to 
the king of Babylon to indicate 
his glory, as that of a morning 
starT or, figuratively, a son of 
the morning. Tertullian and 
some others suppose th«? pas- 
sage to relate to the fall of 
Satan ; and hence the term is 
now usually applied in that 
way; though, as it seems, with- 
out sufficient warrant. 
LUD. (Gen, x. 22.) A son I 



LUK 

of Shem, from whom the Lydi- 
ans of Asia Minor are supposed 
to have descended. 

LUDIM. (Gen. x. 13.) Son of 
Mizraim, whose posterity, also 
called Lydians, (Jer. xlvi. 9,) 
settled on the continent of 
Africa, as we infer from the 
connexion in which they and 
their country are mentioned, 
Isa. lxvi. 19. Ezek. xxvii. 10; 
xxx. 5. Their precise location 
is unknown. 

LUKE, (Col. iv. 14,) or LU- 
CAS. (Phil e. 24.) The author 
of one of the gospels, and also 
of the book of Acts. He was a 
physician, (Col. iv. 14;) but 
his parentage, nativity, and 
precise connexion with our 
Saviour and his apostles, are 
uncertain. It is evident that 
he was well acquainted with 
every thing relative to our 
Saviour, and to his ministry 
upon earth. He wrote his 
Gospel in Achaia, about A. d. 
63, and the Acts of the Apos- 
tles within a year or two 
afterwards. Both these books 
were dedicated to Theophilus, 
a distinguished Christian, and 
supposed to have been an 
Egyptian. He travelled much 
with Paul, and was with him 
on his first visit to Rome, 
whither he went as a prisoner. 
(2 Tim. iv. 11. Phile. 24.) By 
some he is thought to have 
been a Greek, and by others a 
Syrian, and that he was con- 
verted at Antioch, from which 
place he commenced his tra- 
vels with Paul. Some suppose 
he suffered martyrdom ; but of 
the time and manner of his 
death we have no authentic 
information. 

Gospel by, contains many 
things which are not found iu 
the other gospels; among which 
are the following: the birth of 
John the Baptist ; the Roman 
census in Judea ; the cir- 
cumstances attending Christ's 
birth at Bethlehem ; the vi- 
sion granted to the shepherds; 
411 



LUZ 

the early testimony of Simeon 
and Anna ; Christ's conversa- 
tion with the doctors in the 
temple when he was twelve 
years old ; the parables of the 
good Samaritan, of the prodigal 
son, of the rich man and Laza- 
rus, of the wickedjudge,and of 
Hie publican and Pharisee; the 
miraculous cure of the woman 
who had been bowed down 
by illness" eighteen years ; the 
cleansing of the ten lepers ; 
and the restoring to life the 
6on of a widow at Nain; the 
account of Zaccheus, and of 
the penitent thief; and the 
particulars of the journey to 
Emmaus. It is very satisfac- 
tory that so early a writer 
as Irenaeus has noticed most 
of these peculiarities; which 
proves not only that St. Luke's 
gospel, but that the other gos- 
pels also, are the same now 
that they were in the second 
century. (See Gospels. The 
parables and miracles and ge- 
neral history, recorded in this 
book, are analyzed in Union 
Questions, vol. i. ii., and Help 
to the Gospels, both by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

LUNATIC. (Matt. iv. 24.) It 
was formerly supposed that the 
changes of the moon had an 
influence upon certain diseases 
of the mind ; and persons af- 
fected with those diseases were 
therefore called lunatics ; and 
hence, too, distracted persons, 
who are sane at intervals, are 
still called lunatics, though 
the idea of their being at all 
under the influence of the 
moon is generally regarded as 
irrational. 

LUSTS. 1. Unlawful pas- 
sions and desires. (1 Cor. x. 6. 
IPet. ii. ll;iv.2. 2 Pet. ii. 10.) 
2. The corruption of the heart, 
which inclines to evil, and is 
N)th the effect and cause of sin. 
{James i. 14, 15.) 3. The desire 
of food to sustain life. (Deut. 
xii. 15.) 

LUZ. (Judg. l. 26.) A city 



LYD 

in the land of the Hittites 
built by a man of Bethel, who 
was permitted to go free by the 
Ephraimites, as a reward for 
making known to them a se- 
cret passage into the town, by 
which they entered and took 
it. (See Bethel.) 

LYBIA, or LIBYA, (Acts ii. 
10,) was anciently among the 
Greeks a general name for 
Africa, but properly it em- 
braced only so much of Africa 
as lay west of Egypt, on the 
southern coast of the Mediter 
ranean. Profane geographers 
call it Lybia Cyrenaica, be 
cause Cyrene was its capitaL 
(See Cyrene.) It w T as the 
country of theLubims (2Chron. 
xii. 3) or Lehabim of the 013 
Testament, from which it is 
supposed to have derived its 
name. 

LYCAONIA. (Acts xiv. 6. 
11.) A province of Asia Minor, 
which the apostle Paul twice 
visited. It was separated from 
Phrygia and created into a 
Roman province by Augustus, 
and was bounded north by Ga- 
lat:a,east by Cappadocia, south 
by Cilicia, and west by Pisidia 
and Phrygia. Its chief towns 
were Iconium, Derbe, and Lys- 
tra. It is now a part of Carama- 
nia, and subject to the Turks. 

The speech of this province 
(Acts xiv. 11) is supposed to 
have been either the old Assy- 
rian language, or a corruption 
of the Greek. 

LYCIA. (Acts xxvii. 5.) A 
south-western province of Asia 
Minor, bounded north by Phry 
gia, east by the sea and country 
of Pamphylia, south by the Me 
diterranean, and west by Caria 
and the gulf of Glaucus, now 
that part of Anatolia embraced 
between the bays of Macri and 
Satalia. Its chief cities were 
Patara and Myra. 

LYDDA, (Acts ix. 32. 38,) or 

LOD; in Hebrew,Z,wd. (Ezraii. 

33.) A city inhabited by Benja- 

mites after the captivity, was a 

412 



LYD 

few miles east of Joppa, on the 
way to Jerusalem. Here Peter 
curedEneasof the palsy. Itwas 
burnt by the Romans in the 
war of Judea; but was rebuilt, 
and called by the Greeks Dios- 
polis, the city of Jupiter. It is 
now in ruins, although in the 
twelfth century the see of the 
Bishop of St. George, who is 
said to have suffered martyrdom 
there in the early persecutions 
of the church, and over whose 
grave a cathedral was erected. 

LYDIA. 1. A person. (Acts 
xvi. 14, 15.) A woman of Thy- 
atira, who dwelt in the city of 
Philippi, in Macedonia, and 
was converted under Paul's 
ministry. She opened her 
house to entertain the apos- 
tles, constraining them to par- 
take of her hospitality. 

She is described as a seller 
of purple; which means, either 
that she sold the colouring 
matter or the fabric already 
dyed. (Comp.Ezek.xxvii.7.16. 
See Purple.) 



LYS 

2. P .'lace. (Ezek. xxx. 5.) 
There ras a celebrated king- 
dom of Asia Minor known by 
this name, of which Sardis was 
the capital. It is supposed to 
have been settled by the pos- 
terity of Lud, a son of Shem 
It had Mysia on the norths 
Phrygia on the east, Caria on 
the south, and the Egean Sea 
on the west. It was once un- 
der the dominion of Croesus, 
the wealthiest monarch of his 
age. It was in the time of the 
apostles a province of the Ro- 
man empire. TheLydiaofthe 
above-cited passage is supposed 
to refer to a place or a people 
in Africa. (See Ludim.) 
LYRE. (See Harp.) 
LYSANIAS. (See Abilene.) 
LYSIAS. (See Claudius.) 
LYSTRA. (Actsxiv.6.8.21.) 
A city of Lycaonia, where Ti- 
mothy was circumcised, (per- 
haps born,) and where Paul 
performed a surprising miracle 
upon a man lame from his 
birth. A 



MAA 

MAACAH. (2 Sam. iii. 3.) 
The daughter of Talmai, 
king of Geshur, and the mo- 
ther of Absalom and Tamar. 
The same name occurs else- 
where, and designates different 
individuals of both sexes ; as 
in 1 Kings xv. 1, 2. 7, 8. 10, the 
daughter of Abishalom, and the 
wife of Abijam, and the mother 
of king Asa ; in 1 Kings ii. 39, it 
designates a king of Gath ; in 
IChron. xxvii. 16, it designates 
the father of Shephatiah ; and 
in Gen. xxii. 24, it is a daughter 
of Nahor. In 1 Kings xv. 1, 2, 
Maachah, the daughter of Abi 
shalom, is called Abijah's mo- 
ther ; and in 2 Chron. xiii. 2, 
Abijah's mother is said to have 
been a daughter of Uriel of 
Gibeah ; and again, in 1 Kings 
xv. 10, Maachah is called the 
mother of Asa, who was Abijah's 
35* 



MAA 

second son, and of course Maa- 
chah was his grandmother, and 
not his mother. 

An attempt has been made 
to reconcile these apparent in- 
consistencies between 1 Kings 
xv. 2, and 2 Chron. xiii. 2, by 
supposing that different per- 
sons are Intended. The rela- 
tion, it is said, is not the same 
in both cases ; that the king's 
mother was a title of dignity, 
and not of consanguinity, dis- 
tinguishing her rank at court, 
and not her relation to the 
king. Thus Maachah, Reho- 
boarn's wife and Abishalom's 
daughter, (1 Kings xv. 2,) was 
the natural mother of Abijah, 
or Abijam. When her son, 
Abijah, ascended the throne, 
the rank of king's mother was 
given to Michaiah, the daugh 
ter of Uriel of Gibeah, (2 Chron. 
413 



MAC 

xiii. 2;) but, at her death, that 
title devolved on Maachah, 
Rehoboam's wife, and she en- 
joyed it at the accession of 
Asa, her grandson, (1 Kings xv. 
10;) and hence, though she 
was Asa's grandmother, she is 
called, by her title of honour, 
the king's mother. In confirm- 
ation of this opinion, the pas- 
sage 1 Kings li. 19, is relied 
upon ; and it is also said that 
a dignitary with such a title is 
still found in some of the east- 
ern courts. Without determin- 
ing the value of this suggestion, 
it is sufficient to say, that in a 
political and ecclesiastical his- 
tory nearly 3000 years old, it 
would be surprising, (if not 
suspicious,) should there be 
found that accuracy in the or- 
thography of proper names,and 
the precise relation of families 
and individuals, which would 
prevent all difficulty and con- 
fusion. 

MAACHAH, or MAACHA- 
THI. (Deut. iii. 14.) A city 
and region of Syria, east and 
north of the sources of the Jor- 
dan, and not far from Geshur, 
at the foot of mount Hermon. 
The Israelites would not de- 
stroy nhe Maachathites, but 
permitted them to dwell in 
the land, (Josh. xiii. 13;) and 
their king assisted the Am- 
monites against David. (2Sam. 
x. 8.) The lot of the half-tribe 
of Manasseh, beyond Jordan, 
extended to this country. (Josh, 
xii. 5.) 

MAALEH-AKRABBIM. 
(See Akrabbim.) 

MACEDONIA. (Acts xvi. 
9.) An extensive district of 
Greece, west of the Egean Sea, 
south of Thrace, and north of 
Thessaly, supposed to have 
been settled originally by the 
posterity of Chittim, the son 
ofJavan. It became celebrat- 
ed in the days of Philip and 
his son Alexander the Great, 
under whose reigns Greece 
was subdued, and Macedonia 



MAC 

became one of the most power 
ful nations of antiquity. Ma- 
cedonia received the gospel 
before any other part of Europe. 
It was at that time a Roman 
province ; the Romans, under 
Paulus Emilius, having con- 
quered the country, afterwards 
divided the whole of Greece 
and Macedonia into two great 
provinces, which they called 
Macedonia and Achaia. (2 Cor. 
ix. 2.) It remained a Roman 
province for nearly six hun- 
dred years, when it was con- 
quered by the Turks, and is 
still subject to them. Among 
its chief cities were Philippi 
and Thessalonica. 

A sketch of the apostle Paul's 
missionary tour through Mace- 
donia, in the words of a modern 
missionary travelling over the 
same ground, is not inappro- 
priate to this work and this 
article : 

Salonica, (Sabbath,) May 1-8, 
1834.— We stopped in our room. 
In the morning we read toge- 
ther the history of Paul's visit 
here, and his two epistles to 
the Christian church of this 
place, (Thessalonians,) whose 
spiritual father he was. How 
much more do we feei, and re- 
alize the contents of the Bible, 
especially of its sacred history, 
when we read on the spot! 
How lively every circum- 
stance, every link in the 
chain, appears there ! Paul 
and Silas start from Antio- 
chia. It is Paul's second mis- 
sionary tour. At Derbe young 
Timotheus joins them. They 
pass through Phrygia and Ga- 
latia, into Mysia, purposing to 
go to Bithynia; but the Spirit 
suffered them not. They turn 
aside to Troas. Paul is di- 
vinely instructed to proceed 
to Europe! "What an eventful 
moment! How worthy of a 
divine revelation! Then Luke, 
a pious physician, unites with 
the missionary band ; for it is at 
this period that Luke begin? lo 
414 



MAC 
epeak in the first person plural. 
(Acts xvi. 11.) His profession 
was evidently calculated to 
give him access to the people, 
where the rest of the mission- 
aries might be excluded. They 
forthwith take passage ; they 
touch upon Samothracia,the ro- 
mantic, imposing rock; thence, 
the following day, they go to 
Neapolis and to Philippi. At 
Philippi, a little flock is ga- 
thered; persecution breaks out; 
Paul and Silas are put into 
prison and beaten; the keeper 
of the prison is converted, and 
the missionaries are honour- 
ably released. Timothy and 
Luke, who had excited ho ill- 
will against themselves, re- 
main at Philippi ; while Paul 
and Silas,after a farewell meet- 
ing in Lydia's house, leave for 
Thessalonica, passing through 
Amphipolis and Apollonia. 
At Thessalonica a church is 
planted; the fire of persecu- 
tion is asain kindled up; Paul 
and Silas flee to Berea; there 
Timotheus joins them again. 
(Acts xvi. 19—40 ; xvii. 4—10.) 
Luke overtakes them still later. 
At Thessalonica, Paul, as usu- 
al, commences by preaching in 
the regular place of worship ; 
for while at Philippi they were 
constrained to worship at the 
river's side, there being no 
synagogue there. At Thessa- 
lonica there was one at least. 
(Acts xvii. 1, 2.) But not con- 
tented with a weekly procla- 
mation of the truth, Paul spoke 
as he had opportunities to the 
heathen population and their 
families, and met with abun- 
dant success, as well among 
the proselytes (Acts xvii. 4) as 
among the idolaters, (1 Thess. 
■ i. 9;) and then concluded by 
exhorting and comforting them 
privately and personally. (1 
Thess. ii. 10, 11.) 

MACHPELAH (Gen. xxiii. 
9. 17.) A field and cave near 
to Hebron, which Abraham 
ourchased for a burial place, 



MAH 

and where he and his wife and 
several of his children were 
buried. 

Mr. Whiting, an American 
missionary, visited the spot in 
the spring of 1835. He tells 
us it is situated on the side of a 
high hill, sloping to the south- 
west, and that over the cave, 
which is supposed to have been 
the burial place of the patri- 
archal family , is built a mosque. 
It is a noble structure, and re- 
garded as peculiarly sacred. 
It was built by Helen, the 
mother of Constantine, though 
the Moslems say it was built 
by Solomon. From the summit 
of the hill is a fine view of the 
plains of Mamre. Here the 
missionary and his friends 
thought and conversed of the 
father of the faithful, who tra- 
versed these plains three thou- 
sand years before, and here 
they read in Arabic to the na- 
tives around them the twenty- 
third chapter of Genesis. (See 
Hebron.) 
MADAI. (See Media.) 
MADIAN. (See Midian.) 
MAGDALA, coasts of. (See 
Dalmanutha.) 

MAGICIANS. (Gen.xli.8.) 
Interpreters of hieroglyphics, 
or, as some suppose, interpret- 
ers of Streams. In later times, 
it denoted necromancers, or 
enchanters. 

To consult magicians was 
forbidden by the Mosaic law, 
under the penalty of death. 
(Lev. xix. 31 ; xx. 6. See Wise 
Men.) 
MAGOG. (See Gog.) 
MAHANAIM. (Gen. xxxii 
2.) A town in the territory of 
Gad, on the north bank of the 
river Jabbok. It is called Ma 
hanaim (or the host, or two 
hosts) from the vision which 
occurred to Jacob on that spot, 
as recorded in the above-cited 
passage. 

It was distinguished as Ish- 
bosheth's capital, (2 Sam. ii. 8 
—12. 29,) and as the place to 
415 



MAL 

which David repaired during 
the rebellion and usurpation 
of Absalom. (2 Sara. xvii. 24.) 

MAKKEDAH, (Josh. x. 10,) 
one of the principal cities of 
the Canaanites, was allotted 
to Judah, and lay south-west 
of Jerusalem. There was a re- 
markable cave here, in which 
five petty kings concealed 
themselves, but were disco- 
vered by Joshua, and put to 
an ignominious death. 

MAKTESH (Zeph. i. 11) is 
generally supposed to refer to 
some street or square in the 
lower part of the city of Jeru- 
salem, which was chiefly inha- 
bited by merchantSjOr occupied 
for commercial purposes. 

MALACHI. (Mal.i.l.) Many 
Jews affirm that Malachi signi- 
fies only an angel or messenger, 
(Malachi Jehovah, the LoraVs 
messenger,' a.s in Hag. i. 13. 
Mai. iii. 1,) and that the author 
of this book is Ezra himself; 
but the general opinion is, that 
Malachi lived about four hun- 
dred years before Christ, and 
was the last of the inspired 
prophets under the old dispen- 
sation. 

Prophecy of, is last in the 
order of the books of the Old 
Testament; and it contains 
sharp rebukes of the Sin and 
folly of the Jews; the most 
glowing representations of the 
Messiah's advent; and pre- 
dicts the preparation of his 
way by the preaching of John 
the Baptist. Malachi is sup- 
posed to have been contempo- 
rary with Nehemiah. 

MALLOWS. (Job xxx. 4.) 
Supposed to be a kind of bram- 
ble without thorns, the young 
leaves of which, resembling 
lettuce, are gathered, and boil- 
ed by the poor as food. We 
are told that at Bagdad quan- 
tities of this vegetable are 
hawked about, while those who 
carry it cry, Molachia, Mola- 
chia, which differs little from 
the Hebrew word. Many saline 



MAN 

plants are found in the deserts 
of Arabia, and some are of opi» 
nion this is a general name 
for the class. Others think 
that the real plant intended 
is a species of salt-wort; to 
which opinion the Greek ver- 
sion of the word gives some 
countenance. 

MAMMON (Matt. vi. 24) 
is a Syriac word, signifying 
riches. 

Mammon of unrighteous- 
ness, (Luke xvi. 9,) as it stands 
connected in this passage, may 
mean, that we should so wisely 
use the mammon of unright- 
eousness, or the unsatisfying 
riches of this world, that we 
may secure friends in God and 
Christ, and in sinners saved 
and blessed by our instrument- 
ality. 

MAMRE. (See Hebron.) 

MAN, (Gen. i. 26,) in his 
physical nature, is the head 
and lord of the animal crea- 
tion. (Gen. i. 26—28.) Though 
of one blood, (Acts xvii. 26,) 
yet, as a race, mankind are 
divided into various nations 
and tribes, distinguished by 
colour, stature, physiognomy, 
&c. &c, and inhabiting such 
portions of the earth as God 
in his wise providence has 
assigned to them respectively. 
Man was created in the image 
and after the likeness of God. 
He was formed of the dust of the 
ground; and, besides the life 
which was given him in com- 
mon with other animals, he 
received immediately from his 
Creator a rational and immor. 
tal soul, distinguishing him 
from, and elevating him incom 
parably above, all other crea- 
tures upon earth ; assimilating 
him to the author of his being, 
and enduing him with moral 
affections, dispositions, and ca 
pacities. 

We are told that God breath- 
ed, into his nostrils the breath 
of life, (or lives ;) which proba- 
blv means not only the powei 
4l6 



MAN 
ef respiration, by which animal 
life is sustained, but that he 
was at the same time furnished 
with those high spiritual facul- 
ties which constitute him a 
living soul. (See Adam.) 

Thus created in the image 
and after the likeness of God 
himself, man was placed under 
the restraints of the divine law; 
but, by the force of tempta- 
tion, he was led* to break 
through those restraints, and so 
became an object of the divine 
displeasure; whereby all his 
relations and prospects were 
completely changed. From this 

(time, the character of the first 
man and the character of God 
were placed in direct opposi- 
tion to each other; the one 
being sinful, and the other in- 
finitely holy. And this dread- 
ful event has in like manner 
changed the condition and 
prospects of the whole race; 
for, since that hour, sin has 
oeen the universal character- 
istic of every son and daughter 
of Adam, (see Sin ;) and death 
has reigned over all but two 
of them. 

Man is still upon the earth 
as a probationer. He is under 
the moral and providential go- 
vernment of the divine Being, 
and is required to love the 
Lord his God with all his 
heart, and soul, and mind, and 
strength, and his neighbour as 
himself. . 

Such is the strength of the 
depravity of his heart, that he 
feels no inclination to obey 
this law, but readily yields to 
the temptations which assail 
him to disregard and violate it. 
If he has correct views of its 
strictness and spirituality, he 
finds, that however it may be 
with him in the outward act 
and in the sight of his fellow- 
men, there are thoughts and 
Intents of his heart which it 
condemns. 

To save man in this homeless 
extremity, God sent his own 



MAN 
Son into the world, who not 
only rendered perfect obedi- 
ence to the divine law, but 
bore the penalty of its viola- 
tion, and thus made an atone- 
ment for him and opened the 
way by which believing peni- 
tents may approach unto God, 
and receive the forgiveness ot 
their sins, and be restored to 
the divine favour. And not 
only has he thus made an 
atonement for sin; but, upon 
his ascension to glory, he sent 
down the precious influences 
of the Holy Spirit to renew and 
sanctify the soul, while he him 
self ever lives to make inter 
cession for us. 

Though mankind, therefore, 
have lost the image of God, in 
which they were created, and 
have exposed themselves to the 
dreadful penalty of the divine 
law ; yet, by repentance and 
faith in Jesus Christ, the me- 
diator between God and man, 
we obtain forgiveness of sin, 
and, through free, sovereign, 
boundless grace, we are deli- 
vered from the bondage, guilt, 
and pollution of sin, into the 
glorious liberty of the children 
of God, and are made heirs 
of God and joint-heirs with 
Christ. 

Obedience to God's com- 
mands, and entire, cheerful 
submission to his authority, 
constitute the evidence or 
fruits of this faith; but are not, 
in any sense or degree, the 
ground or primary cause of our 
justification in the sight of 
God. 

Thus we have presented to 
us, in the history of man, 
a creature once pure, perfect, 
and immortal ; then debased, 
polluted, and ruined by sin.* 
and finally restored to favour, 
and made a partaker of end 
less glory and blessedness, by 
a scheme of mercy which not 
only preserves unsullied the 
character and government of 
the divine Being, but gloriously 
417 



MAN 

illustrates his infiaite attn-| 
butes, anu at the same time j 
requires of the sinner the ex- 
ercise of all his powers in 
God's service, the renuncia- 
tion of all merit and righteous- 
ness on his own part, and a 
cheerful, unreserved submis- 
sion of himself, and all that he j 
is and has, to the disposal of j 
his Creator. 

In this state of probation or 
trial, all men are subject to 
affliction and temptation, sick- 1 
ness and death ; but after this 
state is passed, all will be 
judged according to the deeds 
done in the body; the right- 
eous, or those who, having 
been pardoned and sanctified, 
have loved and served God, 
will be received into his pre- 
sence, where is fulness of joy 
and pleasures for evermore; 
while those who neglect the 
means and refuse the offer of 
salvation, will be driven away 
in their wickedness into outer 
darkness, where are weeping, 
and wailing, and gnashing of 
teeth ; and these will be re- 
spectively the eternal and un- 
changeable portion of each 
class. (See Christ. See also 
The First Man, and Sketch- 
es from the Bible, both by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

Man op sin. (See Anti- 
christ.) 

MAN, son op. (See Son of 
Man. See also Acts vii. 56.) 

MANASSEH. 1. (Gen. xli. 
51.) The first-born of Joseph. 
When he and his brother 
Ephraim were boys, and Jacob 
their grandfather was about to 
die, Joseph took them into the 
patriarcn's presence to receive 
his blessing. On this occasion 
he adopted them into his own 
family, as his own children, 
and in a most significant and 
interesting manner, predic ed 
the superiority of Ephraim over 
Manasseh, as it respected num- 
bers, &c. <£ren. xlviii. 5—20. 



MAN 

Comp. Num. i. 32, 33. 35, and 
ii. 18. 20. Ps. lxxx. 2.) 

On their way to Canaan, th6 
Israelites conquered a large 
territory east of the Jordan ; 
and some of them, whose pos- 
sessions were chiefly in cattle, 
desired to have their portion 
assigned them among the rich 
pastures and fruitful hills of 
Bashan and the surrounding 
country. This request was 
granted ; and half the tribe of 
Manasseh received the terri- 
tory stretching from near to 
Cesarea Philippi along the Jor- 
dan down nearly to Mahanaim. 

The other half had its por- 
tion on the west of the Jordan, 
between Ephraim and Issa- 
char, across the country from 
the Jordan to the Mediterra- 
nean. This tribe possessed 
small tracts within the bounds 
of Issachar and Asher. 

2. (2Kingsxx.2L) Son and 
successor of Hezekiah, king 
of Judah, ascended the throne 
at the age of twelve years. 
The former part of his reign 
was distinguished for acts of 
daring impiety and wanton 
cruelty; which are particu- 
larly detailed by the sacred 
historian. (2 Kings xxi.) For 
these sins, in which he per- 
suaded his subjects to partici- 
pate, the country was visit- 
ed with God's judgments; and 
their severity and desolation 
are described in the strongest 
figurative language. (2 Kings 
xxi. 13.) He was at last taken 
captive by the Assyrian king, 
and ignominiously transported 
to Babylon. Upon his repent- 
ance and prayer, however, he 
was liberated, and returned to 
his capital, where he died, 
after having done much to re- 
pair the evils of his former 
life. The term of his reign 
was fifty-five years. (2 Chron. 
xxxiii. i— 20.) 

MANDRAKES. (Sol. Song 
vii. 13.) It is uncertain what 
418 



MAN 
olant is intended by the He- 
brew word, which is translated 
mandrakes in the above pas- 
sage, and in Gen. xxx. 14—16. 



MAN 
The appearance of the plant 
known in modern times by 
this name is represented *n 
the subjoined cut. 




WhLt is generally called the 
May-apple is also often called 
mandrake, and bears a fruit 
somewhat resembling lemons. 

We know that a plant of this 
name is now common in the 
east ; its fruit ripens from May 
to June, and is of the size of 
small apples, and in its gene- 
ral appearance like a melon. 
To what degree (if any) it pos- 
sesses the properties ascribed 
to it by the ancients we know 
not ; certainly no such proper- 
ties belong to what we call the 
mandrake. 

MANEH. (See Measures.) 

MANNA. (Ex. xvi.15.) A 
substance miraculously fur- 
nished to the children of Israel 
on their journey through the 
wilderness, and designed as a 
substitute for bread, the mate- 
rial for which they could not 
ra ; se during their wanderings. 



It is called the bread rained 
from heaven, Ex. xvi. 4. 

The most remarkable things 
about the manna of the Is- 
raelites were, (1.) That dou- 
ble the quantity was supplied 
on the day preceding the Sab- 
bath, or seventh day ; (2.) That 
on the Sabbath, or seventh day, 
none was furnished ; (3.) That 
what they kept from the sixth 
day to the seventh was sweet 
and good, while what they 
kept from any other day to the 
next day bred worms, and be- 
came offensive. These mira 
cles, it should be remembered 
were all wrought in attestation 
of the sanctity of the Sabbath. 

The manna of the Jews if 
described as a small, round 
thing, as small as the hoar- 
frost on the ground ; that it was 
like coriander seed, white, ana 
the taste of it like wafers mad€ 
419 



MAN 
with honey. (Ex. xvi. 14. 31.) 

Wafers were small, thin cakes 
©f fine flour, mingled with oil, 
and used in various offerings. 
(Lev. ii. 4; vii.12.) If to th!s 
mixture was added a portion 
of honey, there would be the 
nourishment of the flour, the fla- 
vour of fresh oil, and the sweet- 
ness of honey. The original 
word furnishes no clew to the 
nature of the substance. It is 
said, that when the Israelites 
first saw it, they exclaimed, It 
is manna; for they knew not 
what it was. Some have inter- 
preted it to mesinpreparedfood. 
Of course, we must be satisfied 
with the description given by 
the sacred historian. As to the 
size and colour, it was proba- 
bly tli at of the coarsest parti- 
cles of white frost, or the finest 
hailstones, nearly resembling 
sleet. It was ground in mills, 
or beaten in a mortar, then 
placed in pans in the shape of 
cakes, and baked. In gather- 
ing thi3 food, each was per- 
mitted to take what was ne- 
cessary for his own use, not 
exceeding an omer or about 
three quarts for each member 
of the family. If more than 
this should be collected by ex- 
traordinary industry, the sur- 
plus was to be distributed to 
those who had less. 

For forty years this miracu- 
lous supply of food was fur- 
nished daily to between three 
and four millions of people. 
(Deut, xxix. 5, 6.) It ceased 
while they were encamped at 
Gilgal, immediately after they 
had celebrated the passover 
for the first time in the land 
of promise. (Josh. v. 10. 12.) It 
is not improbable that the usu- 
al quantity of animal food was 
consumed. The manna was a 
substitute for bread, which is 
the staff of life. To comme- 
morate this long-continued and 
wonderful miracle, Moses was 
instructed that a golden pot 
should be provided, (Ex. xvi. 



MAN 
33. Heb. ix. 4,) and that an 
omer (or one man's portion) 
of the manna should be put 
up for preservation, and placed 
in or near the ark, that suc- 
ceeding generations might see 
with their own eyes the very 
substance on which their fa* 
thers were miraculously fed ia 
their long and perilous jouiw 
neyings from Egypt to Canaan. 

The substance known to us 
as manna is so called from its 
supposed resemblance to the 
manna of Israel. The best of 
it is brought from Syria, Ara- 
bia, and Persia. It falls, or is 
drawn from a tree or shrub, in 
various ways; and the Arabs 
boil and strain it, and then 
use it as honey on their bread 
or cakes. The manna of Israel 
was essentially different from 
the natural manna in a variety 
of particulars. The natural 
manna is not found in the de- 
sert ; it falls only in the springy 
it is said not to melt in the 
sun ; it does not breed worms, 
and become offensive if kepi 
from day to day. It cannot be 
ground or beaten in a morta*, 
as the manna of the Israelites 
was. It has medicinal proper- 
ties, which that had not ; it is 
produced on every day alike; 
and it comes at the very season 
of the year when the manna 
of Israel ceased. The Israel- 
ites never saw it before, not 
has it ever appeared again, as 
we infer from comparing Dent, 
viii. 3. 16, with Ex. xvi. 15. 32, 
33. 

A very reputable eastern tra- 
veller gives us the following 
account of modern manna in 
Arabia : 

" It is from the tamarisk, or 
tarfa, that the manna is ob- 
tained. This substance is call- 
ed by the Bedouins mann, and 
accurately resembles the de- 
scription of manna given in 
the Scriptures. In the month 
of June, it d rops from the thorns 
of the tamarisk upon the fallen 
420 



MAN 
iwigs,leaves, and thorns, which 
always cover the ground be- 
neath that tree in the natural 
state ; the manna is collected 
before sunrise,when it is coagu- 
lated ; but he says it dissolves 
as soon as the sun shines upon 
it. The Arabs clean away the 
leaves, dirt, &c. which adhere 
to it, boil it, strain k through a 
coarse piece of cloth, and put 
it in leathern skins. In this 
way they preserve it till the 
following year, and use it as 
they do honey, to pour over 
unleavened bread, or to dip 
their bread into. I could not 
learn that they ever made it 
into cakes or loaves. The 
manna is found only in years 
when copious rains have fal- 
len ; sometimes it is not pro- 
duced at all. I saw none of it 
among the Arabs, but I obtain- 
ed a small piece of the last 
year's produce, in the convent, 
(of mount Sinai.) where, hav- 
ing been kept in the cool 
shade and moderate temper- 
ature of that place, it had 
become quite solid, and form- 
ed a small cake ; it became 
soft when kept some time in 
the hand ; if placed in the 
sun for five minutes, it dis- 
solved; but when restored to 
a cool place, it became solid 
again in a quarter of an hour. 
In the season at which the 
Arabs gather it, it never ac- 
quires that state of hardness 
which will allow of its being 
pounded, as the Israelites are 
said to have done, in Num. xi. 
8. Its colour is a dirty yellow ; 
and the piece which I saw was 
still mixed with bits of tama- 
risk leaves ; its taste is agreea- 
ble, somewhat aromatic, and 
as sweet as honey. If eaten in 
any considerable quantity, it 
is said to be slightly medicinal. 
The quantity of manna col- 
lected at present, even in sea- 
sons when the most copious 
rains fall, is trifling, perhaps 
not amounting to more than 
36 



MAO 

five er six hundred pounds. It 
is entirely consumed among 
the Bedouins, who consider it 
the greatest dainty which their 
country affords. The harvest 
is usually in June, and -lasts 
for about six weeks." 

Manna is called the corn of 
heaven, and angels 1 food, (Ps. 
lxxviii. 24,25,) perhaps in allu- 
sion to the mode by which it 
was supplied. 

The phrase hidden manna 
(Rev. ii. 17) figuratively de- 
scribes the support which 
Christ furnishes to the true 
believer, of which the world 
do not and cannot partake. 
(Comp. John vi. 49. 51.) 

MANOAH, (Judg. xiii. 2,) the 
father of Samson, was born at 
Zorah. In the absence of Ma- 
noah, an angel appeared to his 
wife, and predicted the birth 
of Samson, describing particu- 
larly the mannerof his life, and 
the chief purpose for which he 
should be born. Manoah pray- 
ed for a repetition of the visit. 
The angel again appeared, and 
Manoah had an interview with 
him ; and, when he was about 
to depart, proposed to prepare 
a kid for him, that he might 
partake of the hospitality of 
his house; but the angel de- 
clined taking any foocl, and 
told him if the kid was for an 
offering, it must be to the Lord. 
The kid was prepared as a 
sacrifice, and offered upon a 
rock. When the flame from 
this rude altar ascended to- 
wards heaven, the angel pas* 
ed upward with it. Manoah 
and his wife, witnessing this 
wonderful scene, fell upon 
their faces to the ground. He 
was disposed to construe the 
visit of the angel unfavoura- 
bly; but his wife more justly 
regarded the emblematical ac- 
ceptance of the sacrifice as a 
token for good ; arM so it 
proved. 

MAON, (1 Sam. xxv. 2,) dis- 
tinguished as the residence of 
421 



MAR 

Nabal, was on the southern 
boundary of Judea. 

Wilderness of, (1 Sam. 
xxiii. 25,) was in the south- 
ern part of Judah, south of 
the wilderness of Ziph, and 
near the town of Maon, and 
extended to the mountains of 
ldumea. It was in the wil- 
derness of Maon that David 
concealed himself when the 
Ziphites were seeking his de- 
struction. 

MARAH. (Ex. xv. 23.) A 
place on the line of the march 
of the Israelites, at which bit- 
ter water was made palata- 
ble by casting into it a tree 
which God designated to Mo- 
ses. Whether the effect was 
miraculous, or only the indi- 
cation to JVIoses of a particular 
tree which was capable of pro- 
ducing it, is uncertain. The 
wordlMarah, signifying bitter- 
ness ^ was adopted by Naomi, 
as applicable to herself,in view 
of her many sorrows. (Ruth i. 
20.) 

The well of Hawara, on the 
eastern coast of the gulf of 
Suez, is spoken of by travellers 
as containing bitter water, and 
corresponds, in distance, &c, 
to the Marah of the sacred 
history. 

MARANATHA. (See Ana- 
thema.) 

MARBLE. (Rev. xviii. 12.) 
Aspecies of limestone, remark- 
able for its durability, and ca- 
pa ble of receiving a high pol ish. 
It was probably used in very 
early times for building mate- 
rials, (1 Kings vi. 7. 36 ; vii. 9— 
12. 1 Chron. xxix. 2.) and for 
many kinds of vessels. The 
colours of marble are various 
and beautiful, and pieces of 
all sizes may be wrought to- 
gether so as to resemble a 
beautiful painting. Such was 
probably ihe pavement and 
columns of the Persian palace, 
described in Esth. i. 6. 

MARCUS. (See John 
Mark.) 



MAR 

MARESHAH. (Josh. xv. 44, ) 
A towr of Judah. famous as the 
scene of the battle between 
Asa king of Judah, and Zerak 
king of Ethiopia, with his nu- 
merous army. It was also the 
residence of the prophet Mi 
cah. (Mic. i. 15.) 

MARK. (Acts xii. 12.) Gene- 
rally supposed to be the same 
with Marcus, (1 Pet. v. 13 ;) but 
whether he was the same with 
John Mark (Acts xv. 37—39. 
Col. iv. 10. 2 Tim. iv. 11) is 
not clear. (See John Mark.) 

Gospel by. The second in 
order of the books of the New 
Testament. It is supposed to 
have been written between 
a. d. 56 and 65, and it con- 
tains the substance of the pub- 
lic discourses and private con- 
versations of our Saviour, ob- 
tained in a great measure, as 
some have supposed, from the 
lips of the apostle Peter, whose 
intimate companion he was 
for several years. It is not 
unlikely that the apostle him- 
self had an opportunity to ex- 
amine it, inasmuch as many 
things commendatory of him, 
mentioned in the other gospels, 
are omitted in this. There 
are a sufficient number of im- 
portant differences between 
this gospel and the other three, 
to show that this is not an 
abridgment or compilation from 
them, or either of them ; and 
among these we may mention 
two miracles which are not re- 
corded in any other gospel ; 
and yet there are but twenty- 
four verses in Mark which 
contain any important fact not 
mentioned by some other evan- 
gelist. 

MARKETS, (Matt. xi. 16,) 
or MARKET-PLACE. (Luke 
vii. 32.) The markets of east- 
ern towns occupy one side of 
an area, the other sides being 
occupied by public buildings, 
temples, courts, and offices of 
various kinds. Hence they 
were the place »f general cor 
422 



MAR 

course. Laws were promul- 
gated here ; questions of philo- 
sophy and public interest were 
discussed; and, it being ge- 
nerally in or near the gate of 
Vhe city, or the thoroughfare, as 
we might call it, judicial inves- 
tigations were made here. (Acts 
xvi. 19; xvii. 17. See Gate.) 

The country people would 
be found at this point in the 
greateEt numbers, as well as 
judges and magistrates. Hence 
the"£:rce of the expression, 
Mark xii. 38. 

The market-places would 
embrace the whole area; and 
here a crowd of children and 
idlers would be found amusing 
themselves. To reprove the 
inconsistency of the Pharisees, 
in rejecting Christ for doing, 
as they said, the very things 
which they rejected John for not 
doing, he compares them to a 
company of children who are 
imitating the customs of their 
elders on public occasions, as 
by a mock marriage or a mock 
funeral. On the former of these 
occasions, it was customary to 
express joy and congratulation 
by music and dancing; and on 
the latter, to employ persons 
to lead in loud lamentations. 
In the children's sport, a few 
tried to persuade the rest to 
join in some joyful measure, 
but they preferred to mourn; 
and then they commenced a 
lamentation, but they prefer- 
red the music. So perverse 
and inconsistent were they,that 
they could be pleased with no- 
thing. 

The market-place was re- 
sorted to by labourers who 
sought employment. An in- 
telligent traveller tells us of 
a scene he witnessed in Per- 
sia, where a great number 
of peasants assembled in the 
market-place before sunrise, 
with their spades in their 
hands, waiting to be employ- 
ed; and when he passed the 
same place at night, some of 



MAR 
them were still there, waiting 
for something to do. (SeeMatU 
xx. 1—16.) 

MARRIAGE (Matt. xxii. 2) 
is a divine institution. (Gen. 
ii. 21—25.) It is alsp a civil 
contract, uniting one man and 
one woman together in the re- 
lation of husoand and wife. 
Among the benefits of the insti- 
tution are, (1.) Domestic com- 
fort ; (2.) Provision for the 
health, education, and support 
of children; (3.) The distri 
bution of society into familia 
or small communities, with 
master or governor over them 
who has natural as well as 
legal authority ; (4.) The secu- 
rity which arises from parental 
anxiety, and the confinement 
of children to permanent habi- 
tations; and, (5.) The encou- 
ragement of industry. 

No sins are more frequently 
and pointedly condemned by 
the Bible, than such as violate 
or impair the sacredness of the 
marriage relation; and nothing 
is wanting to raise this to the 
highest, purest, and most sa- 
cred relation in which two 
human beings can stand Us 
each other, but obedience to 
the precepts of the Holy Scrip- 
tures on this subject. 

In the celebration of mar- 
riages in the east at the present 
day, many of the peculiar cus- 
toms of ancient times are ob- 
served. At a Hindoo marriage, 
says a modern missionary, the 
procession of which I saw some 
years ago, the bridegroom cama 
from a distance, and the brid 
lived at Serampore, to which 
place the bridegroom was to 
come by water. After waiting 
two or three hours, at length, 
near midnight, it was announc- 
ed, in the very words cf Scrip- 
ture, Behold, the bridegroom 
cometh ; go ye out to meet him. 
All the persons employed now 
lighted their lamps, and ran 
with them in their hands to fill 
up their stations in the proces- 
423 



MAR 

eion; some of them had lost 
their lights, and were unpre- 
pared, but it was then too late 
toseek them,and the cavalcade 
moved forward to the house of 
the brieve ; at which place the 
company entered a large and 
splendidly illuminated area, 
before the house, covered with 
an awning, where a great mul- 
titude of friends, dressed in 
their best apparel, were seated 
upon mats. The bridegroom 
was carried in the arms of a 
friend, and placed in a superb 
seat in the midst of the com- 
pany, where he sat a short 
time, and then went into the 
house, the door of which was 
immediately shut, and guarded 
by sepoys. I and others expos- 
tulated with the door-keepers, 
but in vain. Never was I so 
struck with our Lord's beautiful 
parable as at this moment — 
And the door teas shut. 

The journal of one of the Ame- 
rican missionaries in Greece 
contains an account of an Ar- 
menian wedding which she 
attended ; and, after describing 
the dresses and previous cere- 
monies, she says, that at twelve 
o'clock at night, precisely, the 
cry was made by some 01 the 
attendants, Behold, the bride- 
groom coineth; and immedi- 
ately five or six men set off to 
meet him. 

The custom of crying and 
shouting at the approach of the 
bridegroom seems to have been 
continued from the days of our 
Saviour. 

(For a very interesting and 
minute account of the laws and 
customs of ancient nations, re- 
specting marriage, polygamy, 
divorce, &c. &c, the ceremo- 
nies attending an eastern wed- 
ding, and ftie figurative allu- 
sions of the sacred writers to 
these topics, the student is re- 
ferred to Biblical Antiq.ui. 
vol. i.eh. vi. § 1 ; Omar, pp. 145 
—152. and Evening Recrea- 



MAR 
tions, vol. ii., pp, 89—99, by 
Am. S. S. Ihiion.) 

It was the custom to crown 
the married couple. Hence the 
allusion, Sol. Song iii. 11. Isa 
xlix. 18, where the word orna 
ment might as well be rendered 
crown. (See Dowry.) 

MARS-HILL. (See Areo 

PAGITE.) 

MARTHA. (John xi. 1.) The 
sister of Lazarus and Mary, and 
the mistress of their family at 
Bethany. » (Luke x. 38—40.) 
She is always named before 
Mary, and was probably the 
elder. There is no question 
of her piety. (John xi. 5. 25— 
27. See Lazarus, Mary.) 

MARTYR. (Acts xxii. 20.) 
One who bears witness to the 
truth at the expense of his life. 
The word occurs thrice only in 
the Scriptures. 

MARY, 1. (Luke i 27,) 
the mother of our Lord, was 
cousin to Elisabeth, the mother 
of John the Baptist. (Luke i. 
36.) The sacred history records 
but few incidents of her life, 
after the infancy of the Messi- 
ah. She was present at the 
marriage in Cana, (John ii. 3,) 
where he wrought a miracle. 
She also sought an interview 
with him in company with 
others of the family, when he 
was preaching to a crowd in a 
country place. (Luke viii. 19, 
20.) She was present at his 
crucifixion, (John xix. 25,) and 
was there commended by the 
expiring Redeemer to the filial 
kindness and attention of the 
beloved John ; and she is men- 
tioned as one among the pray- 
ing company in the upper room 
at Jerusalem, after the ascen 
sion of our Saviour. (Acts i. 14.) 

2. (John xix. 25.) The sister 
of the above Mary, the wife of 
Cleophas, and mother of James 
the less, Simon, Joses, and 
Judas. They were of course 
cousins.and are called brethren 
of our Lord. (Matt. xiii. 55 
424 



MAR 

xxvii.56. Markvi.3.) She was 

present at the crucifixion and 
burial of our Lord, (Matt, xxvii. 
56. 61,) was among those who 
went to embalm him, (Mark 
xvi. 1—10,) was among the 
first to whom the news of his 
resurrection was announced, 
(I <uke xxiv. 6,) and on her way 
to the disciples with the intel- 
ligence, she met her risen 
Lord and worshipped him. 
(Matt, xxviii. 9.) 

3. (Actsxii.i2.) The mother 
of John Mark, a godly wo- 
man, residing at Jerusalem, at 
whose house the disciples 
were convened the night 
Peter was miraculously de- 
livered from prison. 

4. (Johnxi.l.) Thesisterof 
Lazarus, and a devoted friend 
and disciple of our Saviour. 
She evinced her affection for 
him at the supper in Bethany, 
a fewdays before his crucifix- 
ion.(John xii. 3,) and received 
from him the testimony that 
she had chosen the good part 
which should not be taken 
from her. (Luke x. 41, 42.) 

5. (Luke viii. 2. )MaryMagda- 
le?ie, or Mary of Magdala. So 
called, probably, from the fact 
that she was a native or resi- 
dent of the village of Magdala. 

The general impression that 
she was an unchaste woman 
is entirely without foundation. 
There is nothing to warrant 
the opinion that she was not a 
woman ingood circumstances 
andofunblemisbedcharacter. 
Having been felieved of a de- 
moniacal possession by thedi- 
vi ne power of our Saviour,she 
became his fo; lower, (Lukeviii. 
2. 3,] and evinced her attach- 
ment to him and his cause to 
the very last. She was at his 
crucifixion (John xix. 25) and 
burial, (Mark xv. 47,) and she 
was among those who had pre- 
pared the materials to embalm 
him, (Mark xvi. 1,) and who 
first went to the sepulchre after 
3Q* 



MAT 

I the resurrection; and whal is 
, particularly interesting in her 
! histoiy, she was the first to 
whom the risen Redeemer ap- 
peared, (Mark xvi. 9;) and his 
conversation with her is ex- 
ceeded in interest and pathos 
by no passage of history, sacred 
or profane. (John xx. 11 — 18.) 

MASCHIL is found in the 
title or inscription of Psalm 
xxxii. and several other psalms, 
and probably means an in- 
structive song. 

MATTHEW, (Matt. ix. 9,) 
called also Levi, (Mark ii. 14,) 
was a native of Galilee, and, 
though a Jew, was employed 
as a tax-gatherer under the 
provincial government; of Ju- 
dea. He was called from his 
official occupation into the ser- 
vice of Christ, entertained him 
at his house, (Mark ii. 15,) be- 
came one of the twelve apos- 
tles, and was engaged in the 
propagation of the gospel after 
our Saviour's ascension. (Acts 
i. 13.) There is no certainty 
respecting the time, place, or 
manner of his death. 

Gospel of, is supposed to 
have been written five years 
after Christ's ascension,or about 
the year 38. It existed at a very 
early period, both in the He- 
brew and Greek languages; and 
some suppose it was first writ- 
ten in Hebrew, and translated 
into Greek by Matthew himself 
or, at least, during his lifetime. 
There is internal evidence that 
it was designed particularly for 
the use of the Jews. Matthew, 
a3 appears from the preceding 
article, was early called into 
the company of Christ's disci- 
ples, and was a constant at- 
tendant upon his ministry to 
its close. His is the earliest of 
the four histories, and certainly 
has the characteristics of a nar- 
rative written soon after the 
events happened. The visit of 
the wise men; the slaughter 
of the infants ; the parable of 
the ten vinrins; the resurrec- 
425 



MEA 

tion of the saints at the time of 
the crucifixion ; and some other 
facts are related by Matthew, 
which are not mentioned by 
either of the other evangelists. 
(See Union Questions, vols. i. 
ii., and Help to the Gospels, 
both by Am. S. S. Union.) 

MATTHIAS. (Acts i. 23.) A 
disciple of Christ, and a con- 
stant attendant on his travels 
and ministry, from its com- 
mencement until his ascen- 
sion. (Acts i. 21, 22.) He was 
appointed to supply the va- 
cancy in the company of the 
twelve apostles, occasioned by 
the apostacy of Judas. 

MAZZAROTH. (Jobxxxviii. 
32.) Canst thou jring forth 
Mazzaroth in hit. season 7 was 
one of the questions by which 
God reproved the weakness 
and presumption of his servant 
Job. It is supposed by some 
to mean the twelve signs of 
the zodiac ; each of wliich is 
brought forth in its season by 
the wisdom and power of God 
only. 

MEALS, MEAL -TIME. 
(Ruth ii. 14.) The meals of the 
orientals, both ancient and mo- 
dern, may be compared to our 
dinner and supper. (Luke xiv. 
12.) What is here called din- 
ner might nevertheless as well 
be called breakfast ; for it is a 
light meal, and is taken at an 
early hour. In Persia, they 
partake of this first meal be- 
tween ten and eleven o'clock 
in the forenoon; and it con- 
sists principally of fruits, milk, 
cheese, ana confectionary. 

The principal meal of the 
day is the supper. Among the 
Romans, it anciently took 
place about three o'clock ; but 
in the east, as at the present 
day in Persia, about six or 
seven in the evening, in order 
to avoid the enfeebling heat of 
the afternoon. (Mark vi. 21. 
Luke xiv. 16. 24. John xii. 2.) 

Before going to meals it was 
common to wash the hands a 



MEA 

custom rendered necessary by 
their method of partaking of 
food. The same practice ob- 
tained among the Greeks and 
Romans at an early date, and 
still prevails in the east. (See 
Eating.) 

The Pharisees had exalted 
this into a religious duty, ana 
affected to be greatly scandal 
ized at the omission of it by 
the disciples of our Lord. (Matt, 
xv. 2. 20. Luke xi. 38.) 

In Samuel's time, the people 
would not eat until he had 
blessed the sacrifice ; and this 
is the first notice in Scripture 
of a blessing on food. (1 bam. 
ix. 13.) In the time of Christ, 
however, it was common before 
every meal to bless or give 
thanks. (Matt. xiv. 19 ; xv.36.) 

A distinction of rank also 
prevailed in silting at meals. 
(See Feasts, Seats, Table. 
See also Biblical Antiqui- 
ties, vol. i. ch. v. § 2, by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

MEARAH. (Jcsh. xiii. 4.) A 
noted cave between Sarepta 
and Sidon. 

MEASURES & WEIGHTS. 
(Pro v. xx. 10.) The Jewish 
law contains two precepts re- 
specting weights and measures. 
The first (Lev. xix. 35, 36) re- 
fers to the standards kept in 
the sanctuary ; and the second 
(Deut. xxv. 13—15) refers to 
copies of them kept by every 
family for its own use. Much 
perplexity has attended all 
investigations of this subject, 
and we must be contented with 
approximations to truth. 

The models or standards of the 
weights and measures which 
were in earliest use were pre- 
served for a long time in the 
Jewish temple, but were de- 
stroyed with that sacred edifice, 
and afterwards the measures 
and weights of the people 
among whom the Jews dwelt 
were adopted. Josenhus as- 
serts that measures ana weigh ti 
were invented by Cain. Tney 
426 



MEA 

were certainly in use from the 
earliest period. (Gen. vi. 15; 
xxiii. 16.) 

As to currency, it is supposed 
the Jews had no coins or pieces 
of metal of fixed size and value, 
but that the precious metals 
were exchanged for articles of 
merchandise by weight. Thus 
Abraham bought the field of 
Ephron for four hundred she- 
kels of silver, as we should buy 
an acre of land for a hundred 
bushels of wheat, or a hundred 
pounds of flax. This is the 
usual mode of dealing among 
uncivilized nations at the pre- 
sent day. Every piece or mass 
of metal was valued according 
to its purity and weight. Hence 
the practice of carrying weights 
in a bag, to which allusion is 
frequently made by the sacred 
writers. (Deut. xxv. 13. Prov. 
xvi.ll.Mic.vi.il.) We have 
abundant evidence that in Da- 
vid's time gold was used as an 
article of merchandise, and not 
as a standard of value. 

In presenting this subject in 
such a form as to aid the bibli- 
cal student or teacher, we shall 
include only those terms which 
are actually used in the Bible, 
and shall endeavour to esta- 
olish a definite rule rather than 
to perplex by an array of con- 
flicting opinions and authori- 
ties. 

I. Op measures of length. 

The handbreadth, or palm, 
(1 Kings vii. 26,) was four digits, 
or the breadth of the four fingers 
—from three inches to three and 
a half. 

A span, (Lam. ii. 20,) which 
expresses the distance across 
the hand from the extremity 
of the thumb to^the extremity 
of the little finger, when they 
are stretched as far apart as 
possible, say nine to ten inches. 

A cubit. (Gen. vi. 16.) It is 
obvious that this term is applied 
by the sacred writers to differ 
ent lengths, one being at least 

hand-breadth longer than the 



MEA 

other. It is, however, generally 
agreed that the common cubit 
was about eighteen inches. 

A fathotn (Acts xxvii. 28) 
was from six feet to see feet 
and a half. 

The measuring reed (Ezek. 
xlii. 16) is supposed to have 
been from ten to eleven feet; 
and the measuring line (Zech. 
ii.l)ahundredandforty-sixfeet. 

Thefurlong (Luke xxiv. 13) 
was a Greek measure, and 
nearly the same as at present, 
viz. one-eighth of a mile, or 
forty rods. 

The mile, (Matt. v. 41,) pro- 
bably 1612 yards, or about one- 
twelfth less than ours. 

The Sabbath-day's journey 
(Acts i. 12) was about seven- 
eighths of a mile; and the 
term denoted the distance 
which Jewish tradition said 
one might travel without, a 
violation of the law. (Ex. xvi. 
29.) It is supposed that this 
distance extended first from 
the tabernacle to the remotest 
section of the camp, and after 
wards from the temple to the 
remotest parts of the holy city. 

The term a day's journey 
(Num. xi. 31. Luke ii. 44) pro- 
bably indicated no certain dis- 
tance, but was taken to be the 
ordinary distance which a per- 
son travels on foot in the prose- 
cution of a journey, perhapa 
twenty miles. 

II. Hollow measures. 

(1.) Dry. A cab, or kab, 
(2 Kings vi. 25,) one-third of an 
omer, or two pints. 

An omer, (Ex. xvi. 36,) one 
tenth of an ephah, or six pints. 

The measure, orseah, (Gen. 
xviii. 6. Matt. xiii. 33. Luke 
xiii.21,) one-third of an ephah, 
or twenty pints. 

The ephah, (Ex. xvi. 36,) ten 
omers, or three seahs, or sixty 
pints. 

The homer, (Isa. v. 10,) when 
used for dry measure, one hun- 
dred omers, or six hundred 
pints. 

427 



MEA 

Tenth deal (Lev. xxiii. 17, 
or tenth part) is supposed to 
have been the same with the 
omer, or the tenth part of an 
ephah. 

The Greek word translated 
bushel (Matt. v. 15) is sup- 
posed by some to answer to the 
Hebrew word seah. The Ro- 
man bushel was very nearly 
the same with the English 
peck. 

(2.) Liquid. The log, (Lev. 
xiv. 10,) six egg-shells full, 
<*ie-tenth of a hin, or nearly 
one pint. 

The hin, (Ex. xxix. 40,) one- 
sixth of a bath, or ten pints. 

The bath, (Isa. v. 10,) one- 
tenth of a homer, (Ezek. xlv. 
11,) seven and a half gallons, 
or sixty pints. 

The homer, or cor, (Ezek. 
xlv. 14,) ten baths, seventy-five 
gallons, or six hundred pints. 

The firkin (John ii. 6) was 
a Greek measure, containing 
seven and a half gallons. 

III. Of weights. 

In the time of Moses the 
common weight was a shekel, 
which signifies a weight. There 
were also the parts of a shekel, 
as the fourth, third, and half. 
The shekel, the maneh, and 
the talent were all originally 
names of weights; and here 
it may be remarked that there 
appears no sufficient warrant 
for the Opinion that the Jews 
had two kinds of weights. 
When the phrase shekel of the 
sanctuary is used, (Ex. xxx. 
13.) it means, not that this was 
different from the common 
shekel, but that it was a true 
standard weight, according to 
the authorized standard pre- 
served in the sanctuary, or, as 
we should say, a sealed weight 
or measure, to denote that its 
accuracy is certified by autho- 
rity. To weigh substances the 
Jews had — 

The shekel, (Amos viii. 5,) 
half an ounce avoirdupois. 

The maneh or mina, (Ezek. 



MEA 

xlv. 12,) one hundred shekels, 
or fifty ounces, equal to three 
pounds two ounces avoirdupois. 

The talent, (2 Sam. xii. 30,) 
three thousand shekels, thirty 
manehs,fifteenhundred ounces, 
equal to ninety-three pounds 
twelve ounces avoirdupois. 

IV. Op currency. 

(1.) Before the captivity. 

The gerah, one-twentieth of 
a shekel, would be worth now 
nearly two and a half cents. 

The bekah, half a shekel, 
equal to twenty-five cents. 

The shekel, twenty gerahs, 
weighing half an ounce troy, 
equal to fifty cents. 

The maneh or mina, one 
hundred shekels, fifty ounces, 
or four pounds two ounces troy, 
equal to fifty dollars. 

The talent, thirty minae or 
three thousand shekels, ninety - 
three pounds twelve ounces, 
equal to SI 500, if of silver, or 
$25,000, if of gold. The pound 
is equal to the mina. 

The value of gold was to that 
of silver about as twelve to one. 

The dram, (IChron. xxix. 
7,) or drachm, was the same 
with the daric. 

(2.) After the captivity. 

The daric, dram, or drachm, 
(Ezra ii. 69,) was a Persian gold 
coin, equal to about five dol- 
lars fifty cents. 

The stater or piece of money, 
(Matt. xvii. 27,) a Greek or 
Roman silver coin, (a shekel 
in weight,) and in value' over 
fifty cents. The stater or 
coined shekel of the Jews is 
often found in the cabinets 
of antiquaries at the present 
day. 

The penny, (Matt. xxii. 19,) 
or drachm, a Roman silver 
coin, equal to from twelve and 
a half to fourteen cents. 

The farthing, (Matt. x. 29,) 
a Roman silver coin, equal to 
one cent and a quarter. 

Another piece of money 
equal to one-fourth of a far- 
thing is called by the same 
428 



MEA 

name, (Matt. v. 26 ;) and the 
mite (Mark xii. 42) was half 
of this last farthing, or about 
one-eighth of a cent and a half. 

An erroneous impression pre- 
vails respecting the real value 
of money, from our associations 
with its nominal value. The 
penny a day (Matt. xx. 2) seems 
to be a mean compensation for 
ten or twelve hours' labour, 
and the twopence (Luke x. 35) 
affords very equivocal evidence 
of generosity in the good Sa- 
maritan; but when it is con- 
sidered what these sums could 
obtain of the comforts and ne- 
cessaries of life, the case ap- 
pears differently. 

As lately as the year 1351, 
the price of labour was regu- 
lated in England by parlia- 
ment, and "haymakers, corn- 
weeders, without meat, drink, 
or other courtesy," (in modern 
phrase, finding themselves,) 
were to have a penny a day. 
In many places higher wages 
are given for haymaking than 
for any other kind of agricul- 
tural labour. The pay of a 
chaplain in England, in 1314, 
was three half-pence, or about 
three cents a day. At the same 
time wheat was sixteen cents 
a bushel, and a fat sheep twelve 
cents. A penny a day under 
such circumstances would not 
be inconsiderable wages. It 
has been estimated that four 
hundred and forty grains of 
silver would purchase as much 
in the fourth century before 
Christ, as four thousand four 
hundred grains would purchase 
in England in 1780. 

MEAT, MEATS. (Gen. i. 29. 
Mark vii. 19.) The food of the 
Hebrews was regulated by the 
appointment of God. Their 
methods of cooking meats were 
various, though they never ate 
of food dressed by any other 
than a Jew, nor of food pre- 
pared by other kitchen uten- 
sils than those of their own 
nation. What animals they 



MEA 

might eat, and what they ought 
not, was parti cularly command- 
ed. (Lev.xi. Deut.xiv.) The im- 
Eort of the word meat seems to 
ave undergone a considerable 
change since our version of the 
Bible was made; for, in this, 
it means food in general; or, 
when confined to one species 
of food, always signifies meal, 
flour, or grain, but never flesh, 
which is now the usual accep- 
tation of the word. A meat- 
offering in the Scriptures is 
always a vegetable and never 
an animal offering ; and it 
might now be rendered a 
bread-offering, or a meal-offer- 
ing, instead of a meat-offering. 

Meats offered to idols. 
(1 Cor. viii. 7. 10.) At the first 
settling of the church, there 
were many disputes concern- 
ing the use of meats offered to 
idols. Some newly converted 
Christians, convinced that an 
idol was nothing, and that the 
distinction of clean andunclean 
creatures was abolished by our 
Saviour, ate indifferently of 
whatever was served up to 
them, even among pagans, 
without inquiring whether the 
meats had been offered to idols. 
They took the same liberty in 
buying meat sold in the mar- 
ket, not regarding whether it 
were pure or impure, accord- 
ing to the Jews; or whether 
it nad been offered to idols or 
not. But other Christians, 
weaker or less instructed, were 
offended at this liberty, and 
thought that eating of meat 
which had been offered to idols 
was a kind of partaking in that 
wicked and sacrilegious act. 

This diversity of opinion pro 
duced some scandal, for which 
Paul thought it behoved him 
to provide a remedy. (Rom. 
xiv. 20, 21.) He determined, 
therefore, that all things were 
clean to such as were clean, 
(Tit. i. 15,) and that an ido 1 
was nothing at all. That a 
man might safely eat of what 
429 



MED 

ever was sold in the market, 
and need not scrupulously in- 
quire from whence it came; 
and that if an unbeliever should 
invite a believer to eat with 
him, the believer might eat 
of whatever was set before 
him, &c. (1 Cor. x. 25, &c.) 
But at the same time lie en- 
pins, that the laws of charity 
and prudence should be ob- 
served; that believers should 
be cautious of scandalizing or 
offending weak minds; for 
though all things might be 
lawful, yet all things were not 
always expedient. 

MEDEBA. (Jbsh.xiii. 16.) A 
city in the eastern part of the 
territory of Reuben, which still 
retains nearly its ancient name 
Madaba. The site of the old 
town shows the ruins of a 
temple, and the excavations 
of ponds and reservoirs. 

MEDIA. (Isa. xxi. 2.) This 
country, which probably de- 
rives its name from Madai, 
(Gen. x. 2,) anciently occupied 
what is now part of the king- 
dom of Persia, and was bound- 
ed north by the Caspian Sea 
and Armenia, south by Persia 

f>roper, and west by Assyria, 
t was a fertile and well-cul- 
dvated region, and was divided 
into greater and lesser Media. 
Ninus, king of Assyria, added 
this country to his kingdom, 
and retained it until the time 
of Sennacherib, when it re- 
volted, and his son became 
king, b. c. 700. It fell into 
the hand of Cyrus the Great, 
about 556 b. c, who perfectly 
united Media and Persia, form- 
ing the Medo-Persian kingdom. 
Hence, by Esther and Daniel, 
the laws and chronicles of the 
Medes and Persians are always 
mentioned together. God em- 
ployed the Medes to punish 
Babylon, and then sent them 
the cup of his wrath by Cyrus. 
(Isa. xiii. 17, 18; xxi. 2,3. Jer. 
xxv. 25.) 
MEDIATOR. (Gal. iii. 19.) 



MED 

One who interposes between 
two parties at variance, with 
the view of effecting ? recon- 
ciliation between them. The 
title belongs pre-eminently to 
the divine Redeemer, in and by 
whom God is reconciling the 
world unto himself. (1 Tim. ii. 
5. Heb. viii. 6, and xii. 24.) And 
it is to be remembered that he 
is the only mediator between 
God and man. Of course our 
blessed Saviour has always 
stood in that relation, as well 
before as since his manifesta- 
tion in the flesh. He is the 
Angel of the covenant,by whom 
all the divine communications 
were made under the several 
dispensations. Of the new co- 
venant he became the surety 
as well as the mediator, seal- 
ing it with his own blood ; and 
the blessings of this covenant 
are now and ever will be be- 
stowed in virtue of his merits 
and intercession. The errors 
and absurdities into which 
many are betrayed who reject 
this doctrine are without num- 
ber ; and no view of the subject 
accords with the divine ora- 
cles, or brings into their just 
relation all the parties con- 
cerned, except that which con- 
templates the Redeemer both 
in his divine and human na- 
ture ; as, on the one hand, iden- 
tified with the infinite Jehovah, 
whose honour and glory are to 
be maintained, and whose fa- 
vour is to be secured; while, 
on the other, he is the self- 
offered, atoning sacrifice for 
sin ; and, as the friend of sin- 
ners, invites them to come to 
him in faith and penitence, 
and receive the boundless 
blessings of God's grace, se- 
cured to them by his own pre- 
vailing intercession. In all 
ages, and in all parts of the 
world, there has constantly 

Prevailed such a sense of the 
oliness of the supreme Di- 
vinity, as to make recourse to 
some sort of mediation uni- 
430 



MEL 

versa!. There is not a form 
of religion known, even among 
the savages and heathon na- 
tions, which does not recog- 
nise, wit 1 * more or less dis- 
tinctness, the necessity of a me- 
diator between the divinity and 
man. This fact, together with 
the consideration that there is 
nothing in the doctrine itself 
contrary to reason and ana- 
logy, sufficiently establishes 
it against the objections and 
cavils of scoffers and unbe- 
lievers. 

MEGIDDO. (Josh. xii. 21.) 
A city belonging to Manasseh, 
but lying within the limits of 
Issacnar, not far from the river 
Kishon, whose waters are hence 
called the waters of Megiddo. 
(Judg. v. 19.) Its inhabitants 
were not expelled by Manas- 
seh, but when Israel became 
strong were made tributary. 
Solomon fortified it, and made 
it the residence of one of his 
commissaries, who provided 
stores of provision for his house- 
hold. (1 Kings iv. 12; ix. 15.) 
There, too, Ahaziah died, in 
consequence of a wound in 
battle, and Josiah was slain 
bv Pharaoh-necho of Egypt. 
(2Kinas ix.27: xxiii. 29.) 

MELCHIZEDEC (Gen. xiv. 
18) is supposed to have been 
king of the Salem which was 
afterwards Jerusalem, (though 
it is not improbable that the 
title king of Salem was a 
mere appellation.) He is men- 
tioned before the institution 
of the Aaronic order as a 
priest of the most high God. 
Some have strangely suppos- 
ed him to have been Shem, 
but his birth and genealogy 
are concealed, (perhaps pur- 
posely,) or the phrase with- 
out father, &c. may mean that 
his parents were of obscure or 
low origin ; and we know not 
ihat he had a predecessor or 
successor ; at any rate the time 
sf his priesthood was unlimit- 
ed, and in this respect difier- 



MEL 
| ent from the Levitical priest 
hood. (Num. viii.24,25.) The 
phrase having neither begin- 
ning of days nor end of~lift 
may apply either to the time 
of his birth and death being 
unknown, or to the indefinite 
termof hisofficiallife. Abraham 
showed his respect for the age, 
rank, piety, and priestly office 
of Melchizedec, by paying him 
a tithe of the spoils he had 
taken in the battle with Che- 
dorlaomer and his allies, in 
the valley of Jehoshaphat; and 
hence the argumentof the apos- 
tle, that if Abraham, whom the 
Jews regarded so highly, and 
who was the ancestor of the 
sons of Levi, thus acknow- 
ledged the dignity and supe- 
riority of Melchizedec; surely 
Christ, the great High-priest, 
of whom Melchizedec was but 
an imperfect type, was worthy 
of like or still greater homage. 
And if the ancestor of Levi 
thus paid homage to Melchi- 
zedec the type of Christ, surely 
the priesthood which was filled 
by the sons of Levi must be 
regarded as far inferior in dig- 
nity and excellence to the 
priesthood of Christ himself. 
(Heb. v. vi. vii.) 

MELITA, (Acts xxviii. 1,) 
now Malta, an island twelve 
miles in breadth and twenty 
in length, lying between Sicily 
and Africa, about two hundred 
miles east of Tunis, and in 
that part of the Mediterranean 
which, in the apostle's day, 
was often called Adria, in- 
cluding the Ionian and Sici- 
lian seas, according to the tes- 
timony of Ptolemy and Strabo. 
Here Paul and his company 
were shipwrecked on the pas- 
sage to Rome, and very kindly 
treated by the inhabitants, es- 
pecially by Publius the ge vern 
or. A modern traveller says, — 
"Passed St. Paul's harbour, 
where the apostle was ship- 
wrecked. In reading the ao 
count of thid shipwreck, I 
431 



MEL 

had ever experienced difficulty 
In comprehending how there 
could be a place formed on 
the coast of an island, where 
two seas met. But in view- 
ing the spot pointed out where 
the ship was thrust in, the 
difficulty was removed. The 
island Gozo lies west of the 
main island, (Malta,) and is 
separated only by a strait, from 
half to a quarter of a mile in 
width. When a violent Euro- 
ciydon (east-wind) prevails, 
and the seas run high, a power- 
ful current is forced in at each 
end of this strait, which ranges 
nearly north and south. The 
ship was driven in at the north 
end, and struck in a small 
nook, on the Malta side, about 
forty rods from the entrance. 
This strait must have been, 
I think, the creek with a 
shore, into which they were 
minded, if possible, to thrust 
in the ship. For, while lying 
off to the north, the entrance 
of the strait has the exact ap- 
pearance of the mouth of a 
creek or river." 

This island was settled by a 
Phenician colony, about b. c. 
1500. Since the Christian era, 
it has belonged successively 
to the Goths, Vandals, Sara- 
cens, Normans, Germans, and 
French, until Charles V. sur- 
rendered it to the knights of 
St. John of Jerusalem, who 
were dispossessed by Bona- 
parte; and by the treaty of 
l£14 it was allotted to England. 
At present it is the centre of 
extensive missionary opera- 
tions. Publications in the mo- 
dern Greek, Armenian, Turk- 
ish, and Arabic languages are 
widely circulated ; and it is 
also a depository for Bibles in 
various languages. 

MELONS. (Num. xi. 5.) 
Probably what is known to us 
as the water-melon, a fruit 
which is still found in great 
perfection in Egypt, and which 



MEP 

travellers tell us furnished the 
chief food and drink of the 
lower classes during the heat 
of summer. 

MENAHEM (2 Kings xv. 
14) was the son of Gacfi, and 
having slain Shallum, king 
of Samaria, reigned in hia 
steaa. His reign, which lasted 
ten years, was distinguished 
for cruelty and oppression. 
(2 Kings xv. 16—20.) 

MENE. (Dan. v. 25.) A word 
of that significant sentence 
which appeared on the wall 
of Belshazzar's banqueting- 
hall, to warn him of the im- 
pending destruction of Baby- 
lon. The whole sentence is 
in the pure Chaldee language, 
and reads, when translated 
literally, 'Mene, he is num- 
bered — Mene./ie tsnumbered-~ 
Tekel, he is weighed— Uphar- 
sin, they are divided.' Peres, 
in the original language, is the 
same word with Upharsin, but 
in a different case or numbeT. 
It means, he was divided. 

MEPHAATH (Josh. xiii. 18) 
is supposed to have been con- 
tiguous to Kedemoth, Bezer, 
and Jahzah. (1 Chron. vi. 78, 
79.) In later times it was in 
the hands of the Moabites. (Jer. 
xlviii. 21.) 

MEPHIBOSHETH, 1. (2 
Sam. xxi. 8,) was a son of Saul, 
who, with his brother and five 
others of the family, suffered 
a violent death at the hands 
of the Gibeonites. 

2. (2 Sam. iv. 4.) Or Merib- 
baal, (1 Chron. viii. 34,) was a 
son of Jonathan, and grandson 
of Saul, who, at the age of five 
years, fell from his nurse's 
arms, and was ever after a 
cripple. When David was m 
quiet possession of his king- 
dom, he sought out this branch 
of the family of Jonathan his 
friend, and not only gave him 
an honourable place in hw 
palace, but made ample pro- 
vision for his family. The irk 
4% 



MER 

«erestin{* history of this liberal 

f)roceedingof David's is minute- 
ly related in 2 Sam. ix. 

MERAB. (1 Sam. xiv. 49.) 
The eldest daughter of Saul, 
who promised her to David in 
marriage; but she married 
Adriel of Meholath, by whom 
she had five sons, and David 
took her sister Michal. The 
five sons of Merab suffered a 
violent' death at the hands of 
the Gibeonites. (2 Sam. xxi.8.) 
They are called the Jive sons 
of Michal, whom she brought 
up for Adriel; and the proba- 
bility is, if the text is correctly 
expressed, that Michal adopted 
her sister's children, (their mo- 
ther being dead.) At all events, 
ve may be sure that if the his- 
*nry was fabulous, such ap- 
parent inconsistencies would 
aave been avoided ; so that 
heir occurrence shows the ab- 
sence of any cunning. 

MERCHANTS. (Isa. xxiii. 
2.) The earliest mode of com- 
merce was doubtless by cara- 
vans. The merchants to whom 
Joseph was sold were probably 
of this character. The earliest 
commerce with India, of which 
we have any knowledge, was 
carried on in this way by 
the merchants of Arabia and 
Egypt. There was, however, 
considerable intercourse be- 
tween many countries by 
water. The Phenicians held 
the first rank as a commercial 
nation, and their first metro- 
polis was Sidon, and after- 
wards Tyre. Something may 
be learned of their commerce 
from Ezek. xxvii. and xxviii. 
(See Ships.) The commerce 
dCf the Egyptians was also very 
extensive. They imported 
goods from India, and carried 
on an export trade with various 
parts of the Mediterranean. 

MERCY. (Gen. xix. 19.) An 
essential attribute of the Di- 
vine Being, for the knowledge 
of which we are indebted 
wholly to revelation. The 
37 



MER 

plan of salvation by Jesus 
Christ provides for the exercise 
of infinite mercy, consistently 
with the most rigid demands 
of truth and righteousness ; so 
that, under this gracious dis- 
pensation, mercy and truth 
are said to have met together, 
and righteousness and peace 
to have kissed each other. (Ps. 
lxxxv. 10.) 

The expression I will have 
mercy, and, not sacrifice, (Hos. 
vi. 6. Matt. ix. 13,) signifies (as 
its connexion indicates) that 
God is pleased with the ex 
ercise of mercy rather than 
with the offering of sacrifices, 
though sin has made the latter 
necessary. (Comp. 1 Sam. xv. 
22.) 

Mercy is also a Christian 
grace, and no duty is more 
strongly urged by the Scrrr> 
tures than the exercise of it 
towards all men, and espe- 
cially towards such as have 
trespassed against us. (Matt, 
xviii. 33—35.) 

Mercy-seat. (Ex. xxv. 17.) 
This was the lid or cover of the 
ark of the covenant. It was 
made of gold, and two cherubs 
of gold were placed at each 
end, and stretching their wings 
towards each other, formed "a 
kind of throne, upon which 
G?U was supposed to be present 
in a peculiar manner, to hear 
and answer prayer, and to 
make known his holy will. 

MERIBAH. (See Rephj- 

DIM.) 

MERODACH. (Jer. 1. 2.) The 
name of an idol god of the Ba- 
bylonians, supposed by some 
to have represented the planet 
Mars, and by others to have 
been, the statue of some famous 
king. It was the surname of 
some of the Babylonish mo* 
narchs. (Isa. xxxix. 1.) 

MEROM. (Josh. xi. 5, 6.) A 

marshy lake in the northern 

j part of Judea, through whifo ■ 

: the Jordan flows, it is now k 

< called Houle, as is the \aa\e-* ¥ 

433 S 



MES 

which encloses it. It is about 
welve miles above Tiberias, 
and is regarded by many as pro- 
perly the source of the Jordan. 
Most of its bed is dry in sum- 
mer, and is overgrown with 
grass and shrubbery, affording 
retreats for wild beasts. In the 
spring freshets the lake swells 
to six miles in length, and 
three and a half in breadth, and 
abounds with fish. It is called 
the waters of Merom, or high 
waters, because it was higher 
than the other lakes of Judea. 
(See Omar, by Am. S. S. Union, 
p. 123.) 

MEROZ. (Judg. v. 23.) A 
place in the vicinity of the 
brook Kishon, whose inhabit- 
ants were accursed for refusing 
to come to the help of Israel, 
in the contest with Sisera. 

ME SEC H, (Ps. cxx. 5,) or 
MESHECH. (Ezek.xxxii.26.) 
The name of the country in the 
north-eastern angle of Asia Mi- 
nor, supposed to nave been set- 
tled by the posterity of Mesech, 
the son of Japheth. They had 
considerable commerce with 
Tyre. (Ezek.xxvii.13.) Some 
suppose the Muscovites were 
of this race. The terms Me- 
sech and Kedar, in the above 
passage from Psalms, is sup- 
posed to denote northern and 
southern barbarians generally. 

MESHA. 1. A place. (Gen. 
x. 30.) Supposed to denote 
the country called by the 
Greeks Messene, and lying 
near the modern Bassora. 

2. A person. (2 Kings iii. 4.) 
A king of Moab, who refused 
to pay to Jehoram, king of Is- 
rael, the annual tribute which 
he had been accustomed to pay 
to his father Ahab. For this 
offence Jehoram determined to 
punish him ; and calling to his 
aid Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, 
and the king of the Edomites, 
ne invaded the territory of 
Moab, signally defeated them, 
desolated their -country, and at 
last the king and his army 



MES 

were closely besieged m a 
walled town. In this extremity 
Mesha attempted to cut his 
way through the enemy's 
ranks ; but failing in this, "he 
made the horrible sacrifice of 
his eldest son to some idol god ; 
and it was done openly upon 
the wall, in sight cf the camp 
of Israel, that they might be 
persuaded by such a revolting 
spectacle to raise the siege. 
This effect was produced, To* 
we are told that they imme- 
diately retired, contenting 
themselves with great spoil. 
MESHACH. (SeeABEDKB 

GO.) 

MESHECH. (See Mesech.) 
MESOPOTAMIA, (DeuL 

xxiii. 4,) or Syria, between the 
two rivers, elsewhere called 
Padan-aram, (Gen. xxviii. 2,) 
or the plain' of Syria, was the 
name of the country lying be- 
tween the Tigris and the Eu- 
phrates. It was the first abode 
of men both before and after 
the flood, and was bounded 
north by Armenia, east by 
Assyria, south by Arabia, and 
west by Syria, and embraced 
the modern El-jesira of Turkey. 
MESSENGER. (Mai. iii. 1.) 
The laws and edicts of the Jew- 
ish kingswere proclaimed near, 
the royal residence by public 
criers; but they were made 
known to more distant towns 
and provinces by messengers 
sent for that purpose. (1 Sam. 
xi.7. 2Chron.xxxvi.22. Amos 
iv. 5.) They stood in the gate 
of the city, where the largest 
mass of people might be found, 
and proclaimed the law or 
message, as in Jer. xi. 6; xvii. 
19, 20. At Jerusalem, these 
messages were proclaimed in 
the temple, wnere a concourse 
of people was always found 
Our Saviour is called the Mes 
senger of the covenant, (Mai 
iii. 1.) inasmuch as he divested 
himself of his divine and eter- 
nal glory, and. taking the form 
of a servant, came to declare 
434 



MES 
the will of God; to seal ,he 
covenant of grace with Jiis 
precious blood, and thus to 
make propitiation for our sins ; 
so that we, by the exercise of 
faith and repentance, wrought 
in us by the blessed Spirit, 
may be made meet for the 
inheritance which that cove- 
nant secures, and of which he 
was Prince and Mediator as 
well as Messenger. 

The spies concealed by Ra- 
hab (Josh. vi. 17) are called 
messengers; and the punish- 
ment which God inflicts on 
the wicked for their sins is 
also called a messenger. (Prov. 
xvii. 11.) 

Ministers of the gospel are 
also called messengers, (2 Cor. 
viii. 23,) because they declare 
or announce the message of 
mercy which the gospel con- 
tains. 

MESSIAH, (Dan. ix. 25,) or 
MESSIAS, (John iv. 25,) sig- 
nifies anointed; a title given 
by way of eminence to Jesus 
Christ. It is sometimes applied 
by the sacred writers in a sub- 
ordinate sense, as in Isa. xl v. 1. 
Ezek. xxviii. 14; but when ap- 

Elied to Christ, it denotes that 
e unites in himself the offices 
of a prophet, a priest, and a 
king; not of the Jews only, 
but of all mankind. 

The Jews expected the Mes- 
siah would be their deliverer 
from civil bondage, and would 
r%ise them, as a nation, to great 
power. Hence they rejected 
the meek and lowly Jesus, and 

?ut him to shame and death, 
'hey were disappointed and 
offended because his kingdom 
was not of this world, and pro- 
mised no privileges to them in 
distinction from "the Gentiles. 
The whole Scriptures abound 
with evidence that they were 
and are under a gross delusion ; 
and the Christian church is 
looking with deep interest for 
the time when the veil shall 
be taken from their eyes ; 



MIC 

when they shall look on Him 
whom they have pierced, and 
mourn ; and when they shall 
receive him as the long-pro- 
mised and long-expected Mes- 
siah. (See Christ.) 

METHEG-AMMAH. (2Sam. 
viii. 1.) The same with Gath. 
(Comp. 1 Chron. xviii. 1.) 

MICAH. 1. (Judg. xvii. 1.) 
A celebrated idolater in mount 
Ephraim, who persuaded a Le- 
vite to officiate as his priest 
for a stipulated reward. The 
emissaries sent out by the tribe 
of Dan to find a settlement for 
them happened to call at Mi- 
cah's house, and saw the idols 
and the Levite ; and the party 
of the Danites, who afterwards 
went to Laish, took Micah's 
house in their way, secured all 
his images, and persuaded his 
priest to accompany them. 
Micah endeavoured -to obtain 
them again, but in vain. (Judg. 
xviii.) 

2. (Micah i. 1.) The prophet, 
was a native of Mareshah, 
(hence called the Morasthite,) 
a village in the south of the 
territory of Judah. (Josh, xv.44.) 
It is supposed that a reference 
to one ol his predictions saved 
the life of Jeremiah. (Jer. xxvL 
IS— 24.) 

Prophecy op, is the thirty- 
third in ihe order of the books 
of the Bible. It was uttered 
within the space of fifty years, 
viz.from the commencement ot 
the reign of Jotham, a. m. 3245, 
to the close of the reign of He- 
zekiah, a. m. 3306, or nearly 
contemporary with Isaiah. The 
prophecies of Micah, which are 
recorded in the sacred canon, 
make but seven chapters, ana 
are divided into three sections: 
§ 1. Prophecies in the reign of 

Jotham, ch. i. 
§ 2. Prophecies in the reign of 

Ahaz, ii. — iv. 8. 
§ 3. Prophecies in the reign of 

Hezekiah, iv. 9— vii. 

The remarkable feature of 
this whole prophecy is, that it 
435 



MIC 

is very explicit respecting the 
Dirthplace and prominentcha- 
racteristics of the Messiah, and 
the blessings of his reign upon 
earth. 

MICAIAH. (SeeAHAB.) 

MICHAEL. (Dan. x. 13.) A 
name of frequent occurrence 
in the sacred writings. It is 
applied particularly to an an- 
gel, or a prince of angels, (as 
the name denotes,) (Jude9;) 
and in the book of Daniel, the 
same Michael is spoken of as 
a prince. (See Archangel.) 

MICHAL. (1 Sam. xiv. 49.) 
Second daughter of Saul, and 
the wife of David. She was 
evidently an unprincipled wo- 
man. When she had aided 
David to escape from the fury 
of her enraged father, she 
placed an image in the bed ; 
and when the messengers came 
to seize him, Michal told them 
he was sick in bed. Saul di- 
rected him to be brought, sick 
or well; and when the mes- 
sengers came again and disco- 
Yered the trick, Michal ex- 
cused herself to her father by 
a direct falsehood. 

During David's exile, Michal 
married another man, with 
whom she lived nine or ten 
years. David, having in the 
mean time become established 
on the throne, required of 
Abner, as one of the conditions 
jf a treaty, that Michal should 
De restored to him, which was 
accordingly done. 

As another and conclusive 
evidence of her impiety, we 
are told that she despised Da- 
vid when she saw the expres- 
sions of his gratitude and joy 
at the approach of the ark of 
the Lord, and was evidently 
filled with passion and con- 
tempt. For this sin she was 
visited with a special judg- 
ment. (2 Sam. vi. 16—23.) 

M1CHMASH, (1 Sam. xiii.2,) 
or MICHMAS. (Neh. vii. 31.) 
A place on the borders of 
Ephraim and Benjamin. It is 



MID 

supposed to lie on the road 
through Rama, nine miles from 
Jerusalem. Probably a narrow 
defile, formed by two abrupt, 
rugged rocks in mount Ephra- 
im, was called the passage of 
Micltmash, (1 Sam. xiii. 23.) m 
which was the garrison of the 
Philistines, and which was pro- 
bably so well defended as to 
make it a safe depdt for the 
stores of Sennacherib's army, 
in his advance upon Jerusalem. 
(Isa. x. 28, 29.) The place was 
in later times of some import- 
ance, (Neh. xi. 31 ;) and is 
mentioned by profane histori- 
ans four hundred years after 
Christ. 

MID I AN, (Ex. ii. 15,) or 
MADIAN. (Acts vii. 29.) A 
country lying around the east- 
ern branch of the Red Sea, and 
supposed to have been settled 
by the posterity of Midian, 
fourth son of Abraham and 
Keturah. Midian was cele- 
brated for its camels, (Judg.viL 
12;) and the descendants ol 
Ephah, who were the posterity 
of Midian, \v T ere rich in camels 
and dromedaries. (Isa. lx. 6.) 
Hither Moses fled, and here 
he married the daughter of 
Jethro. 

It is supposed that another 
country ot the same name was 
situated on the eastern coast 
of the Dead Sea, in Arabia 
Petrea, adjoining Moab; but 
very learned geographers de- 
scribe but one land of Midian, 
and this embraces both tides 
of the eastern gulf of the Red 
Sea, extending southwardly 
near to mount Sinai. Perhaps 
they might have been distin- 
guished as northern and south- 
ern Midianites. 

When the children of Israel 
were encamped in the plains 
of Moab, the Midianites were 
invited by the Moabites to join 
in the deputation to Balaam, to 
procure his services to curse 
the children of Israel. Fol 
their conduct towards the Isra- 
436 



MIL 

elites, they were completely 
subdued ; their kings and their 
male population slain; their 
cities and fortifications were 
burned ; and their property of 
every kind, to an almost in- 
credible amount, with their 
wives and children, were 
brought to the camp of Israel, 
and there disposed of by Moses 
and Eleazar. (Num. xxxi.) Pro- 
bably a few escaped the gene- 
ral massacre ; for, about two 
centuries afterwards, the Mi- 
dKanites were again a powerful 
nation, mustering an immense 
army, who, for their oppressive 
treatment of the Israelites, were 
miraculously defeated by Gide- 
on, (Judg. vi. vii. viii. ;) after 
which, they seem to have been 
incorporated with the Moab- 
ites and Arabians. 

A modern traveller describes 
the scene in the solitudes of 
Midian, where tradition says 
Moses kept the sheep of Jethro 
his father-in-law. It is seen 
from the convent on mount 
Sinai, in a valley in rear of 
the mount, between two ridges. 
A group of trees stands in the 
midst of the plain. 

The curtains of Midian (Hab. 
iii. 7) is a figurative expression 
denoting the borders or inha- 
bitants of Midian. 

MIGDOL (Ex. xiv. 2.) A 
fortress or tower, (probably the 
modern Bir Suez,) erected at 
a watering place a few miles 
north of Suez, towards Etham. 

MIGRON. (1 Sam. xiv. 2.) 
A place in the vicinity of Mich- 
mash. (Comp. Isa. x. 28. See 
Michmash.) 

MILCOLM. (See Moloch.) 

MILE. (See Measures.) 

MILETUS, (Acts xx. 15,) or 
MILETUM. (2 Tim. iv. 20.) A 
city and seaport, and the capi- 
tal of ancient Ionia. It stood 
about forty miles south of 
Ephesus, and was second only 
to that city in wealth, com- 
merce, and luxury. Miletus 
is distinguished as the birth- 
37* 



MIL 

place of Thales, and Anaxime- 
nes his pupil, and also for a 
magnificent temple and oracle 
of Apollo. It was here that 
Paul received the elders of 
Ephesus, whom he could not 
visit in his journey, and here 
he left Trophimus sick. There 
are ruins of an old town near 
the mouth of the river Mean- 
der ; but whether they are those 
of Miletus is very doubtful. 
The Turkish town of Melas is 
said to occupy the site of the 
ancient Ptfiletus ; and the Mi- 
letum, where Trophimus was 
left, is also placed by some 
geographers on the island of 
Crete, but without sufficient 
warrant. 

MILK. (1 Cor. iii. 2.) A 
liquid and very nourishing 
food, drawn principally from 
cows. The simplest spiritual 
food, or the plain and easy- 
truths of the gospel, wherewith 
the new-born soul is nourished 
and sustained, is compared to 
milk (Heb. v. 12. IPet. ii.2.) 

A land flowing with milk 
and honey (Josh. v. 6) means 
a country of extraordinary fer- 
tility, affording every thing 
which is needed for the sup- 
port and comfort of life. The 
phrase wine and milk (Isa. Iv. 
1) denotes all spiritual bless- 
ings and privileges. 

Cheese was made of milk. 
(2 Sam. xvii. 29.) 

The word rendered cheeses in 
1 Sam. xvii. 18, means cheeses 
of milk, supposed to have 
been slices of coagulated or 
curdled milk, which had been 
strained through a leathern 
strainer, and after it had grown 
hard, was cut in pieces for use. 
This is much like the modern 
process of making cheese ; and 
food made in the same way is 
common in some parts of this 
country under the name of 
cheese-curd. (See Cheese.) 

MILL. (Ex. xi. 5.) The 
simplest mill for bruising 
grain was nothing more than 
437 



MIL 

two stones, between which 
they were broken. Such were 
seen in the country of the 
Niger by Richard and John 
Lander, on their recent expe- 
dition in Africa. If one of these 
stones be hollowed out, so as to 
contain the corn to be pounded 
by another stone, or by a piece 
of wood or metal, it is not a 
mill, but a mortar. When 
manna was given in the desert, 
the people went about, and ga- 
thered it, and ground it in 
mills, or beat it in a mortar. 
(Num. xi. 8.) In the law it 
w ordained, No man shall 
take the nether or the upper 
millstone to pledge; for he 
taketh life to pledge ; that i3, 
he who lends money must 
be humane to the borrower, 
and must not make the poor 
man pawn his mill, without 
which his life cannot be sus- 
tained. (Deut. xxiv. 6.) From 
these mills and mortars there 
must have been obtained at 
first only a kind of peeled 
grain, which may be compared 
to the German graupe, the 
English groats, and the Ame- 
rican grits, or hominij. Fine 
flour was more laboriously ob- 
tained from household-mills, 
like our coffee mills. The lat- 
ter implement is indeed far 
more refined and ingenious 
than the eastern hand-mills. 
Yet we read that Sarah set 
before the three angels who 
visited Mamre cakes of fine 
meal. (Gen. xviii. 6.) It is 
almost needless to observe, 

J that sieves must have been 
known at the same time. 
Niebuhr describes two kinds 

' of eastern hand-mills. The 
first is very simple, and con- 
sists of an oblong stone, some- 
what roughened or hollowed 
upon the surface; upon which 
tne corn, after being moisten- 
ed, is rubbed with another 
stone, of a long and round 
shape. Niebuhr saw these 
mills only once. Tbey seem, 



MIL 

therefore, not .to be common. 
The other, which is also de- 
scribed by Shaw and Tourne- 
fort, was seen by Niebuhr in 
Egypt. It consists of two 
round stones, each about two 
feet in diameter, and six 
inches high. The under one, 
or nether millstone, (Job xli. 
24,) is immoveable, and is 
somewhat lower around the 
edge than in the centre ; that 
is, it is slightly convex on the 
top. The upper one is just the 
reverse, being concave on the 
bottom, or thicker at the cir- 
cumference, so as to fit pretty 
closely to the other. In the 
centre there is a hole, and 
above this a funnel, or hopper, 
into which the grain is poured, 
and thus it runs in between the 
stones, and is broken between 
them into meal, which falls 
over the edge upon a board. 
On the top of the other stone 
there is an upright peg, by 
means of which it is turned 
around. Such mills cost, says 
Tournefort,less than a Spanish 
dollar. 





a is a section of the uppe* 
millstone, in which we see the 
hopper and the peg, or handle 
433 



MIL 

6 is the lower millstone, con- 
vex above, to fit the other. 

c is the complete mill. 

Frequent allusions are made 
in Scripture to these utensils. 
Of Leviathan, it is said, that 
his heart is as hard as a piece 
of the nether millstone. (Job 
xli.24.) AtthesiegeofThebez, 
a certain woman cast a piece 
of a millstone uponAbimetecWs 
head, and entirely brake his 
skull. (Judg. ix. 53.; 

Wlieat was the grain com- 
monly used for bread. The 
poor people, however, lived 
much upon barley, as at the 
present day, the Arabs do up- 
on millet, or durra. Niebuhr 
thinks this durra was the first 
kind of corn which was ground 
and made into bread. The 
durra bread, like barley bread, 
is very good while fresh; the 
latter, however, is superior, 
and has a better taste in hot 
climates than with us. After 
some hours, it becomes taste- 
less ; yet the same thing takes 
place with regard to the wheat- 
en bread of the orientals. They 
are forced, therefore, to bake 
every day, and no more is 
ground daily than is wanted 
for the baking. This daily 
grinding makes such a noise 
in the Houses as is heard in the 
streets. The sound was pleas- 
ing, because it was naturally 
associated with industry, and 
the supports and enjoyments 
of life. Hence the prediction 
in Jer. xxv. 10. The noise of 
the millstones,and the lighting 
up of candles, are circum- 
stances belonging to inhabited 
places, and are striking when 
we call to mind the fact that 
they grind at a very early hour 
in the morning. Chardin fays 
it is this noise which often 
awakens people in the morn- 
ing , and Harmer supposes the 
import of the verse just quoted 
to be, "Gloomy shall be the 
silence of the morning, melan- 
-iioly the shadows of the eve- 



MIJM 

ning ; no cheerful noise to ani- 
mate the one, no enlivening 
ray to soften the gloom of the 
other. Desolation shall every- 
where reign." ''See farther, 
Biblical Antiquities, vol. L 
ch. v. § 2. by Am. S. S. Union.) 

MILLET. (Ezek. iv. 9.) A 
plant resembling wheat and 
rye, the stalk of which grows 
about three feet in height, and 
bears a great number of grains. 
This grain was coarse, and 
chiefly used for beasts. 

Niebuhr informs us, that 
there is a kind of millet used 
in the east,called dwrra,which, 
made into bread with camels' 
milk, butter, or grease, is al- 
most the only food eaten by 
the common people in Arabia ; 
but he says he found it so un- 
palatable, that he would have 
preferred plain barley bread, 
which furnishes the reason of 
its being appointed as a part 
of the hard fare of Ezekiel. 

MILLO, house of. (Judg.ix. 
6.) Supposed by some to denote 
either the senate or chief men 
of the place, or to be the name 
of a distinguished individual 
in Shechem, whose family 
and adherents joined in ele- 
vating Abimelech to the throne. 
Others suppose it to be a vil- 
lage. Millo in Jerusalem (2Chr. 
xxxii. 5) was a section of the 
fortifications, or perhaps the 
public edifices in that city. 
The expression in 2 Kings xii. 
20, describes the place as abovi 
Silla— perhaps Siloam. 

MINA. (See Measures.) 

MIND. (Gen.xxiii.8.) The 
meaning of this word, when 
employed by the writers of 
Scripture, must be determined 
by its connexion. According 
to this, it sometimes means 
the soul renewed, in oppo- 
sition to the flesh under the 
dominion of sin, (Rom. vii. 
25 ;) and, at others, the im- 
material, in opposition to the 
material nature. (Eph. ii. 3.) 
Sometimes it means temper or 
439 



MIN 

disposition, as in Phil. ii. 3. 5 ; 
or a particular faculty is meant, 
as in Ps. xxxi. 12. Isa. xlvi. 8; 
lxv. 17. Mark xiv. 72. Some- 
limes the motive or intention, 
as in Prov. xxi. 27; or thought, 
as in lsa. xxvi. 3. Jer. Ii. 50; 
or opinions, as in Judg. xix. 30 ; 
or affections, as in Ezek. xxiv. 
25. When used in reference 
to God, it signifies will,counsel, 
or purpose, as in Rom. viii. 27 ; 
xi. 34. 1 Cor. ii. 16. When 
used as a verb, it signifies to 
regard and care for, as in Rom. 
viii. 5; xii. 16; and Phil. iii. 
19; or to incline, as in 2Chron. 
xxiv. 4. Matt. i. 19. Acts xx. 
13; or to be disposed, as in 
Phil. ii. 2. 20; iii. 15. 

MINISTER. (I.) One who 
serves another. (Ex. xxiv. 13. 
Josh. i.l. Matt. xxv. 44.) When 
applied to Christ, as the minis- 
ter of the sanctuary, (Heb.viii. 
2,) it denotes his official cha- 
racter as our high-priest, who 
is set on the right hand of the 
throne of the Majesty in the 
heavens, and who ever liveth 
to make intercession for us. 
(2.) Those persons who are 
appointed to preach the gospel 
and administer its ordinances. 
(lCor.iv.l.2Cor.iii.6. Eph.iii. 
7. 1 Thess. iii. 2. lTim.iv.6.) 
(3.) To magistrates, (Rom. xiii. 
6.) as God's ministers, to punish 
the evil and protect the good ; 
and, (4.) To the angels, who 
stand ready to do the will of 
God. (Ps. ciii.21. Dan. vii. 10. 
Rom. xiii. 6. Heb. i. 14.) 

MINISTRATION. (1.) The 
period during which an office 
is administered. (Luke i. 23.) 
(2.) Distribution of alms. (Acts 
vi. 1. 2 Cor. ix. 13.) The law 
of Moses was the ministration 
of death and condemnation. 
It convinces men of sin, the 
penalty for which is eternal 
death; and to this they are 
already condemned. The gos- 
pel is the ministration of the 
Spirit thai giveth life ; it pro- 
ceeds from the Holy Ghost ; is 



MIR 

confirmed and applied by him, 
and by means of it, he conveys 
life, and all spiritual graces 
and benefits, to the souls ot 
men. (2 Cor. iii. 7, 8.) 

MINNI. (Jer.li.27.) A pro- 
vince of Armenia, or, more pro- 
bably one of several clans -or 
tribes who were settled on 
mount Taurus, east and south 
of the Black Sea. The Ash- 
kenites were another of these 
tribes. 

MINNITH. (Judg. xi. 33.) 
A place east of Jordan, four 
miles from Heshbon, on the 
Philadelphia road, famous for 
its wheat. (Ezek. xxvii. 17.) 

MINSTREL. (2 Kings iii. 15.) 
A musician or piper. It seems, 
from the case ol Jairus, to have 
been customary in the time 
of our Saviour to employ min- 
strels at funerals; for when 
Christ came into the house to 
raise his daughter, he saw the 
minstrels and the people mak- 
ing a noise. (Matt. ix. 23.) 

MINT. (Matt, xxiii. 23.) A 
garden herb of several species. 
The law of Moses required 
that tithes should be paid of 
the produce of the field, (Deut. 
xiv. 22 ;) but the Jews, in their 
Pharisaical precision, tithed an 
article which could scarcely 
be regarded as tithable by the 
law, while its most important, 
plain, and imperative precepts 
were neglected. (See Tithes.) 

MIRACLE. (Ex. vii. 9.) An 
effect caused by an extraordi- 
nary interposition of divine 
power. It is not an effect con- 
trary to the laws of nature, (as 
they are called,) nor does it 
necessarily require a suspen- 
sion of those laws. It is at 
mdfet but a suspension of the 
operation of those laws, as to a 
specific event. It would not 
and could not be produced by 
the ordinary operation of those 
laws; and hence, being beyond 
or above the order of nature, it 
requires the exercise of divine 
power to accomplish it. 
410 



MIR 

Miracles were performed in 
attestation of the truth of some 
particular doctrine or system 
of religion. Those performed 
by our Saviour incontrovertibly 
prove his divine power. They 
exceed thirty in number. Blany 
of them were wrought before 
a great multitude of people, 
friends and enemies, in the 
open day, and where there was 
no chance to deceive. And it 

Miracles. 
Water turned into wine • 
The Capernaum nobleman's son cured 
Draught of fishes .... 
Demoniac cured • 

Peter's mother-in-law healed • 

Leper healed 

Centurion's servant healed 

Widow's son raised from the dead • 

Tempest calmed ... 

Demoniacs of Gadara cured - 

Man sick of the palsy cured • 

iairus' daughter raised to life 

Woman diseased with issue of blood healed 

Sight restored to two blind men 

Dumb demoniac cured • 

Diseased cripple at Bethesda cured 

A withered hand cured - 

Demoniac cured ... 

Five thousand fed - 

Canaan ite woman's daughter cured 

Man deaf and dumb cured 

Foiir thousand fe*J - 

Blind man restored to sight 

Boy possessed of a devil cured 

Man born blind restored to sight 

Woman cured of eighteen years' infirmity 

Dropsical man cured ... 

Ten lepers cleansed ... 

Lazarus raised from the grave to life 

Two blind men restored to sight 

Fig tree blasted .... 

The ear of Malchus healed 

Draught of fishes - 

MIRIAM, (Ex. xv. 21,) the 

sister of Moses and Aaron, is 
upposed to have been ten or 
welve years older than Moses; 
nd being appointed to watch 
the ark of bulrushes, in which 
her infant brother was laid, 
among the flags of the river, 
she was there when Pharaoh's 
daughter came down and dis- 
covered it, and proposed to go 
for a nurse, concealing her re- 
lation to the child. She imme- 
diately called her mother as 
the nurse, and the infant was 
Dlaced under her care. She 



MIT 

really requires more 
believe that such a mi 
of people could be so 
deceived by one of the l 
blameless men that ever liv 
on the earth, than it require* 
to believe the miracles them- 
selves. 

The following is a table of 
Christ's miracles, arranged ia 
the order m which they ar# 
supposed to have been wrought 



Place. 
Cana 
Ditto - 
Sea of Galilee 
Capernaum - 
Ditto - 
Ditto - 
Ditta • 
Nain - 
Sea of Galilee 
Gadara - 
Capernaum 
Ditto - 
Ditto • 
Ditto • 
Ditto - 
Jerusalem 
Judea - 
Capernaum 
Decapolis 
Near Tyre 
Decapolis 
Ditto - 
Bethsaida 
Tabor - 
Jerusalem 
Galilee - 
Ditto - 
Samaria 
Bethany 
Jericho 
Olivet - 
Gethsemane 
Sea of Galilee 



Record. 
John ii. 1—11. 

— iv. 4(5 — 54. 
Luke v. 1—11. 
Mark i. 23-26. 

30,31. 

40—45. 

Matt. vin. 5—13. 
Luke vii. 11—17 
Matt.viii. 23—27. 
r- 28-34. 

ix. 1—8. 

18—26 

Lukeviii.43— 4C 
Matt. ix. 27—31. 

32; 33. 

John v. 1—9. 
Matt. xii. 10—13 

22, 23. 

xiv. 15—21 

xv. 22—28. 

Mark vii. 31—37 
Matt. xv. 32—39 
Markviii.22— 26. 
Matt.xvii.14— 2L 
John ix. 
Lukexiii. 11— 17. 

— xiv. 1—4. 

xvii. 11—19. 

John xi. 

Matt. xx. 30—34. 

xxi. 18—21. 

Luke xxii. 50, 51. 
John xxi. 1 — 14. 



was smitten with leprosy foi 
her treatment of Moses, but 
was restored in answer to the 
prayer of Moses. (Num. xii. 
1—15.) She died, and was bu- 
ried at Kadesh. (Num. xx. 1.) 

MIRRORS. (See Looking- 
glass.) 

MITE. (Luke xii. 59.) The 
lowest denomination of Jewish 
money, and probably of the 
value of two mills of our cur- 
rency. (See Measures, &c.) 

MITRE. (Ex. xxviii. 4—7.) 
This was the head-dress of the 
Jewish priest. It was of fine 
441 



MIZ 

fl^x or linen, made with many 
folds, making in length eight 
yards, finished with elegance 
and taste, and wreathed round 
the head in the shape of an 
eastern turban. It bore upon 
its front a gold plate, on which 
was inscribed "Holiness to 
the Lord." The Jews tell us 
that the mitre and the bonnet 
were the same thing, only fold- 
ed up differently, according to 
the dignity of the wearer. 

MlfYLEIME. (Acts xx. 14.) 
The capital of the ancient 
island of Lesbos. The whole 
island is now under the Turk- 
ish power, and is called Miti- 
lene, and the chief town is 
called Castra, near which the 
ruins of the ancient city are 
discernible. The island lies 
on the eastern coast of Asia 
Minor, nearly opposite Perga- 
mos, and is about one hundred 
and seventy miles in circunv 
ference. The population is at 
present 25,000. The chief pro- 
ductions are wine and figs. 
Paul passed through this island 
on his way from Corinth to 
Jerusalem ;" and it is famous as 
the birthplace of many wise 
and learned men. 

MIZPAH, (1 Kings xv. 22,) or 
MIZPEH. (Josh. xv. 38.) This 
name is given to several places, 
and implies a post of observa- 
tion or a watch-tower. They 
seem to have been knawn as 
places of convocation on public 
occasions, religious and civil. 

1. (Josh, xv.38.) A city in the 
territory of Judah, north of 
Hebron, and nearly twenty 
miles south from Jerusalem. 
Some geographers place it in 
the tribe of Benjamin. (Josh, 
xviii. 2fi.) 

Samuel dwelt at Mizpah, 
(1 Sam. vii. 5, 6,) and Saul was 
anointed king there, (1 Sam. x. 
17—24;) and hither, it is sup- 
posed, the Jews often resorted 
tor business and devotion. 
(Judg. xx. 1. 1 Sam. vii. 5— 7; x. 
17.) It was fortified by Asa with 



MOA 

the stone and timber whl h 
Baasha had been using for the 
like purpose at Rama, 1 1 Kings 
xv. 22;) and was the residence 
of Gedaliah, the governor ap- 
pointed by Nebuchadnezzar 
after his subjection of the land. 
(Jer. xl. 6.) We find it rebuilt 
after the return from Babylon. 
(Nell. iii. 10.) 

2. (Gen. xxxi. 49.) A city 
in the territory of Gad, where 
Laban and Jacob entered into 
a covenant of friendship, and 
where Jephthah resided and 
mustered his army. (Judg. xi. 
11.29.) 

3. (Josh. xi. 3. 8.) A tract of 
country lying near the base ox 
mount Hermon. 

4. (1 Sam. xxii. 3.) A town 
of Moab, where David placed 
his father and mother during 
his reverses 

MIZRAIM (Gen. x. 6) is the 
original word translated Egypt; 
and the modern Arabian name 
Mitzr is an abbreviation of the 
Hebrew word Mizraim. (See 
Egypt.) 

MIZREPHOTH-MAIM 
(Josh. xi. 8.) A place near 
Sidon, and supposed to be the 
same with Sarepta. 

MNASON. (Actsxxi.16.) A 
native of Cyprus, but a resident 
of Jerusalem. He was an early 
convert, to Christianity, and hos- 
pitably entertained the apos- 
tles. It is supposed by some 
that the reading of the passage 
should be, ■ brought us to Mna- 
son of Cyprus,' &c. 

MOAB, plains of, (Num. 
xxii. 1 ; xxxiii. 43—50,) were 
situated east of Jordan and the 
Dead Sea, on both sides of the 
Arnon. The country belonged 
principally to the Amorites, 
north of the Arnon, where the 
Israelites encamped before the 
passage of the Jordan. After- 
wards it fell to the lot of Reu- 
ben. 

The inhabitants were called 
Moabites, and the country de- 
rived its name from Moab the 
^42 



MOL 

eon of Lot, (Gen. xix. 37,) by 
whose posterity it was conquer- 
ed, when in possession of the 
gi%nt race of Lmims. (Deut. ii. 
11, 12.) They were severely 
punished for their treatment 
of the Israelites. (Deut. xxiii. 
3-6. Judg. iii. 12-^30. 2 Sam. 
viii. 2. See Mesha.) They 
were an idolatrous nation, and 
are made the subject of seve- 
ral prophecies. (Isa. xv. xvi. 
Jer. xlviii.) 

Their country seems to have 
been exceedingly fertile in an- 
cient times; but now it is a 
barren desert, traversed only 
by wandering Arabs, according 
to that prediction of the pro- 
phet, moab shall be a perpetu- 
al desolation. (Zeph. ii. 9.) 

MOLE. (Isa. ii. 20.) Some 
are of the opinion that the 
word in Lev. xi. 30, which 
our translators render mole, is 
properly the chameleon; and 
that the word translated wea- 
sel, in the preceding verse, is 
the mole; and in the east, at 
this day, the mole is called 
khuld, which is evidently the 
same as the Hebrew word 
cholef, here used. A learn- 
ed author is. moreover, of opi- 
nion that the words rendered 
moles and bats, in the passage 
first above cited, should be read 
as one word, and that no animal 
is meant, but a deep sink, or 
subterranean vault; and an- 
other concurs in the opinion, 
but thinks that sepulchres are 
intended. 

The habits of the mole are 
well known; and the idea of 
the prophet is fully sustained 
by any expression denoting the 
cavernsordesolate placesof the 
earth. (See Youth's Friend, 
for Aug. 1829, by Am. S. S. U.) 

MOLECH, (Lev. xviii. 21,) 
iir M1LCOLM, (1 Kings xi. 5,) 
or MOLOCH. (Acts vii. 43.) 
The name of an idol god, wor- 
shipped by the Ammonites 
with human sacrifices. 



MON 

The Rabbins tell us that i; 
was made of brass, and placed 
on a brazen throne, and that the 
head was that of a calf, with a 
crown upon it. The throne 
and image were made hollow, 
and a furious fire was kindled 
within it. The flames pene- 
trated into the body and limbs 
of the idol ; and when the arms 
were red-hot, the victim was 
thrown into them, and was al- 
most immediately burned to 
death. Its cries were drowned 
by drums, &c. Some have 
doubted whether there was an 
actual sacrifice of life on these 
occasions; and they refer to cus- 
toms still prevalent in China, 
and among some of the Indian 
nations, where the devotees 
walk barefoot over burning 
coals, and often carry their 
children in their arms for the 
purpose of consecrating them. 
This they caillpassing through 
the fire. (2 Kings xvi. 3.) No 
objection can be made to the 
credibility of the Rabbins' ac- 
count, from the barbarity of it ; 
for the burning of widows, and 
the drowning of children, in 
India, are certainly no less re- 
volting instances of cruelty, 
than the throwing of infants 
into the heated arms of an idol 
god. We subjoin a cut of this 
idol. 

The tabernacle of Moloch 
was the tent or small house in 
which the image of the idol 
was placed. It was of a size 
and shape to be portable, and 
was taken up like other bag- 
gage, and carried from place to 
place. 

MONEY. (Gen. xxiii.9.)This 
is the first mention of money in 
the sacred Scriptures. It was 
silver, and was weighed, and 
is said to have been current 
with the merchant. The prac- 
tice of weighingmoney is ge- 
neral in Syria, Egypt, and all 
Turkey. No piece, however 
effaced, is refused there. The 
443 



MON 



MON 




wors at Moloch, p. 443. 



merchant draics out his scales 
and weighs it, as in the days 
of Abraham,when he purchased 
his sepulchre. In considerable 
payments,an agent of exchange 
is sent for, who counts it by 
thousands, rejects pieces of 
false money, and weighs all 
the coin either separately or 
together. With us, the piece of 
metal is stamped according to 
its value, as fixed by public 
authority. (See Changers, 
Measures, &c.) 

MONTH. (Gen.viii.4.)The 
twelfth part of a yeaj. The 
ancient Hebrews called the 
months by their numbers; as 
first month, second month,third 



month, &c. The length of the 
month was regulated by the 
changes of the moon. After 
they left Egypt, the Jews had 
two courses ot months; one 
making the civil, and the other 
the sacred year; the former 
commenced from the first new 
moon in October, and this was 
used in civil and agricultural 
concerns only; and the latter 
from the first new moon in 
April, because they left Egypt 
on the fifteenth of that month, 
and was used in regulating the 
time of their feasts, &c. The 
prophets use this reckoning. 

The names of the Hebrew 
months follow. 

444 



MOR 

CiviL Sacred. 

VII. - I. Nisan, or Abib 

VIII. - II. Zif, or Ziv • 

IX. - III. Sivan .... 

X. - IV. Tammuz • . - 

XI. - V. Ab 

XII. - VI. EIul ---. 

I. - VII. Tishri, or Ethanim 

II. • VIII. Bui 

III. • IX. Kisleu, or Cbisleu 

IV. - X. Tebeth - - - - 
V. - XI. Sh-bat - - - . 

VL - XII. Adar - - - - 



MOR 

Beginning with the new movru 

March, or April .... Neh. ii. I. 

April, or May 1 Kings vi. U 

May, or June .... Esth. viii. 9. 
June, or July - - - • • 
July, or August • - - - 

August, or September - - Neh. vi. 15. 

September, or October • . 1 Kings viii. 2. 

October, or November - - 1 Kings vi. 38. 

November, or December • Neh. i. 1. 

December, or January • • Esth. ii. 16. 

January, or February • - Zech. i. 7. 

February, or March • - Esth. iii. 7. 



Twelve lunar months, mak- 
ing but three hundred and fif- 
ty -four days and six hours, the 
Jewish year was short of the 
Roman by twelve days. To 
compensate for this difference, 
the Jews every three years in- 
tercalated a thirteenth month, 
which they called Vedar, the 
second Ada?: By this means, 
their lunar year equalled the 
solar. 

MOON, (Deut. xxxiii. 140 or 
lesser light. (Gen. i. 16.) The 
moon is a planet revolving 
round the earth, and reflecting 
the light of the sun. The 
church is compared to the 
moon with great force and 
beauty. (Sol. Song vi. 10,) as 
dhe derives from the Sun of 
righteousness all her bright- 
ness and glory. 

The new moon regulated 
tuany of the feasts and sacred 
services under the old dispen- 
sation. The new moon was 
always the beginning of the 
month, and this day they called 
Neomenia, new-moon day, or 
new month. 

The heathens have generally 
worshipped the moon, under 
the names of Queen of heaven, 
Venus Urania,Succoth-benoth, 
Ashtaroth, Diana, Hecate, or 
perhaps Meni, &c. (Deut. iv. 
19 1 xvii. 3. Job xxxi. 26, 27.) 
The orientals regulate their 
journeys by the moon, and set 
tfF soon after her change. 

MOKDECAI. (Esthrii. 5.) A 

captive Jew of the family of 

Saul, resident at the court of 

Ahasuerus. An uncle of his 

38 



died, leaving an orphan daugh- 
ter named Hadassah, whom 
Mordecai adopted, and wha 
afterwards became the queea 
of Persia. (Sep Esther.) Mor- 
decai fell under the displeasure 
of Haman, one of the king's 
principal officers of state, a 
very proud and ambitious man ; 
and to be revenged on the de- 
spised Jew, he laid a plan for 
the extermination of the whole 
body of Jews in the empire. 
His purpose was, however, de- 
feated by the interposition of 
the queen. Haman lost his 
life, and Mordecai was ele- 
vated to wealth and powes. 
(See Haman. See, also, Ha- 
dassah, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

MOREH, plain or plains op, 
(Gen. xii. 6. Deut. xi. 30,) was 
probably a famous oak or grove 
of oaks in the vicinity of She- 
chem, and perhaps at the foot 
of a hill of the same name. 
(Judg. vii. 1.) It was near the 
mounts Ebal and Gerizim, and 
some think it the same with 
Ebal. (Deut. xi. 29, 30.) The 
oak of Shechem is often re- 
ferred to, (Gen. xxxv. 4. Josh, 
xxiv. 25, 26,) and in these and 
other passages is supposed to 
be the same with the plain of 
Moreh. 

Hence, from Judg. vii. 1, it 
would appear that the hill of 
Mpreh was in or near the val- 
ley of Jezreel. As the original 
phrase means high oak, it might 
be applied to several places 
designated in each case by tb.8 
connexion. 

MORIAH. (Gen. xxii. 2.) 
445 



MOS 

This hill was situated north- 
east of Jerusalem, and was 
originally separated from Acra 
by a valley, which, accord- 
ing to Jewish historians, was 
filled up by the Asmoneans; 
and thus the two hills be- 
came one. In the time of 
David, mount Moriah was not 
included within the limits of 
the ctty, but formed a part of 
the cultivated ground of Arau- 
nah the Jebusite, from whom 
David bought it. (2 Sam. xxiv. 
16—25.) On this spot Solomon 
built the temple. (2 Chron. 
iii. 1.) It is supposed that this 
is the mount Moriah on which 
Abraham was directed to offer 
up his son Isaac for a burnt- 
offering. (See passage first 
cited.) 

This mount was raised by 
artificial means to the height 
of about seven hundred feet. 
Being at first a rocky precipice, 
it was enclosed by a square 
wall, and filled in, until it 
formed a level area for the 
temple and its courts. Moriah 
is new a piece of )evel ground. 
lv is \ ",up ed b> an "pen 
court fifteen hundred feet long, 
and one thousand feet wide, 
surrounded by a wall, and 
planted with trees. In the 
centre of this area is a large 
platform, paved with marble, 
on which stands the mosque 
which the caliph Omar erected 
in the seventh century, and 
which is considered the second 
only to the holy house at Mecca 
in point of sanctity, and the 
first in size and magnificence. 
NoChristian is allowed toenter 
this enclosure ; though this pro- 
hibition has been relaxed in fa- 
vour of several modern travel- 

lerg.(SeejERUSALEM,TEMPLE.) 

MORNING. (See Day, 

Watch.) 
Morning watch. (See 

Watch.) 
Morning STAR.(SeeSTARS.) 
MORTAR. (See Lime.) 
MOSES, (Ex. ii. 10.) the dis- 



MOS 

tinguished leader and general 
of the Hebrews, was born in 
Egypt, a. m. 2433. For three 
months he escaped the general 
massacre of all the male chil- 
dren of the Hebrews by being 
secreted, and then he was 
placed in an ark or basket of 
reed or osier work made water 
tight, and deposited among the 
flags on the river bank. The 
sister of the infant was sta- 
tioned near to watch, and by 
and by one of the daughters 
of Pharaoh, walking near the 
spot, discovered the basket, 
and, upon opening it, saw the 
helpless babe, and,being moved 
by its cries, was disposed to save 
it, notwithstanding she saw it 
was one of the Hebrew children 
that her father's tyrannical de- 
cree doomed to death. Miriam 
asked the princess if she should 
call a nurse, and being told to 
do so, immediately called her 
mother, who was directed to 
take the child and nurse it for 
the princess upon wages. This 
commission the mother joy- 
fully executed. She nourished 
,he Ch ; ld, a^d pro. ably n- 
structed him in the principles 
of religion; and at a proper 
time took him to Pharaoh's 
daughter, and he became her 
son. She gave him the name 
of Moses, signifying that he 
was drawn out of the water. 
Being instructed in the various 
branches of Egyptian learning, 
(Acts vii. 22,) and having great 
advantages from his connexion 
with the royal family, the pros- 
pects of the young Hebrew 
were extremely flattering ; but, 
at the age of forty, he chose to 
renounce them all, and become 
the servant of God. (Heb. xi. 
24 — 26.) He espoused the cause 
of an oppressed Israelite, and, 
in his defence, put an Egyp- 
tian to death, for which cause 
he fled into Midian, where he 
married Zipporah, a daughter 
of Jethro, and lived forty years 
as a shepherd. At the end of 
446 






MOS 
that period, he received a mi- 
raculous intimation from God 
that he was to be the leader 
and deliverer of his chosen 
people, for which high and 
responsible office he was fur- 
nished with the necessary gifts 
and graces. His brother Aaron 
was associated with him, and 
the history of their official 
career would be a history of 
the Jews from the close of their 
bondage in Egypt to their ap- 
proach to the land of promise. 
The miracles God wrought by 
his hands ; his frequent oppor- 
tunities of communion imme- 
diately with the divine ma- 
J"esty; the wonderful displays 
le witnessed of the power and 
glory of Jehovah, and his con- 
nexion with the grand and 
significant system of religious 
rites and ceremonies, which is 
called after him the Blosaic 
ritual or dispensation ; the se- 
verity of the rebukes he suf- 
fered in consequence of a single 
sinful act, (Num. xx. 12); his ex- 
traordinary meekness, (Num. 
xii. 3) ; the singular manner of 
his death, and the fact that he 
is the historian of ages and 
events so remote and so in- 
tensely interesting to us, in our 
various relations, prospects, 
and circumstances, all combine 
to make him, perhaps, the most 
extraordinary man that ever 
lived. (Deut. xxxiv. 10—12.) 

He retained his faculties to 
a very extraordinary degree, 
for we are told that at his death, 
which took place at an ad- 
vanced age, his eye was not 
dim, nor his natural force 
abated. (Deut. xxxiv. 7.) After 
having seen the most con- 
clusive tokens that God would 
accomplish all his purposes in 
bringing his people into the 
promised land, (Num. xxxi. 
xxxii.,) he assembled the na- 
tion, and recapitulated in their 
hearing the events of their 
history. He exhorted them to 
obedience; proposed to them 



MOS 

! the blessings and the curses 
which were suspended on their 
faithfulness ; solemnly testified 
to the truth and holiness of 
the Divine Being, (Deut. xxvii. 
xxviii. xxix. xxx.,) and made 
all necessary arrangemen.3 
with his successor for the com- 
pletion of the commission. He 
then celebrates the glory of 
God in one of the most sublime 
and animated hymns of praise 
that we find on record; and 
after pronouncing on- the 
tribes, respectively, the most 
solemn prophetic blessings, he 
went up into a mountain ap- 
pointed for that purpose by 
God, from the summit of which 
he could survey the whole 
length of the land of Canaan, 
and across from the Jordan to 
the Mediterranean. When he 
had thus seen, for himself, the 
promised possession of his 
countrymen, he cheerfully re- 
signed his spirit to the hands 
of a covenant-keeping God, 
and at the advanced age of 
one hundred and twenty years, 
he died upon or in the vicinity 
of the mountain, and was bu- 
ried in a valley of Moab ; but 
the precise place of his burial 
was never known. 

What is said respecting his 
burial, (Deut. xxxiv. 6 ;) what 
Jude says of the archangel dis- 
puting with the devil about his 
body, (Jude 9 ;) and his appear- 
ing with Elijah on the mount 
of transfiguration, (Matt. xvii. 
3,) have led some to conjecture 
that he was immediately raised 
from the dead, and translated 
to heaven; but where the 
Scriptures are silent, it is our 
wisdom to be so also, and not 
attempt to be wise above what 
is written. 

Moses uttered a remarkable 
prophecy respecting the Mes- 
siah, (Deut. xviii. 17—19. comp. 
Acts iii. 22, and vii. 37;) and 
the similarity of their character 
and offices is, in many re- 
spects, very striking. 
447 



MOS 

We have already alluded to 
Moses as the author of the first 
five books of the Bible called 
the Pentateuch, containing the 
history of the creation of the 
world and its inhabitants ; the 
fall and curse of man ; the de- 
struction of all the human race 
save one family of eight souls ; 
the dispersion of the nations ; 
the deliverance of the chosen 
people of God from oppression, 
and the introduction of that 
wonderful dispensation of 
which the Divine Being him- 
self was the author and exe- 
cutor, and under which the 
civil and ecclesiastical govern- 
ment of these nations was ad- 
ministered for so many ages. 

In relation to this portion 
of the sacred history, and es- 
pecially the earliest chapters 
of it, the late Baron Cuvier, 
who has been justly called the 

Erince of geologists, says;, " His 
ooks (i. e. the books of Moses) 
show us that he had very 
perfect ideas respecting se- 
veral of the highest questions 
of natural philosophy. His 
cosmogony especially, consi- 
dered purely in a scientific 
view, is extremely remark- 
able; inasmuch as the order 
which it assigns to the different 
epochs of creation, is precisely 
the same as that which has 
been deduced from geological 
considerations." 

This, then, is the issue, in 
the opinion of Baron Cuvier, 
of that science which has been 
held by many persons to teach 
conclusions at variance with 
the book of Genesis; when, 
at last, more matured by a 
series of careful observations 
and legitimate induction, it 
teaches~us precisely what Mo- 
ses had taught more than three 
thousand years ago. 

And whence did Moses re- 
ceive the knowledge which 
philosophy has been so long 
in reaching, through the paths 
of geology 1 Was^the genera- 



MOT * 

tion in which he lived, more 
learned than any which suc- 
ceeded for thousands of years 1 
There is not the slightest sha- 
dow of evidence to sustain so 
incredible a position. It could 
not be through the slow pro- 
cesses of geological investiga- 
tion, either of himself or his 
contemporaries, that Moses 
learned the sublime truths 
which were hidden from Aris- 
totle and Pythagoras. The 
superior wisdom which dis- 
tinguishes the Hebrew prophet 
from all his contemporaries, 
and renders his simple nar- 
rative a standard of truth in 
all ages, was from above. It 
was from Him who made the 
world that Moses learned the 
history of its creation, and in 
no other way could his suc- 
cessors on the inspired page 
be possessed of the truth and 
wisdom which shines as bright- 
ly in their pages as in his. (See 
Aaron, Hebrews ; and for a 
full history and character of 
this extraordinary man, with 
illustrative maps and engrav- 
ings, see Life of Moses, by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

MOTH. (Luke xii. 33.) A 
well known insect, one spe- 
cies of which, in its caterpillar 
state, is very destructive to 
furs, woollen cloths, &c. The 
egg of the moth, being depo- 
sited on the fur or cloth, pro- 
duces a very small shining 
insect, which immediately 
forms a house for itself by cut- 
tings from the cloth. It eats 
away the nap, weakens o* 
destroys the thread, and finally 
ruins the fabric. There is fre- 
quent reference to this weak, 
but destructive insect, in the 
sacred Scriptures. In Job iv. 
19, man is said to be crushed be- 
fore the wto/fe, where this animal 
is the emblem of man's weak 
ness and defenceless coneMSfon 
In Job xiii. 28, the wa^ti^s, 
decaying life of man w m 
pared to a moth-eaten 2aiw*-** * 
443 






MOU 

and in Isa. li. 6, the earth is 
said to way old as a garment; 
that is, a moth-eaten garment, 
as the original imports. In Job 
xxvii. 18, the man who rises 
by injustice is compared to the 
moth, which, by eating into 
the garment where it dwells, 
after a while destroys its own 
habitation. In Ps. vi. 7, the 
word rendered in our version 
consumed, properly means 
moth-eaten. In Ps. xxxix. 11, 
the effect of God's judgments 
on mankind is illustrated by 
the consuming power of the 
moth; and so in Hos. v. 12. 
The devastations of this insect 
are particularly referred to in 
Isa. 1. 9. As much of the trea- 
sure of the ancients consisted 
in costly garments, we may 
readily understand why the 
moth was considered so noxious 
an insect ; and this will teach 
us the true import of our Sa- 
viour's words. (Matt. vi. 19, 20.) 
It was common in Asia to lay 
up stores of precious garments, 
which descended as an inherit- 
ance to children; for their 
modes of dress never changed: 
but the moth was a formidable 
enemy to such treasures, so as 
to render it useless to take 
much pains to lay them up. 
(See, also, James v. 2.) 

MOURN, MOURNERS. 
(Gen. xxiii. 2.) The Hebrews, 
at the death of their friends and 
relations, gave all possible de- 
monstrationsof grief and mourn- 
ing. (Gen. 1. 10.) They wept, 
tore their clothes, smote their 
breasts, fasted, and lay upon 
the ground; went barefooted, 
pulled their hair and beards, 
or cut them, and made incisions 
on their breasts, or tore them 
with their nails. (Lev. xix. 28; 
xxi. 5. Deut. xiv. 1. Jer. xvi. 
6.) The time of mourning was 
commonly seven days; but it 
was lengthened or shortened 
according to circumstances. 
That for Moses and Aaron was 
erolonged to thirty days. (Num. 



MOU 

xx. 29. Deut. xxxiv. 8.) They 
mourned excessively for an 
only son, as his death cut off 
the name of the family. (Zech. 
xii. 10.) 

The priest mourned only for 
near relatives, but the high- 
priest for none. (Lev. xxi. 1— 
12.) 

During the time of their 
mourning, they continued sit- 
ting in their houses, and ate 
on the ground. The food they 
took was thought unclean, and 
even themselves were judged 
impure. (Hos. ix. 4.) Their 
faces were covered ; and in all 
that time they could not apply 
themselves to any occupation, 
nor read the book of the law, 
nor say their usual prayers. 
They did not dress themselves; 
nor make their beds, nor un> 
cover their heads, nor shave, 
nor cut their nails, nor go into 
the bath, nor salute anybody. 
Nobody spoke to them unless 
they spoke first. (Job ii. 11 — 13.) 
Their friends commonly went 
to visit and comfort them, bring- 
ing them food. They also went 
up to the roof, or upon the plat- 
form of their houses, to bewail 
their loss. (Isa. xv. 3.) 

It was reckoned a very pious 
work to comfort mourners ; and 
when they came to the mourn- 
ers, they stood around them, 
ten in a row, and approaching 
towards them, one by one, wish- 
ed them comfort from heaven. 
If they sat, it was on the ground, 
and the chief mourner had the 
chief seat. The friends came 
not to comfort them till after the 
interment, and not many till 
the third or fourth day after the 
decease. (John xi. 19. 39.) They 
sometimes went to the graves 
to lament their dead; and so 
the Turkish women do to thi3 
day. The Jews had a kind of 
prayer, or rather benediction, of 
God, as of Him who raises the 
dead, which they repeated as 
they mourned, or even passed 
the graves of their dead. The 
419 



MOU 
Jews in Chaldea did not mourn 
and iceep, but mourned one 
towards another ; that is, they 
durst not openly bewail their 
misery, but did it secretly. 
(Ezek. xxiv. 23. See Evening 
Recreations, vol. ii. pp. 62 — 
73, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

The mourning habit among^ 
the Hebrews was not fixed 
either by law or custom. An- 
ciently, in times of mourning, 
they clothed themselves in 
sackcloth, or hair-cloth; that 
is, in coarse or ill-made clothes, 
of brown or black stuff. 2 Sam. 
iii. 31.) 

They hired women to weep 
and mourn, and also persons 
to play on instruments, at the 
funerals of the Hebrews. (Jer. 
ix. 17. Matt. ix. 23.) All that 
met a funeral procession, or a 
company of mourners, were to 
join them, as a matter of civi- 
lity, and to mingle their tears 
with those who wept. Some- 
thing like this is still customary 
in Turkey and Persia, where he 
who meets the funeral takes the 
place of one of the bearers, and 
assists in carrying the bier, un- 
til they meet some one by 
whom he is relieved. 

The custom of hiring women 
to weep and mourn is common 
at this day in many of the east- 
ern nations. (See Burial.) 

MOUSE. (Lev. xi. 29.) It 
is supposed by some that the 
animal called the mouse in 
our Bible was the jerboa, or 
field mouse, which is larger 
than the common mouse, and 
entirely different in its motions 
and habits. (For a particular 
description and cut, see art. 
Mouse, in Natural History 
of the Bible, by Am. S. S. 
Union.) Others suppose that 
some other species ol the com- 
mon mouse is intended, the 
flesh of which was forbidden 
to be used for food. (Lev. xi. 29. 
Comp. lsa. lxvi. 17.) Common 
field mice are very destructive 



MUF 

to the fruits of the field. Mies 
made great havoc in the fields 
of the Philistines, after the 
people had taken the ark of 
the Lord. (1 Sam. v. 6, &c; 
vi. 4, 5.) 

In the twelfth century, they 
destroyed the young sprouts of 
grain in some parts of Syria 
for four successive years, and 
came near to producing a gene- 
ral famine; and they abound 
in those regions at the present 
day. A modern traveller, in 
speaking of Hamath, says: — 
" The western part of its terri- 
tory is the granary of northern 
Syria; though the harvest never 
yields more than ten for one, 
chiefly in consequence of the 
immense numbers of mice, 
which sometimes wholly de- 
stroy the crops." 

MOWINGS, king's. (Amos 
vii. 1.) It was the custom in 
Judea to lead out the cattle to 
feed in the common pastures 
in the month of April. The 
horses of the kings, and those 
designed for war, were turned 
in during the month of March, 
and of course had the best 
of the feeding; and the flocks 
and herds in general were 
not suffered to go into the pas- 
tures until after these horses 
were taken out and put to bar- 
ley, which was then common 
food during the residue of the 
year. The vision of Amos re- 
presents the judgment of God 
in sending locusts to eat off 
and destroy the grass, which 
had sprung up after the king's 
feedings had past, and on which 
the people depended for the 
sustenance of their flocks and 
herds. (See Hay.) 

MUFFLERS, (lsa. iii. 19 ? ) or 
spangled ornaments, (as it is 
in the margin,) are supposed 
to have been a covering for the 
face, such as is now worn by 
women of the east. It is seen 
on the face of the subjoined 
figure. 



460 



MUL 



MUR 







MULBERRY TREES. 
<2Sam.v.23,24) A common fruit 
tree, whose leaf affords the ap- 

Eropriate food of the silkworm. 
1 one of David's campaigns 
against the Philistines, it be- 
came a question whether he 
should attack them as they lay- 
encamped in the valley of 
Rephaim. He was told to take 
a certain position over against 
a grove ot mulberry trees, per- 
haps under a hill which was 
surmounted by such a grove, 
and at a given signal, probably 
a rushing of wind in the lop- 
most branches of the trees, 
resembling, we may suppose, 
such signals of God's presence 
as were given on other occa- 
sions, (Jonah i. 4. Acts ii. 2,) he 
was to make the onset, (IChron. 
xiv. 14, 15 ;) which he did, and 
was completely victorious. 

MULE. (2 Sam. xiii. 29.) 
The name of the offspring of 
the horse and the ass. It is 
much smaller than the former, 
and is a remarkably hardy, 
patient, obstinate, sure-footed 
animal, living ordinarily twice 
as long as a horse. Mules 
are much used in Spain and 
South America for transporting 
goods across the mountains. So 
also in the Alps, they are used 
by travellers among the moun- 



tains, where a horse wou*d 
hardly be able to pass whh 
safety. 

Even the kings and most dis- 
tinguished nobles of the Jews 
were accustomed to ride upon 
mules. (See passage above 
cited, and also 2 Sam. xviii. 9. 
1 Kings i. 33 ; x. 25 ; xviii. 5. 
2Chron. ix. 24. Esth. viii. 10. 
14.) It is probable that the 
Jews purchased, but did not 
raise mule3. (Lev. xix. 19.) 

The Hebrew word translated 
mules, in Gen. xxxvi. 24, signi- 
fies more properly hot foun- 
tains, or baths. That these 
places should be discovered by 
means of animals who were 
burnt by them, or refused to 
drink of them, is nothing won- 
derful. This would give a bet- 
ter meaning to this pasage. 
The desert of Arabia has many 
warm baths. There is in the 
neighbourhood of the Dead Sea, 
in the ancient country of the 
Edomites, where Anah belong- 
ed, a famous bath of this kin(3, 
known to the Greeks and Ro- 
mans under the name of Calir- 
rhoe. This place is mentioned 
by Josephus among others,who, 
in speaking of Herod's sick 
ness, says, "He not only hoped 
for restoration, but thought of 
the means. He caused himself 
451 



tvtjh 

to be carried over the Jordan, 
and used the warm baths at 
Calirrhoe, which flow into the 
lake Asphaltites." Pliny also 
says of them: "Upon the south 
side of the lake Asphaltites is 
a warm fountain cf great virtue 
i n restoring health jwhose name 
indicates the fame of the wa- 
ter." The Greek word Calir- 
rhoe signifies beautiful foun- 
tain. The remarkable cha- 
racter of this water may be 
the reason why it is introduced 
in the narrative in so unusual 
a manner. 

MURDER. (Ps. x. 8.) The 
Tewish law calls a murderer 
one who slays another from 
enmity, hatred, or by lying in 
wait. "For this crime there was 
no pardon ; the city of refuge, 
and even the altar, furnished 
no asylum, nor might money be 
taken i n satisfaction. (Ex. xxi . 
14. 28, 29. Num. xxxv. 30—32. 
1 Kings ii. 5, 6. 28-34.) It 
seems to have been regarded 
as one of the most odious and 
abominable crimes, (Deut. xix. 
13 ; xxi. 9. Num. xxxv. 33, 34 ;) 
and was a subject of early and 
severe legislation. (Gen. ix. 6.) 
In case of the inadvertent kill- 
ing of another, provision was 
made for the protection of the 
offender by cities of refuge. 
(See Cities op Refuge.) 

MURRAIN. (Ex. ix. 3.) 
This was the fifth in order of 
the plagues with which the 
Egyptians were visited when 
they held the Israelites in 
bondage. The word translated 
murrain signifies death ; and 
may mean death by plague, or 
pestilence, or any other fatal 
disease. The term mortality 
would be nearest in sense to 
the original, as no particular 
disorder is specified by the 
Hebrew word. 

This sudden and dreadful 
mortality was among the cattle 
in the field, including horses, 
asses, camels, oxen, and sheep. 
It was, however, confined to 



MUS 

the Egyptian cattle, and to 
those that were in the field; 
for though the cattle of Israel 
breathed the same air, and 
drank the same water, and 
fed in the same pastures, not a 
creature of theirs died. The 
word all is often used in Scrip- 
ture for the mass or great pro- 
portion. It is probable that 
nearly all the cattle in the 
field were destroyed by this 
plague, and the few that sur- 
vived or were afterwards sent 
into the field, were destroyed 
by the succeeding storm of fire 
and hail. Many horses must 
have escaped ; perhaps all the 
war horses. (Comp. Ex. xiv. 
27,28: xv. 21.) 

MUSIC. (1 Sam. xviii. 6.) 
This was an important part of 
the festivities and religious ser 
vices of the Jews. In their 
annual pilgrimages to Jerusa- 
lem, their march was thus en- 
livened. (Isa. xxx. 29.) This 
is still the custom in oriental 
pilgrimages. The practice of 
music was not restricted to any 
one class of persons. (1 Chron. 
xiii. 8 ; xv. 16.) The sons of 
Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun 
were set apart by David for 
the musical service, and the 
nu her of them, with their 
brethren, that were instructed 
in the songs of the Lord were 
two hundred and eighty-eight. 
They were divided, like the 
priests,into twenty-four courses, 
which are enumerated,lChron. 
xxv. Of the 38,000 LeviteSx/imr 
thousand praised the Lord with 
instruments, (1 Chron. xxiii. 5 ;) 
being more than one in ten of 
the whole available members 
of the tribe of Levi. Each of the 
courses,or classes, had onehun- 
dred and fifty-four musicians 
and three leaders, and all were 
under the general direction of 
Asaph and his brethren. Each 
course served for a week ; but, 
upon the festivals, all were re 
quired to be present, orfour thou 
sand musicians. Heman, with 
453 



MUS 

one of his leaders, directed the 
central choir, Asaph the right, 
and Jeduthun the left wing. 
These several choirs answered 
one another, as is generally 
supposed , in that kind of al- 
ternate singing which is call- 
ed antiphonal, or responsive. 
The priests, in the mean time, 
performed upon the silver trum- 
pets. (2Chron.v. 11— 14.) It is 
necessary to suppose, that, in 
order to ensure harmony from 
such a number of voices as 
this, some musical notes were 
used. This truly regal direction 
of sacred music continued after 
the death of David until the 
captivity ; for though under the 
impious reign of some kings, 
the whole of these solemnities 
fell into disuse, they were re- 
vived by Hezekiah and Josiah. 
And although during the exile 
the sweet singers of Israel 
hanged their harps upon the 
willows by the waters of Baby- 
lon, yet two hundred musicians 
returned with Ezra to the Holy 
Land. (Ezra ii. 65.) 

Musical instruments.(Ecc1. 
ii. 8.) They were invented by 
Jubal, the son of Lamech,(Gen. 
iv. 21,) and had appropriate 
names. (Gen. xxxi. 27.) They 
may be divided into three 
classes: stringed instruments, 
wind instruments, and such 
as gave their sounds on being 
struck. Of stringed instru- 
ments were the harp, the in- 
strument of ten strings, the 
sackbut, and psaltery. They 
are described under their pro- 
per names. 

The instruments of music 
mentioned in 1 Sam. xviii. 6, 
as used by women, are suppos- 
ed to have been metallic tri- 
angles, as the name indicates. 
The instrument often strings 
resembled a modern guitar,hav- 
ing its strings stretched over 
something not unlike a drum; 
and it was played with the 
i fingers. (For description and 
engravings of several ancient 



MYS 

musical instruments, see He- 
brew Customs, pp. 79—87, by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

MUSTARD. GMatt.xiii.31.) 
A species of the plant known 
to us by the same name, but 
of much larger size, and espe- 
cially in the fertile soil of Ju- 
dea. With us it is a small 
annual herb, but there it grew 
to the size of a fig tree, and was 
sufficiently large to bear the 
weight of a man to climb upon 
it. The seeds are very small ; 
so that it proverbially express- 
ed the least thing, or the mi- 
nutest particle. It was the 
largest plant from the small- 
est seed which was then or 
is now known. Hence the 
figure used in our Saviour's 
parable forcibly illustrates the 
contrast between the infancy 
of his church and its final pros- 
perity, as well as between the 
early fruits of God's grace in 
the soul, and the full develope- 
ment of Christian character in 
the believer. 

MYRA. (Acts xxvii. 5.) A 
seaport of Syria, and one of its 
principal cities, was situated 
near the southernmost cape of 
Asia Minor, where Paul em- 
barked for Rome in a ship of 
Alexandria. 

The magnificent ruins of 
Myra, now Cacamo, attest the 
opulence of the age of Adrian 
and Trajan. The necropolis, 
or place of interments, has of 
itself the appearance of a city 

MYRRH. (Gen.xliii.il.) A 
medicinal gum, yielded by a 
thorny tree which grows eight 
or nine feet high, chiefly im- 
ported from Arabia to the East 
Indies. It was at a very early 
period an article of commerce, 
(Gen. xxxvii. 25,) and was an 
ingredient of the holy oint- 
ment. (Ex. xxx. 23,) and oi the 
embalming substance. (John 
xix. 39.) It was also used as 
an agreeable perfume. (Esth, 
ii. 12. Ps.xlv.8. Prov. vii. 17.) 
It was also regarded among 
453 



MYR 

the valuable gifts which it was 
customary to present to kings, 
nobles, and others, as a token 
of respect in ancient times 
and countries. (Gen. xliii. 11. 
Matt. ii. 1. 11.) 

In Matt. xxvii.34,it is said,that 
they gave Jesus to drink vine- 
gar" mixed with gall, which, 
in Mark xv. 23, is called wine 
mingled with myrrh. It was 
probably the sour wine which 
the Roman soldiers used to 
drink, mingled with myrrh 
and other bitter substances; 
very much like the bitters of 
modern times. 

MYRTLE. (Isa. xli. 19.) A 
beautiful, fragrant, and orna- 
mental evergreen. The seeds 
of one species of the myrtle, 
being collected and dried be- 
fore they are ripe, are called 
pimento, or allspice. Groves 
of the myrtle are still found of 
spontaneous growth in Judea 
and corresponding latitudes; 
and for the rich hue of their 
green, polished leaves, their 



MYS 

agTeeable fragrance, and beau- 
tiful flowers, are used by the 
sacred writer, in contrast with 
the noxious, useless brier, to 
illustrate the prosperity and 
glory of the church. (Isa. lv.13. 
See also Isa. xli. 19 ; and Zeqh. 
i. 8—11.) 

The myrtle furnished the 
wreaths of ancient heroes and 
victors. Branches of the myrtle 
were gathered, among others, 
to cover the booths and tents or 
the Jews at the celebration of 
the feast of tabernacles. (Lev. 
xxiii. 40. Comp. Neh. viii. 15.) 

MYSIA. (Actsxvi.7.) A 
province of Asia Minor, and at 
this day a beautiful and fertile 
country. It has the sea of Pro- 
pontis on the north, Lydia on 
the south, and Bythinia on the 
east. In the northern section 
of My si a was the province in 
which the ancient city of Troy 
was situated, and not far dis- 
tant was the Troas mentioned 
by Paul. (Acts xvi. 8; xx. 6. 
2Cor.ii. 12. 2 Tim. iv. 13.) 



NAA 

NAAMAN. (2Kingsv.6.) A 
Syrian general of great 
distinction and bravery, (2 
Kings v. 1,) who applied to the 
prophet Elisha to relieve him 
of the leprosy with which he 
was severely afflicted. He was 
induced to make the applica- 
tion in consequence of what 
was said to his wife, about the 
prophet, by a little girl, who 
had been taken captive from 
among the Israelites, and was 
living in the general's family. 
Taking with him a letter of 
introduction from the king of 
Syria to the king of Israel, 
(supposing, perhaps, that the 
king of Israel would know 
what prophet was meant, and 
would have influence over 
him,) Naaman ascended his 
chariot, and, with much pomp, 
(2 Kings v. 9. 13,) went to the 



NAA 
king of Israel, who resided in 
Samaria. 

The king of Israel expressed 
his surprise and grief that the 
king of Syria should send him 
such a letter ; and it was soon 
noised abroad that the Syrian 
general was at the palace, and 
for what purpose he had come. 
Elisha sent word to the king 
that he need not be concerned. 
If the leprous stranger would 
come to him, he should see 
that there was a prophet in 
Israel. So Naaman applied 
to Elisha, and was directed- 
merely to wash seven times in 
the river Jordan. This simple 
remedy seemed to Naaman 
altogether inadequate. If the 
mere washing of the body would 
suffice, there were waters in 
Syria purer and more salutary 
than all the waters of Israel. 
454 



NAB 

Thy, then, make a journey to 
Samaria to wash in the Jordan? 
He was about to leave the place 
in indignation, when some of 
his retinue very wisely sug- 
gested to him, that if the pro- 
phet had proposed some ex- 
pensive or difficult remedy, he 
would have tried it at once ; 
and surely he could not refuse 
to try one which was so simple, 
and which, whether successful 
or not, would cost neither toil 
nor money. Thus they per- 
suaded him to follow the pro- 
phet's prescription ; and, upon 
washing in the Jordan seven 
times, his flesh and health 
were perfectly restored. 

Deeply impressed with the 
power of the God of Israel, by 
which his loathsome disease 
was thus suddenly cured, he 
offered a reward to Elisha, 
which he promptly declined. 
He then voluntarily renounced 
all his idolatrous practices; 
and asked for a quantity of 
earth from the soil on which the 
prophet and the people of God 
dwelt, nerhaps that he might 
btHd Wih it t.n alw to tu^ 
God of Israel; and so tender 
had his conscience become, 
that he feared even to attend 
his master the king in his idol- 
atrous services, as his official 
duty required, without asking 
beforehand if such attendance 
might be pardoned. It seems 
that Elisha was disposed to 
trust him to the dictates of his 
own conscience, which was 
evidently under divine influ- 
ence. We are not informed of 
his subsequent history. (For 
map, and particular history of 
this transaction, see Elisha, 
ch. vi., by Am. S. S. Union.) 

NABAL. (1 Sam. xxv. 3.) A 
very wealthy citizen of Maon. 
When David was in the wil- 
derness of Paran, Nabal was 
in the vicinity of Carmel, a 
place west of the Dead Sea, 
shearing his sheep, of which 
he had no less than three thou- 



NAB 

sand. David sent ten of his 
young men to ask him for sup 
plies in the most courteous 
manner; but Nabal, who was 
proverbially churlish, refused, 
in the most offensive terms, to 
grant his request. David im- 
mediately ordered four hun- 
dred of his men to arm them- 
selves and follow him to the 
place where Nabal lodged, in- 
tending to destroy him and all 
that pertained to him. When 
they drew near, Abigail, the 
discreet and beautiful wife of 
this son of Belial, was admo- 
nished of their purpose. She 
promptly made up a sumptuous 
present, and,without the know- 
ledge of her husband, set forth 
to meet David, with her ser- 
vants, and with asses to bear 
the gifts. When David met 
her, she showed him the most 
profound reverence, and so en- 
tirely conciliated him, that he 
received her present, and gave 
her his blessing. When~A2)i- 
gail returned, she found her 
husband at a feast which he 
had made at his own house; 
anc she WerreA comxiuni- 
cating to him the history and 
result of her embassy until he 
should recover from the effects 
of his indulgence. He had no 
sooner received her statement, 
than he was seized with a se- 
vere illness,which proved fatal 
at the end of ten days. (For a 
full and interesting account of 
this scene, with cuts, &c, see 
Life of David, ch. xv., by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

NABOTH. (1 Kings xxi. 1.) 
An Israelite of the town of 
Jezreel, who owned a vineyard 
adjoining the palace of king 
Ahab. Anxious to secure this 
particular spot that he might 
use it for a garden, the king 
proposed to buy it, or give him 
some other property of equal 
value; but Naboth declined, 
to the great disappointment 
and mortification of the wiclr 
ed monarch. Jezebel, his mora 
455 



NAH 

wicked wife,immediately form- 
ed a plan to take the life of 
Naboth, in which she succeed- 
ed; and so Ahab obtained pos- 
session of his inheritance. (See 
Ahab, Jezebel.) 

NADAB, (1 Kings xv. 25,) 
son and successor of Jeroboam, 
king of Israel, reigned two 
years. His reign was wicked 
and, corrupt, and he was finally 
assassinated while prosecuting 
the siege of Gibbethon, a Phi- 
listine city. cSee Abihu.) 

NAH ASH. (See Ammon- 
ites.) 

NAHOR, (Gen.xi.23,) or 
NACHOR, (Josh. xxiv. 2,) was 
the name of Abraham's grand- 
father, and also the name of 
one of Abraham's brothers, 
(Gen. xi. 26,) who married Mil- 
cah, the daughter of Haran. 
(Gen. xi. 29.) He lived at Ha- 
ran; which is thence called 
the city ofNahor. (Gen. xxiv. 
10.) 

NAHUM. (Nah.i.l.) A na- 
tive of Eli-Koshai, a village of 
Galilee, the ruins of which 
were plainly discernible as 
lately as the fourth century. 
There is considerable diversity 
of opinion as to the time in 
which he lived. 

Prophecy of, is the thirty- 
fourth in the order of the books 
of the Old Testament. Though 
divided into three chapters, it 
is a continuous poem of unri- 
valled spirit and sublimity, 
and admirable for the elegance 
of its imagery. It relates 
chiefly to the destruction of 
the magnificent city of Nine- 
veh, which had been prophe- 
sied by Jonah nearly a century 
before. These predictions (it 
is supposed) were made in the 
reign of Hezekiah, and have 
been remarkably fulfilled, 
both as to the fact and the 
manner of their fulfilment. 
The city of Nineveh was de- 
stroyed about a century after 
the prophecy of Nahum was 
uttered ; and so complete was 



NAM 
its overthrow, that the site o» 
which it stood has been matter 
of mere conjecture for nearly 
or quite sixteen centuries. 

NAIL. (Ezra ix. 8.) Travel 
lers tell us, what we might 
infer from the frail materials 
and weak construction of east- 
ern dwellings, that the nails 
or spikes which are necessary 
to hang up garments, curtaina, 
and utensils of various kinds, 
are not driven in, but are built 
in firmly with the wall, in the 
process of its erection. They 
are large, and being quite con- 
spicuous, are well finished. 
The force of the figure in th© 
above passage'is obvious, inas- 
much as the nail being not, like 
ours, easily drawn and placed 
elsewhere, was a part of the 
fabric itself, and could only be 
removed with the wall itself 
or some part of it. Hence the 
word in the margin is rerw- 
dered a constant and sure 
abode. (See, also, Zech. x. 4.) 
The nail with which Jael 
killed Sisera was a tent pin, 
with which the cords of a tent 
are fixed to the ground. 

NAIN. (Lukevii.ll.) A city 
of Galilee, south of Mount Ta- 
bor, and but a little distance 
from Capernaum. It is now a 
Turkish village, inhabited by 
Jews, Mohammedans, and a 
few Christians. The place is 
distinguished as the scene of 
one oif Christ's most remar&r 
able and affecting miracles* 
(Luke vii. 11—15.) 

NAIOTH. (1 Sam. xix. 22.) 
A part of the town of Ramaft^ 
(or, as the word signifies, the 
meadows of Jlamah,) where a 
school of the prophets was es* 
tablished. 

NAME. (Gen. ii. 19.) Thte 
word, in some passages of 
Scripture, has a peculiar sig- 
nification, as in Prov. xviii. 1(A 
where the term denotes God 
himself, with all his attributes 
and perfections. (See, also, 
Ps. xx. 1. 5. 7.) In the New 
456 



^ NAO 
Testament, it usually means 
the character, faith, or doctrine 
of Christ. (Acts v. 41 ; viii. 12; 
ix. 15, and xxvi. 9.) 

Names among the Jews were 
often given, in allusion to some 
peculiar circumstances in the 
character, birth, or destiny of 
the individual, (Ex. ii. 10, and 
xviii.3,4;) and sometimes it had 
a prophetic meaning. (Matt. i. 
21.) Many instances occur in 
Scripture of the same person 
having two names. Names 
were changed, and are still, 
in eastern countries, for slight 
reasons. A change of office 
or station often occasioned a 
change of name. 

And upon his thigh a name 
written. (Rev. xix. 16.) This 
phrase alludes to an ancient 
custom in the eastern nations 
of adorning the images of their 
gods and the persons of princes 
and heroes with inscriptions 
expressive of their character, 
titles, &c. They were made on 
the garment, or on one of the 
thighs; and several ancient 
statues have been discovered, 
with inscriptions of one or two 
lines, written sometimes hori- 
zontally and sometimes per- 
pendicularly both on the inside 
and outside of the thigh, and 
sometimes upon both thighs. 
Men surname themselves by 
the name of Israel, when, hav- 
ing been before Gentiles and 
sinners, they join themselves 
to Jesus and his church. (Isa. 
xliv. 5. See Stone, Thigh.) 

NAHSHON, (Num. vii. 12,) 
son of Amminadab, and head 
of the tribe of Judah, made the 
first offering for the tabernacle 
in the wilderness. He is the 
only one of the heads of tribes 
who is not called a prince in 
the history of this transaction. 
Probably the omission was de- 
signed; as, to be the head of 
;Xe tribe of Judah was, from 
tfie pre-eminence of that tribe, 
* sufficient honour. 

NAOMI. (Ruth i. 2.) The 
39 



NAT 

wife of Elimelech, and the 
mother-in-law of Ruth, who 
moved with their two sons from 
Judea to Moab. Elimelech 
died, and also his two sons, 
each leaving a widow; and 
Naomi, having thus been left 
alone, returned to her home in 
Judea. So severe had been 
her afflictions, that she pro- 
posed to her friends on her re- 
turn to call her Mara, (which 
signifies bitter,) rather than 
Naomi, (which signifies beau- 
tiful) (Ruth i. 19—21. See 
Ruth. See also Affection* 
ate Daughter-in-law, by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

NAPHTALI, (Gen. xxx. 8,) 
or NEPHTHALIM. (Matt. iv. 
15.) A son of Jacob by Bilhah, 

Tribe of, received their 
portion of the promised land 
in the northern part, be- 
tween the Jordan on the east, 
and the possessions of Asher 
on the west. It was one of the 
most fruitful sections of the 
country, and included the 
sources of the Jordan. (Josh, 
xxi. 32—39.) This tribe was 
peculiarly blessed of God, 
(Deut.xxxiii. 23;) and the figu- 
rative language in which the 
benediction of Jacob is ex- 
pressed (Gen. xlix. 21) implies 
the increase, power, and pros- 
perity of the family of Naph- 
tali. The city of Capernaum, 
where Christ resided and 
taught so much, was situated 
in the borders of Zebulon 
and Naphtali, near Tiberias. 
Hence the language of the 
prophet. (Isa. ix. 1. See Hind. 
See also Youth's Friend, for 
December, 1828, by Am. S.S, 
Union.) 

NATHAN. (2 Sam. vii. 2.) 
A distinguished prophet of Ju- 
dea, who lived in the reign of 
David, and enjoyed a larg* 
share of his confidence. To 
him David first intimated hii 
design to build the temple; and 
he was divinely instructed U 
inform the king that this ho 
457 



NAT 
now was not for him, but foi 
his posterity. Nathan was also 
charged with the divine mes- 
sage to David, upon the occa- 
sion of his sin against Uriah, 
which he conveyed under a 
most beautiful and significant 
allegory, by which he made 
the king to condemn himself. 
Nathan was one of David's bi- 
ographers. (1 Chron. xxix. 29.) 
There are several others of 
this name mentioned in the 
Bible, of whose history we are 
uninformed. (2Sam.v.l4; xxiii. 
36. 1 Chron. xi. 38. Ezra viii. 
16. Luke iii. 31.) 

NATHANAEL, (John i. 45,) 
one of the twelve disciples, is 
supposed to be the same with 
Bartholomew. (See Bartho- 
lomew.) He was called upon 
by Philip to go with him and 
see the Messiah, who had just 
appeared. Nathanael seems to 
have doubted his friend's tes- 
timony; but, to resolve his 
doubts, consented to accompa- 
ny him. As they approached 
the Messiah, he received the 
most emphatic te? f imony to his 
integ^ty tho.. can ^.e founl on 
record. (John i. 47.) Jesus* on 
this occasion declared his om- 
niscience; for he professes to 
know his character and heart 
at their first interview, and 
assures him that his eye was 
upon him under a fig tree, be- 
neath the shade of which he 
had probably been engaged in 
religious exercises. (John i. 50.) 
Nathanael was convinced; and 
acknowledged him as the true 
Messiah. Christ thereupon as- 
sured him in substance that 
he should see still more con- 
vincing evidences of his mes- 
siahship in the progress of his 
ministry; in the doctrines he 
should teach ; in the miracles 
he should work; and in the 
peculiar favour and protection 
of God which he should enjoy. 
Among those greater evidences 
may have been the events re- 
corded Matt. iii. 17; iv 11; 



NAZ 
xvii. 5. John xi. 42 ; xii. 28— 
30. 

NAZARENE. (Matt. ii. 23.) 
An inhabitant of Nazareth. 
The passage from the prophets, 
to which reference is here 
made, is not known; and the 
probability is, that the refer- 
ence is rather to the general 
current of prophecy respecting 
the humble and despised con- 
dition of Christ. To come out 
of Nazareth^ or to be a Naza- 
rene, rendered one an object of 
reproach and contempt. (See 
Christ. Comp, Isa. liii. 2—12, 
and John i. 46; vii. 52.) 

NAZARETH. (Matt.xxi.ll.) 
A town in Galilee, within the 
territory of Zebulon, from fifty 
to seventy miles north of Jeru- 
salem, now known as Nasse- 
ra, or Naserah. It was noted 
for its wickedness. (John i, 
46.) It occupies an elevated 
site about midway between 
mount Tabor and Cana. Jesus 
spent much of his time here ; 
and hence the title Jesus of 
Nazareth. (Markxvi.6. Luke 
xxiv V9. Ans ii. 2^.) 

A precipice of fifty .eet.wwich 
lies about a mile from the vil- 
lage, is regarded as the place 
to which trie people of the town 
carried Jesus, with the savage 
intention of casting him off. 
(Luke iv. 29.) There is a Ro- 
man Catholic church here, 
called the Church of the An- 
7iunciation 1 erected, as they 
say, on the spot where Mary 
the mother of our Lord received 
the divine message. It is the 
most magnificent church in the 
land, except that of the Holy 
Sepulchre at Jerusalem The 
traditions of the inhabitants re- 
specting the fountain of Mary, 
the house of Joseph, and the 
synagogue where Christ, taught, 
are not worthy of remembrance. 

A modern traveller describes 
Nazareth as situated upon the 
declivity of a hill, the vale 
which spreads out before it 
resembling a circular basin, 
468 



. 



NAZ 

encompassed by mountains. 
Fifteen mountains appear to 
meet to form an enclosure for 
this beautiful spot, around 
which they lise like the edge 
of a shell, to guard it against 
intrusion. It is a rich and 
beautiful field in the midst of 
barren mountains. 

Another traveller speaks of 
the streets as narrow and 
steep, the houses, which are 
flat-roofed, are about two hun- 
dred and fifty in number, and 
the inhabitants he estimates 
at 2000. The population of 
the place is variously stated, 
though the average estimate 
is 3000 ; of whom about five 
hundred are Turks, and the 
residue nominal Christians. 

As all testimony to the truth 
and fidelity of the sacred nar- 
rative is important, we have 
thought ourselves justified in 
connecting with this, article a 
passage from the journal of 
Mr. Jowett, an intelligent mo- 
dern traveller; especially as it 
is so lull an illustration of the 
passage of Luke already cited. 

"Nazareth is situated on the 
side, and extends nearly to the 
foot, of a hill, which, though 
not very high, is rather steep 
and overhanging. The eye na- 
turally wanders over its sum- 
mit, in questof some pointfrom 
which it might probably be 
that the men of this place en- 
deavoured to cast our Saviour 
down, (Luke iv. 29,) but in 
vain : no rock adapted to such 
an object appears here. At the 
foot of the hill is a modest, 
simple plain, surrounded by 
low hills, reaching in length 
nearly a mile ; in breadth, near 
the city, a hundred and fifty 
yards : but farther south, about 
four hundred yards. On this 
plain there are a few olive and 
fig trees, sufficient, or rather 
scarcely sufficient, to make the 
spot picturesque. Then fol- 
lows a ravine, which gradual- 
ly grows deeper and narrower 



NAZ 
towards the south ; till, aftei 
walking about another mile, 
you find yourself in an im- 
mense chasm, with steeprocks . 
on either side, from whence 
you behold, as it were beneath 
your feet, and before you, the 
noble plain of Esdraelon. No- 
thing can be finer thar the ap- 
parently immeasurable pros- 
pect of this plain, bounded on 
the south by the mountains of 
Samaria. The^levation of tha 
hills on which the spectato 
stands in this ravine is ver 
great ; and the whole scene, 
when we saw it, was clothed 
inthe most richmountain-blue 
colour that can be conceived. 
At this spot, on the right hand 
of the ravine, is shown the 
rock to which the men of Na- 
zareth are supposed to have 
conducted our Lord, for the 
purpose of throwinghimdown. 
With the Testament in our 
hands, we endeavoured to ex- 
amine the probabilities of the 
spot ; and I confess there is 
nothing in it which excites a 
scruple of incredulity in my 
mind. The rock here is per- 
pendicular for about fifty feet, 
down which space it would be 
easy to hurl a person who 
should be unawares broughtto 
the summit; and his perishing 
would be a very certain conse- 
quence. That the spot might 
be at a considerable distance 
from the city is an idea not 
inconsistent with St. Luke'a 
account; for the expression 
thrusting Jesus out of the city 
and leading him to the brow of 
the hill on which their city was 
built, gi ves fair scope for ima- 
gining, that in their rage and 
debate, the Nazarenes might, 
without originally intending 
his murder, press upon him 
for a cons'derable distance 
after thej .bad quitted the 
synagogue The distance, as 
already noirced, from mo- 
dern Nazareth to this spot, is 
scarcely two miles ; a space 
459 



NAZ 

which, in the fury of persecu- 
tion, might soon be passed, 
over. Or, should this appear 
too considerable, it is by no 
«neans certain but that Naza- 
reth may at that time have 
extended through the princi- 

Eal part of the plain, which I 
ave described as lying before 
the modern town. In this case, 
the distance passed over might 
not exceed a mile. I can see, 
therefore, no reason for think- 
ing otherwise, than that this 
may be the real scene where 
our divine prophet Jesus re- 
ceived so great a dishonour 
from the men of his own coun- 
try and of his own kindred." 

Mr. Fisk, an American mis- 
sionary, was at Nazareth In 
the autumn of 1823. His de- 
scription corresponds general- 
ly with that of Mr. Jowett. He 
estimates the population to be 
from 3000 to 5000, viz. Greeks, 
three hundred or four hundred 
families ; Turks, two hundred ; 
Catholics,one hundred; Greek 
Catholics, forty or fifty; Ma- 
ronites, twenty or thirty; say 
in all seven hundred houses. 

(For a beautiful sketch of 
modern Nazareth, and the sur- 
rounding country, with particu- 
lar descriptions, see Views of 
Palestine, pp. 23—27, by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

NAZARITES. (Num. vi. 2, 
&c.) The term is derived from a 
Hebrew word signifying to se- 
parate. A Nazarite, under the 
ancient law, was one engaged 
by a vow to abstain from wine 
and all intoxicating liquors, to 
let the hair grow, not to enter 
any house polluted by having a 
dead body in it, nor to be pre- 
sent at any funeral. If, by 
accident, any one should have 
died in his or her presence, the 
Nazarite was bound to recom- 
mence the whole term of con- 
secration and Nazariteship. 
This vow generally lasted 
eight days, sometimes a month, 
and sometimes during life. 



NEA 
When the time of Nazarite- 
ship had expired, the person 
brought an offering to the tem- 
ple ; the priest then cut off his 
hair and burnt it ; after which 
the Nazarite wa3 free from his 
vow, and might again drink 
wine. (Num. vi.) Perpetual 
Nazarites were consecrated as 
such by their parents from their 
birth, and continued all their 
lives in this state, neither 
drinking wine nor cutting their 
hair. Such were Samson and 
John the Baptist. (Judg. xiii. 
4,5. Lukei. 15; vii. 33.) 

Those who made a vow of 
Nazariteship out of Palestine, 
and could not come to the 
temple when their vow had 
expired, contented themselves 
with observing the abstinence 
required by the law, and cut- 
ting off their hair in the place 
where they were. The offer- 
ings and sacrifices prescribed 
by Moses, to be offered at the 
temple, by themselves, or by 
others for them, they deferred 
till a convenient opportunity. 
Hence Paul, being at Corinth, 
and having made the vow of 
a Nazarite, had his hair cut 
off at Cenchrea, but deferred 
the complete fulfilment of his 
vow till he came to Jerusalem, 
(Acts xviii. 18.) 

Why this vow was made by 
Paul we know not, unless it 
was upon his deliverance from 
some imminent danger, and to 
conciliate the Jews by com- 
plying with a very solemn and 
salutary requirement of their 
ritual. The charges (Acts xxi. 
24) were for offerings required 
at the completion of the vow. 
The Nazarites constituted a 
sect or a class by themselves, 
like the prophets, and were 
examples of self-denial and 
holy living. (Amos ii. 11, 12.) 

NEAPOLIS. (Acts xvi. 11.) 
A city of Macedonia, on the 
Egean coast, known in modern 
times as Napoli. Paul visited 
it on his way to Philippi. 



NEB 

NEBAIOTH, (Isa. lx. 7,) or 
NEBAJOTH. (Gen. xxv. 13.) 
A son of Ishmael, whose de- 
scendants are supposed to have 
settled in Arabia, and to have 
been the Nabatheans of Greek 
and Roman history. They 
were probably rich in flocks 
and herds ; whence the beau- 
tiful figure of the prophet above 
cited, respecting the gathering 
of the Gentile nations to the 
sceptre of the Messiah. 

NEBO. 1. (Deut. xxxii.49.) 
One of the summits of the 
mountains of Abarim, the peak 
of which overlooked the whole 
length and breadth of the pro- 
mised land. (Deut. xxxiv. 1—4.) 

2. (Jer. xlviii. 1.) A town in 
the neighbourhood of mount 
Nebo, the name of which was 
derived from an idol worship- 
ped there, (Isa. xlvi. 1,) where 
Bel i3 supposed to mean the 
sun, and Nebo the moon. The 
possession of the place was 
contested by the tribe of Reu- 
ben and the Moabites. (Num. 
xxxii.38. Isa. xv. 2. Jer. xlviii. 
22.) 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR, 
(2 Kings xxiv. 1,) king of Baby- 
lon, was son and successor of 
Nabopolassar. He lived about 
six hundred years before the 
birth of Christ, and shared 
in the administration of the 
government about two years 
before his father's decease. 
Hence there is some diversity 
in the chronological references 
to his reign; some computing 
It from the time of his associa- 
tion with his father, and others 
from the time his sole reign 
commenced. (Comp. Dan. ii. 
1. Jer. xxv. 1.) We cannot but 
advert hereto the casual evi- 
dence of the genuineness of 
the sacred history. The Jews 
coir.pute the reign of Nebu- 
chadnezzar from the time of 
his association with his father, 
which makes the fourth year 
of Jehoiakim, the first of Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The Babylonians, 
39* 



NEB 

on the other hand, begin his 
reign at the death of his father; 
and as Daniel wrote in Chal- 
dea, he adopts the latter mode 
of computation, rather than the 
other. 

The king of Egypt, having 
subjugated the Jews, and seem- 
ing inclined to extend his con- 
quests to the Euphrates, Nebu- 
chadnezzar not only checked 
his advance, but entirely de- 
feated his army at Carchemish, 
dispossessing him of his newly- 
acquired dominions, leaving 
Jehoiakim at Jerusalem in a 
state of vassalage to Babylon 
and taking with him, as cap- 
tives, Daniel and other princes 
of Judah. (2 Kings xxiv.) In 
the reign of Jehoiachin, Ne- 
buchadnezzar again invaded 
Judea, and took several of the 
royal family and a multitude 
of others captive, and carried 
them, with a part of the sacred 
vessels of the temple, to Baby- 
lon. In the ninth year of the 
reign of Zedekiah, the Jews 
attempted to throw off the 
yoke,but Nebuchadnezzar was 
too powerful to be successfully 
resisted. The Egyptians, on 
whom the Jews had relied for 
succour, failed to assist them, 
and were themselves defeated. 
The holy city was besieged, 
captured, and destroyed, and 
the magnificent temple burn- 
ed; ana Nebuchadnezzar car- 
ried their king and a multitude 
of his subjects as captives to 
Babylon. Elated by the suc- 
cess of his expedition, the 
haughty king gloried in his 
power, and in the wealth and 
magnificence of his capital, 
(Dan. iv. 30 ;) but his pride was 
suddenly humbled by a most 
wonderful visitation of God's 
hand. He was thrown into a 
state of delirium, madness, or 
idiocy, in which he continued 
seven years ; as the compa- 
nion of the beasts of the field, 
living on grass or herbs. At 
the end of that term, his reason 
461 



NEC 

was restored, and he was re-in- 
Btated upon the throne, though 
in a very different state of 
mind from that in which he 
was deposed. The whole peri 
od of his reign was thirty-five 
or forty years, as he is sup- 
posed to have died b. c. 562. 
(See Babylon, Daniel. See 
also Life op Daniel, ch. i.— xi., 
Elisama, ch. i. v., and Union 
Questions, vol. ix., all by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

NEBUZAR-ADAN. (2 Kings 
xxv. 8.) General of the armies 
of Nebuchadnezzar. He con- 
ducted the siege of Jerusalem 
to a successful issue ; the par- 
ticulars of which are given in 
2Kin<isxxv. 8— 21. 

NfcfCHO. (2Chron. xxxv.20.) 
A king of Egypt, whose expe- 
ditions are often mentioned 
in profane history. As he was 
advancing upon Carchemish, 
an Assyrian city, he passed 
through the possessions of the 
kingofjudah. Josi ah, regarding 
this as an act of hostility, pre- 
pared to resisthis progress. Ne- 
cho sent ambassadors to inform 
him of the object of his expe- 
dition ; but as he was already 
in his kingdom, and avowed 
his hostile purposes against an 
ally of the kingdom of Judah, 
Josiah thought himself justified 
in opposing him. There was 
no evidence to Josiah that 
Necho was under the divine 
guidance, though he claimed 
to be so. It may be regarded 
as precipitate in him to have 
opposed such a force upon such 
grounds; and the issue was 
fatal. The battle was fought 
at Megiddo, and Josiah lost 
his life. Necho, on his return 
from his expedition into As- 
syria, stopped at Riblah, in 
Syria, and sent for Jehoahaz, 
who had succeeded to the 
throne of Judah upon the death 
of Josiah, and deposed him, 
loading him with chains, and 
sending him into Egypt. He 
then put the land of Judah 



N£H 

under a heavy tribute, making 
Eliakim (whose name he 
changed to Jehoiakim) king 
in the place of Jehoahaz. 
(See Elisama, by Am. S. S. 
Union, ch. i. ii. and iii.) 

NECROMANCER. (Deut. 
xviii. 11.) One who pretends 
to divine future events by 
questioning the dead. The 
practice has prevailed from a 
very early period among the 
pagan nations of the «ast. It 
was forbidden by the Levitical 
law. 

NEESINGS. (Job xli. 18.) 
By the force with which the 
leviathan breathes and throws 
forth water (in a manner not 
unlike sneezing) a light is 
caused. This is not impossi- 
ble by the laws of nature, but 
perhaps the expression is po- 
etical. Sneezing is occasioned 
by throwing the breath through 
the nose, and hence was an 
evidence of returning life. (2 
Kings iv. 35.) 

NEHEMIAH, (Ezra ii. 2,) 
son of Hachaliah, (Neh. x. 1,) 
was a Jew of distinguished 
piety and zeal, born in cap- 
tivity, but raised to the ho- 
nourable post of cup-bearer to 
Artaxerxes, king of Persia. 
Re used his influence with 
that monarch in behalf of his 
afflicted countrymen, and be- 
came their permanent bene- 
factor. He was commissioned, 
at his own request, to visit 
Jerusalem, and repair its ruin3, 
which he accomplished under 
the most perplexing difficul- 
ties. Nehemiah, as the tir- 
shatha or governor, and Ezra 
as the priest and scribe, (Neh. 
viii. 9,) were instrumental in 
restoring the worship of the 
Jews; and the sacred books 
were collected and compiled 
under their direction. 

Nehemiah administered the 
government of Jerusalem 
twelve years without salary, 
and in a manner most expen« 
sive to himself, (Neh. v. 14-» 
462 



NEH 

19 ,) and at the end of this I 
period he returned to Persia, I 
where he remained for an 
uncertain period. (Xeh. xiii. ; 
6.) He was absent long enough 
to allow great abuses^to arise 
in Jerusalem, (Neh. xiii. comp. 
Mai. ii. 10-17; iii. 6-12,) 
which, on his return, he made 
it his first business to correct, 
especially the violation of the 
Sabbath. By these means he 
restored his people, in some 
degree, to their former happy 
condition, and probably re- 
mained in power till his death, 
which it is supposed took place 
in Jerusalem. (See Elisama, 
chap. xii. and xiii., and Union 
Questions, vol. ix., both by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

Book of, is the sixteenth 
in the order of the books of the | 
Old Testament. It may be . 
regarded as a continuation ; 
or supplement to the book of 
Ezra, which immediately pre- j 
cedes it ; and in some Bibles ! 
it is called the second book ' 
of Ezra, though it is unques- 
tionably the "work of Nehe- 
miah. 

This book contains an ac- 
count of the motives and de- 
eigns of Nehemiah in wishing 
to restore Jerusalem, the place 
of his fathers' sepulchres ; of 
the commission he received; 
his associates in the work: 
their various successes and 
difficulties ; the introduction 
of a better order of things, both 
in the religious and civil de- 
partments of the government ; 
and a census or register of the 

Eeople. The OldT Testament 
istory closes with this book 
e. c. 420. After the death of 
Nehemiah, Judea became sub- 
ject to the governor of Syria. 

NEHILOTH, a word found 
it the beginning of the fifth 
Psalm, and which signifies 
probably the flutes, or" icind 
instruments. The title of the 
fifth Psalm may be thus trans- 
lated : ; A Psalm of David, 



NET 

addressed jo the master of 
music, presiding over the 
flutes.' 

NEHUSHTAN, (2 Kings 
xviii. 4,) brazen, a name given 
by Hezekiah king of Judah 
to the brazen serpent that Mo- 
ses had set up in the wilder- 
ness, (Num. xxi.8.) and which 
had been preserved by the 
Israelites to that time. The 
superstitious people having 
made an idol of this serpent, 
Hezekiah caused it to be 
burned, and in derision gave 
it the name of Nehushtan, 
i. e. little brazen serpent, or 
a piece of brass. 

NEIGHBOUR. (Luke x. 29.) 
The Pharisees restrained the 
meaning of the word neigh- 
bour to those of their own na- 
tion, or to their own friends. 
But our Saviour informed them 
that all the people of the world 
were neighbours to each other ; 
that they ought not to do to 
another what they would not 
have done to themselves ; and 
that this charity extended even 
to enemies. 

NEPvGAL. (2 Kings xvii. 30.) 
One of the gods of those hea- 
then who were transplanted 
into Palestine. This idol pro- 
bably represented the planet 
Mars, which was the emblem 
of bloodshed. The name Ner- 
gal appears also in the proper 
name Nergalsharezer, (Jer. 
xxxix 3 ) 

NETHINIMS. (Ezra ii. 43. 
58.) The word signifies given 
or dedicated persons. They 
were a remnant of the Gibeon- 
ites, and were given as sacred 
servants or bondmen to the 
priests, (1 Kings ix. 20—22,) 
and were employed as hewers 
of wood, and drawers of water 
for the house of the Lord. 
(IChron. ix. 2.) They were 
not the first, however, who 
were set apart as the Lord's 
bondmen ; for Moses had pre- 
viously mentioned vows, by 
which men devoted them- 
463 



NIC 

selves or others— that is, cnild- 
ren or servants— to God, to 
minister in the sanctuary. 
The number of these was 
greatly increased in later times 
by David and others. Their 
condition appears to have been 
easy. It was not till after the 
captivity that they were called 
Nethinims. (Neh. iii. 26; vii. 
46.60.73; x. 28; xi. 3. 21.) 

TheNethinims were carried 
into captivity with the tribe 
of Judah, and great numbers 
were placed not far from the 
Caspian Sea, whence Ezra 
Drought two hundred and 
twenty of them into Judea. 
(Ezra viii. 17—20.) 

NETTLES. (Prov.xxiv.31.) 
A well known, wild plant, the 
leaves of which are armed 
with stings, connected with a 
small bag of poison ; and when 
the leaves are pressed by the 
hand, the stings penetrate the 
flesh, and produce a swelling 
with a sharp burning pain. 
The leaf when wet or dead 
does not possess this power. 
The presence of nettles be- 
tokens a waste and neglected 
soil; hence the figure in the 
passage above cited, and in 
lsa. xxxiv. 13. Hos. ix. 6. The 
word rendered nettles in Job 
xxx. 7, and Zeph. ii. 9, is sup- 
posed to refer to different spe- 
cies of nettles, or to some larger 
shrub of similar properties, 
else it could not afford shelter. 

NEW MOON. (See Moon, 
Feasts, Month.) 

NEW TESTAMENT. (See 
Scriptures.) 

N1BHAZ. (2 Kings xvii. 31.) 
An idol god of the Avites. The 
signification of the original 
word i3 the seeing barker. 
Hence a connexion is traced 
between this idol and the 
Anubis of the Egyptians, repre- 
senting a dog's head and a 
man's body. 

NICODEMUS. (John iii. 1.) 
A ruler of the Jews, and a dis- 
tinguished member of the sect 



NIG 

of Pharisees, whose Toaversa 
tion with the Messiah, as re- 
corded in this chapter, reveals 
one of the grand doctrines of 
the Christian system, viz. re- 
generation by the Spirit op 
God. The simple but pointed 
instruction he received on this 
occasion seems to have been 
made effectual upon the heart 
and conscience of Nicodemus, 
as we find him afterwards 
evincing on more than one 
occasion his attachment to the 
Redeemer. (John vii. 45—53; 
xix. 39.) 

NICOLAITANS, or NICO- 
LAITANES. (Rev. ii. 6. 15.) 
An ancient sect, whose deeds 
are expressly and strongly re- 
probated. Some have supposed 
that the name is symbolical— 
Nicolans corresponding to Ba- 
laam, and that it denotes all 
false and seducing teachers 
like Balaam. (See Nicolas.) 

NICOLAS. (Actsvi.5.) One 
of the deacons of the church 
at Jerusalem in the days of 
the apostles. He was a native 
of Antioch, converted to Juda- 
ism, and thence to Christianity. 
It is supposed by some that he 
was the founder of the sect of 
Nicolaitans, but without suf- 
ficient warrant. (See Nico- 
laitans.) 

NICOPOLIS, (Tit. iii. 12,) 
the place where Paul deter- 
mined to winter, is now called 
Nicopi, or Nicopoli, a town 
upon the river Nessus, (now 
Karasa,) which divided Thrace 
from Macedonia. (See the 
subscription to the epistle.) 
Another town of the same 
name was in Epirus, opposite 
Actium, to which some have 
thought the apostle refers in 
the above passage. 

NIGHT-HAWK. (Deut. xiv. 
15.) A species of bird unclean 
by the Levitical law, (Lev. xi. 



i6,) 



16,) but not the bird known to 
us by th is name. Probably the 
night-owl is intended, which 
is described as of the size oi 
464 



NIN 

the common owl, and lodges | 
m the large buildings or ruins ' 
of Egypt and Syria, and some- ! 
times even in the dwelling- 
houses. It is extremely vo- 
racious. 

NIMRDI. (Isa. xv. 6.) A j 
.6tream in the north part of ! 
Moab, near to the village of j 
Beth-nimrah, (Num. xxxii. 36,) | 
the ruins of which now bear 
the name of Nimrein. 

NIMROD. (Gen. x. 8.) The 
son of Cush. The Hebrews 
regard him as the leader of 
those who attempted to build 
the tower of Babel; and the 
orientals make him the author 
of idolatry. He was princi- 
pally concerned in building 
both Babylon and Nineveh. 
(See Assyria.) The expres- 
sion a mighty hunter (or a 
hunting giant) before the 
Lord means that he was re- 
markably skilful and powerful 
in hunting wild beasts. Before 
the Lord is a figurative phrase, 
signifying very powerful. The 
land of Nimrod (Mic. v. 6) is 
the same with Babylon. 

NINEVEH, (Jonah iii. 6,) 
the capital of Assyria, (2 Kings 
xix. 38,) and rival of Babylon, 
was situated on the Tigris, 
north-east of Babylon, pro- 
bably near the modern village 
of Nania, opposite to Mosul. 
It signifies the dwelling of 
Ninus, and therefore we may 
presume was founded by Nim- 
rod, also called Ninus, though 
some regard Ashur as the 
founder. 

It was a city of nineteen 
miles in length and eleven 
in breadth, and from forty-eight 
to sixty miles in circumference, 
(as may be inferred from Jo- 
nah's account, Jonah iii. 3, 
confirmed by that of Strabo.) 
and contained a population 
of about six hundred thousand. 
(Jonah iv. 11.) It was sur- 
rounded by a wall one hun- 
dred feet high, and wide enough 
for three carriages to go abreast, 



NIT 

fortified by fifteen hundred 
towers, of two hundred feet 
in height. For its luxury and 
wickedness the judgments ot 
God fell upon it. (Nah. iii. 1. 
Zeph. ii. 13 — 15.) 

Nineveh, which had long 
been mistress of the east, was 
first taken by Arbaces' and 
Belesis, under the reign of 
SardanapaluSj i*n the time of 
Ahaz, king of Judah, about the 
time of thefoundation of Rome, 
b. c. 753. It was taken a se- 
cond time by Cyaxares and 
Nabopolassar, about b. c. 632, 
after which it no more reco- 
vered its former splendour. 
It was entirely ruined in the 
time of Lucian of Samosata. 
who lived under the emperor 
Adrian. It was rebuilt under 
the Persians, but was destroyed 
by the Saracens about the 
seventh century. 
NISAN. (See Month.) 
NITRE. (Jer. ii. 22.) An 
earthy alkaline salt, resem- 
bling and used like soap, which 
separates from the bottom of 
the lake Natron, in Egypt, and 
rising to the top, is condensed 
by the heat of the sun into a 
dry and hard substance, simi- 
lar to the Smyrna soap, and is 
the soda of common earth. It 
is found in many other parts 
of the east. Vinegar has no 
effect upon common nitre, and 
of course this could not be 
meant by the wise man, who, 
in Prov. xxv. 20, says, As he 
that taketh away a garment 
in cold weather, and, "as tine- 
gar to nitre, so is he that sing- 
eth songs to a heavy heart. 
Now as vinegar has no effect 
upon nitre, but on natron or 
soda its action is very obvi- 
ous, it seems the Enslish 
translation should have been 
natron. In Jeremiah, ch. ii. 
22, the same word again is 
improperly used, For though 
thou icash thee with nitre, 
and take thee much soap, yet 
thy iniquity is marked before 
465 



NOA 

me, saith the Lord God. The 
alkaline earth natron is ob- 
viously designed in this pas- 
sage. It is found, as an impure 
carbonate of soda, on the sur- 
face of the earth in Egypt and 
Syria ; and is, also, native in 
some parts of Africa, in hard 
strata or masses, and is called 
trona, being used for the same 
purposes as the barilla of com- 
merce. 

NO (Jer. xlvi. 25. Ezek. xxx. 
14) is generally supposed to be 
the famous city 01 Thebes, in 
upper Egypt, extending itself 
on both shies of the Nile. 
(Nah. iii. 8.) The fact is so 
uncertain, however, that we 
should not feel justified in in- 
troducing an article upon 
Thebes. Instead of No, in Jer. 
xlvi. 25, it should be rendered 
Aminon of No, or the seat or 
dwelling of the god Ammon. 
It was probably applied to two 
or three places. A distinction 
is sometimes made between 
the No spoken of in Nahum 
iii. 8—10, and the No men- 
tioned by Jeremiah and Eze- 
kiel. The destruction of the 
former (supposed to be Thebes) 
is described in detail as already 
past, while the doom of the 
other (which is supposed to 
have been in lower Egypt) is 

fredicted by Jeremiah and 
zekiel as a future event. 
NOAH, (Gen. vi. 8,) or, as 
tne Greeks write it, Noe, 
(Matt. xxiv. 37,) the ninth in 
descent from Adam, is de- 
scribed as a just man, perfect 
(or upright) in his generations, 
and walking with God. (Gen. 
vi. 9.) In the midst of the 
universal corruption which 
overspread the earth, he found 
grace in the eyes of the Lord, 
and was not only warned. of 
the approach of the general 
deluge, but instructed in the 
means of saving himself, and 
his family, and a sufficient 
number of the animal creation, 



NOA 

to preserve the several tribes. 
(See Ark.) Believing the di- 
vine declaration, he prepared 
the ark, and diligently warned 
the world of the approaching 
judgment, but without effect* 
In "due time it came. (See 
Flood.) Noah, and his wife, 
and his three sons, and their 
wives, and the required num. 
ber of beasts and fowls, en. 
tered into the ark, and were 
saved. All the rest in whose 
nostrils was the breath of 
life-, of all that was in the dry 
land, died. When the waters 
subsided, the ark rested on a 
mountain of Armenia. (See 
Ararat.) Noah and his fa- 
mily went forth, and the crea- 
tures they had preserved. The 
first act of this new progenitor 
of the human race was to offer 
a sacrifice to God, which was 
acceptable in his sight, for he 
immediately entered into a 
covenant with him, that such 
a judgment should not again 
visit the earth, nor should the 
regular succession of the sea- 
sons be again interrupted while 
the earth remains. As a token 
of the covenant thus made, 
God established the rainbow. 
He also put the irrational cre- 
ation in subjection to Noah, as 
he had originally done to Adam, 
and enacted some general laws 
for his government. 

Noah became a husband- 
man, and partaking too freely 
of the fruit of the vine, exposed 
himself to shame. When in 
this state he was treated inde- 
corously by one of his sons, 
who, on that account, was the 
subject of severe judgments ; 
while his brothers, for an op- 
posite course of conduct, re- 
ceived peculiar blessings. 
Noah lived three hundred and 
fifty years after the flood, but 
the place of his residence 
is matter of vain conjecture. 
(For a particular account of 
the settlement of Noah's fa 
466 



NOP 

mily, see Evening Recrea- 
tions, by Am. S. S. Union, 
vol. ii. pp. 2S-50.) 

NOB (1 Sam. xxii. 19) was a 
city of the priests, in the ter- 
ritory of Benjamin, and within 
sight of Jerusalem on the north. 
To this place David fled from 
the fury of Saul, and oDtained 
from Ahimelech, the high- 
priest, some of the shew-bread, 
to satisfy his hunger; and also 
Goliath's sword for his defence. 
For this act Saul caused the 
city and all that was in it to be 
destroyed. (S^e Ahimelech.) 

NOD, land of, (Gen. iv. 16,) 
probably designates no par- 
ticular place. It might be 
literally rendered (with re- 
ference to the doom of Cain) 
land of wandering, eastward 
of Eden. 

NOPH. (Isa. xix. 13. Jer. ii. 
16. Ezek. xxx. 13. 16.) The 
ancient Memphis, in middle 
Egypt, on the Nile, fifteen 
miles south of old Cairo. It 
was the residence of the earlier 
kinss of Egypt, and is said to 
have b«en about twenty mi'es 
iii circumference. In the se- 
venth century it fell into the 
hands of the Saracens; and 
the predicted judgments of 
God, on account of its idolatry 
and general corruption, gra- 
dually effaced every trace 
of its ancient magnificence. 
In the time of Strabo, there 
were many splendid remains; 
among which, he describes a 
temple of Vulcan, of great 
magnificence ; another of Ve- 
nus; and a third of Osiris, 
where the Apis or sacred ox 
was worshipped. He also 
mentions a large circus: but 
he remarks, that many of the 
palaces were in ruins; and 
describes an immense colossus 
which lay prostrate in the front 
of the city ; and among a num- 
ber of sphinxes, some were 
foiried in sand up to the mid- 
dle of the body; while of 
ethers, only the heads were 



NVR 

visible above the sand. Some 
monuments were to be seen six 
hundred years after the time 
of Strabo's visit, when the Sa- 
racens had possession of the 
country: but at present there 
is scarcely a vestige of its 
former grandeur to be found. 
This has led some to conjec- 
ture that its site wa3 over- 
flowed by the Nile; but it is 
much more probable that it 
has been covered by the con- 
tinual encroachment of the 
sands, which, we see, were 
advancing in the time of 
Strabo. And it cannot be 
doubted, but that a large part 
of ancient Egypt has already 
been completely buried by the 
sands from the wilderness. 

NORTH. (Jer. vi. I.) North 
and south in the Scriptures 
are used relatively to the situa- 
tion of countries in regard to 
Judea. Thus Syria is north; 
Egypt south; Babylon and 
Assyria lay to the north-east ; 
but the Assyrian army always 
invaded Palestine from the 
north. Media was e f ill far- 
ther to the north. (Jer. iii. 12. 
Dan. xi. 13, 14.) 

NUMBERS. This is the 
fourth in order of the books 
of the Old Testament, and 
derives its name from the cir 
cumstance that it contains the 
numbers and ordering of the 
Hebrews and Levites, after the 
erection and consecrationof the 
tabernacle. (For an account 
of their removal from Sinai, 
and their subsequent marches 
in the wilderness ; and of the 
wonderful dealings of God 
with them, until their arrival 
on the borders of Moab, see 
Union Questions, vol. iv., anH 
Teachers' Assistant in the 
use of the same. See, also, 
Life of Moses, all by Am, 
S. S. Union.) 

NURSE. (Gen. xxiv. 59.) 
This domestic relation was 
and is still one of the most im- 
portant in eastern families. Ir 
467 



NUR 

Syria the nurse is regarded as a 
sort of second parent, always 
accompanying the bride to the 
husband's house, and ever 
remaining there an honoured 
guest. So it was in ancient 
Greece. And in Hindostan, 
the nurse passes her days 
among the children she has 
helpea to rear ; and in mosques 
and mausoleums are sometimes 
seen the monuments of prince- 
ly affection towards a favourite 
nurse; and the relation on the 
part of the nurse must have 



NUT 

corresponded in tenderness 
and affection; and hence tha 
force of the figurative expres- 
sions, Tsa. xlix. 23. lThess.ii.7 
NUTS (Gen. xliii. 11) are 
generally supposed to have 
.been what are now known as 
pistachio or pistacia nuts, 
which were produced in greal 
perfection plentifully in Syria, 
but not in Egypt. This nut 
is of an oblong shape, and, in 
its green state, pi exquisite 
taste. When dried for export* 
ation, they are very inferior. 



OAK 

OAK. (Gen.xxxv.4.8.) There 
is a word in the Hebrew 
Bible which is often translated 
in our version oak, but which 
is the name of a tree peculiar 
to the eastern world. This is 
the terebinth, or turpentine 
tree, which abounds in Syria, 
Mesopotamia, and Palestine. 
It grows to a considerable size, 
and has a rich and luxuriant 
foliage. From this tree is ob- 
tained the genuine turpentine 
of the ancients, and a rich 
and balsamic gum, which 
exudes from the trunk. It is 
said to live one thousand years, 
and when it dies the race is 
renewed by young shoots from 
the root ; so that the tree may 
in a sense be called perpetual. 
Hence the figurative allusion 
in Isa. vi. 13, where the teil or 
linden tree might as well be 
rendered terebinth. 

For the same reason it was 
an important landmark, and 
served to fix the topography 
af the lands, as we find oaks 
very often named for the pur- 
pose of designating the locality 
of great events. (Josh. xxiv. 
26. Judg. vi. 11. 2 Sam. xviii. 
9. 1 Kings xiii. 14. 1 Chron. 
x. 12.) 

The strength of the oak is 
alluded to by the prophet, 
<Amos ii. 9,) and the district 



OAT 

of Bashan is often mentioned 
as peculiarly favourable to 
the growth of this tree. (Isa. 
ii. 13. Zech. xi. 2.) 

The word translated plains 
in several passages, (Gen. xik 
6; xiii. 18; xiv. 13; xviii. L 
Deut. xi. 30. Judg. ix. 6,) are 
places noted for clusters or 
groves of the terebinth or oak. 

The wood of the oak was 
used for idols. (Isa. xliv. 14.) 

OATH. (Heb. vi. 16.) To 
take an oath is solemnly to 
call on God to witness or take 
notice of what we affirm. It 
invokes the vengeance, or 
renounces the favour of God, 
if what is asserted is false, and 
if what is promised is not pep- 
formed. It has been matter of 
doubt among some Christians, 
in almost all ages, whether 
the practice of taking an oath, 
on any occasion is not a vio- 
lation of the express command 
of our Saviour, (Matt. v. 34 ;) 
and there is great force in the 
arguments which are used in 
support of this opinion. Even 
those who allow the practice, 
require that it never be taken 
but in matters of importance, 
nor sworn by the name of any 
but the true God, as it is a* 
act of solemn worship, (Deuu* 
vi. 13. Josh, xxiii. 7. Jer. v. 
Matt. v. 34, 35. James v. 12* 
468 • 



OAT 

aor irreverently, without godly- 
fear and awe of the Most High ; 
and he is represented as a 
wicked man w r ho is not deep- 
ly impressed with an oath 7 
(Secies, ix. 2;) nor rashlv 2 
without caution, <Gen. xxiv. 
2-8. Lev. v. 4. Matt. xiv. 7;) 
nor falsely, nor deceitfully, 
affirming what is false, or 
without a sincere intention to 
perform. (Lev. vi. 3 ; xix. 12. 
Jer.' xlii. 5.) But every oath 
ought to be sworn, in truth, 
and with judgment, having 
respect to the nature of an 
oath, and of the thing sworn ; 
and with fear of God, by whom 
we swear; and only in things 
that are good, and for a good 
end. (Jer. iv. 2. 1 Cor. x. 31. 
Heb. vi. 17.) Oaths may be 
sinful, even w"hen prescribed 
by the law of the land : they 
may contain things in them- 
selves unlawful, which no hu- 
man laws can render consist- 
ent with right; or they may 
be enjoined without necessity, 
and multiplied beyond reason ; 
or administered in a manner 
so manifestly irreverent, that 
they are rather an insult to 
Jehovah, than a solemn act 
of worship. The very nature 
and terms of an oath show that 
atheists, who profess to believe 
that there is no God, and per- 
sons who do not believe in a 
luture state of reward and 
punishment, cannot consist- 
ently take one. In their 
mouths an oath can be only 
vain mockery. 

God ' himself is represented 
as confirming his promise by 
oath, which is a mere figura- 
tive allusion to what is prac- 
tised among men. (Heb. vi. 13. 
16, 17.) 

The forms of swearing are- 
various. Anciently the lifting 
up of one of the hands towards 
heaven, (Ps. cxliv. 8. Rev. x. 
5,) and putting the hand under 
the thigh, (Gen. xxiv. 2,) were 
use! . (See Right Hand.) 



ODE 

OBADIAH. (lEiiags xviii. 
3.) A godly man, and prin- 
cipal officer in the household 
of Ahab, by whose iMerposition 
one hundred prophets were 
preserved from the murderous 
persecution of Jezebel, and 
supplied with food. 

Some have supposed that 
this was no other than the 
prophet of the same name; 
but there is better reason to 
suppose that Obadiah the pro- 
j phet lived at the same period 
with Jeremiah and Ezekiel 
There are se^^ral other per 
sons of this itame mentioned 
in the Old Testament. 

Prophecy ^gf, is the thirty- 
first in the order of the books 
of the Old Testament. It re- 
lates to the judgments inv 
pending over Edom, and- to 
the restoration and prosperity 
of the Jews. Some portions of 
this prophecy are supposed to 
have relation to events still 
future. The similarity of a 
portion of Obadiah's prophecy 
and that of Jeremiah is strife- 
ing. (Comp. Jer. xlix. 7—10, 
and 14-16. Obad. 1—9.) 

OBED-EDOM. (1 Chron. xvi. 
38.) A Levite who lived in 
David's time, and at whose 
house the ark was deposited, 
after the dreadful death of 
Uzzah. (2 Sam. vi. 6— 10.) The 
blessing which came on the 
house of Obed-edom for the 
ark's sake, encouraged David 
to remove it to Jerusalenu 
(2 Sam. vi. 10-12.) Obed- 
edom and his sons were ap- 
pointed keepers of the doors 
of the tabernacle, (1 Chron. 
xvi. 38,) and of the sacred: 
vessels. (2 Chron. xxv. 24.) 
OBLATIONS. (See Offer 

INGS.) 

ODED. (2 Chron. xv. 8.) A 
prophet, by whose instruction 
Asa, king of Judah, was in- 
duced to put away idols out 
of his kingdom and possessions-, 
and to renew the worship of 
the true God. (2 Chron. xv. i— 
4<& 



OFF 

8.) Oded was at Samaria, and 
when the Israelites returned 
from the war against Judah, 
with their king Pekah, and 
brought two hundred thousand 
captives, he wenttomeeuhem, 
and remonstrated so effectu- 
ally with them that the princi- 
pal men in Samaria took care 
of them, gave them clothes, 
food, and other assistance, with 
asses to ride upon, because the 
greater part of them were ex- 
hausted, and unable to walk. 
Thus they conducted them to 
their brethren at Jericho. 

OFFENCE. (Rom. ix. 33.) 
This term in the sacred writ- 
ings often means that which 
causes or is likely to cause us 
to sin. Thus in Matt. v. 27, 
the right eye which would al- 
lure to sin is said to offend ; 
and in Matt, xviii. 7, causes of 
sin, suffering, or wo are called 
offences : so in Matt. xvi. 23. 
In the same sense our Saviour 
is called, in the above passage 
from Romans, a rock of offence ; 
whereby we understand, that 
to the Tews l: a , was cffensire in 
all the circumstances of his 
birth and history. They stum- 
bled at his word, and were dis- 
obedient. A reference to Lev. 
xix. 14. Isa. viii. 14. Luke ii. 
34. Rom. ix. 32*33, will furnish 
a sufficient illustration of the 
word and its connexion. The 
offence of the cross (Gal. v. 
11) is that, in the doctrines of 
Christ, or the cross, which is 
offensive to carnal men. 

OFFERING, (Gen. iv. 3,) 
OBLATION. (Lev. ii. 7.) An 
offering, in a religious sense, 
is whatever one offers as a gift 
by way of reverence to a su- 
perior. (Matt. ii. 11.) The Jew- 
ish sacrifices, and in general 
all the religious sacrifices, are, 
properly speaking, oblations. 
Sometimes they seem to be 
used indiscriminately, as in 
Lev. iii. 1, if his oblation be a 
.sacrifice of peace-offering* See 
"The word sacrifice is some- 



OFF 

times used in a sense so gene- 
ral, as to embrace whatever is 
in any way devoted to the 
service of God; but, strictly 
speaking, offerings were sim- 
ple, bloodless gifts, as all sorts 
of tithes, first-fruits in their na- 
tural state, meal r bread, cakes, 
ears of corn, parched grain, &c. 
To these oil was often added, 
and sometimes they were 
baked with oil. Proper sacri- 
fices involved the destruction 
of animal life, or the shedding 
of blood ; and also the entire or 
partial consumption of the vic- 
tim by fire. Birds and quadru- 
peds constituted the sacrifices , 
hence their blood was forbid- 
den to be drunk, but not that 
of fishes, which were not 
allowed to be brought to the 
altar. Probably all clean 
birds might be offered, (Lev. 
xiv. 4—7,) but not all clean 
beasts. The dove was the 
most common offering of birds ; 
and oxen, sheep, and goats 
from among quadrupeds." No 
wild beast could be offered, 
end in Mlling end eawng them 
all idea of sacrifice was to be 
avoided, (Deut. xii. 15. 22; xv. 
22,) except that the blood was 
to be thrown away. (Deut. xv. 
23.) Leaven and honey were 
excluded from all offering? 
made by fire, (Lev. ii. 11,) an* 
salt was required in all. (Le* 
ii. 13.) 

Drink-offerings were a kiltf 
of accompaniment to th e blood., 
and bloodless offerings. The> 
consisted chiefly of wine, pan 
of which was poured on the vic- 
tim, and the residue was given 
to the priests. (Num. xv.^5. 7.) 
Amongthe offeringsrequired by 
the Jewish law were the burnt 
offering, (Lev. i.4,) so called be 
cause the thing offered was en 
tirely consumed ; the trespass 
offering, (Lev. v. G,) in which / 
the guilt of the offerer was 
confessed, and an atonement 
made; the sin-offering, (Lev. 
iv. 3 ;) the meat-offering, (Lev 
470 



OFF 

li. I,) which was usually a] 
compound of corn, flour, oil, 
and frankincense, prepared in I 
various ways, and mirnt on 
the altar of burnt-offering; 
the peace-offering, (Lev. iii. 1.) 
and the consecration-offering. 
The six foregoing are the 
offerings by fire, as expressly 
required. (Lev. vii. 37.) The 
drink-offering, which always 
attended the meat-offering, 
(Ex. xxix. 40 ;) the heave-offer- 
ing, (Ex. xxix. 27 ,) and the 
wave-offering, (Ex. xxix. 24 :) 
the last two are so called from 
a particular motion used in 
the presentation of them. The 
oblation of the first-fruits 
(Lev. ii. 12) was regarded as 
a meat-offering, and was pre- 
sented before the harvest was 
ripe, the fruit being dried or 
parched. (Lev. ii. 14.) 
■ The Jews were required, as 
a general rule,to bring all their 
offerings to an appointedplace, 
first the tabernacle, and after- 
wards the temple; and the 
manner of presenting them is 
described in most minute de- 
tails. 

The burnt-offering was to be 
a male without blemish, of the 
herd and of the flock offered 
voluntarily at the door of the 
tabernacle, the hand of the 
offerer being upon the head of 
the victim. (Lev. i. 2^4.) The 
animal was then taken to the 
altar, slain on the north side, 
and the blood sprinkled about 
the altar. (Lev. i. 5. Comp. 
Heb. xii. 24.) The east side of 
the altar was appropriated to 
the ashes, &c. (Lev. i. 16.) On 
the south was the ascent to the 
altar, and on the west was the 
sanctuary. The body of the 
victim was flayed, opened, cut 
in pieces, salted, laid in. order 
on the altar of burnt-offering, 
and consumed to ashes. (Lev. 
i. 5. 8. Comp. Heb. iv. 12.) Sc 
of killing and offering fowls. 
(Lev. i. 14— 17.) The end of the 
burnt offering was an atone- 



OFF 

ment for sin. (Lev. i. 4. Comp 
Heb. x. 1—3. 11.) This offering 
constituted a morning and eve 
ning sacrifice, and was often 
made on other prescribed occa- 
sions. 

The meat-offering consisted 
of flour prepared with oil and 
frankincense. (Lev. ii. 1.) It 
was to be free from leaven and 
honey, but was to have salt. 
(Lev. i. 11. 13.)- With this was 
connected the drink-offering, 
which, as before observed, was 
never used separately, but was 
an appendage of wine to some 
sacrifices. Hence the con- 
demnation of their supersti- 
tious practice of using blood 
for a drink-offering. (PsTxvi. 4.) 

In this, and other sacrificial 
observances, it would appear, 
that generally the offerer was 
to kill the victim, take off the 
skin, cut up the body, and 
wash the different parts. The 
priest was to sprinkle the blood, 
prepare the fire, and lay the 
sacrifice upon the altar. The 
Levites, and afterwards the 
Nethinims, assisted in these 
labours. 

The meat-offering was pre- 
sented on prescribed occasions. 
It always attended burnt-offer- 
ings and peace-offerings, and 
also the sin-offering and tres- 
pass-offering of the leper. A 
handful of the composition was 
burned by the priest upon the 
altar, (Lev. ii. 16,) and the re- 
sidue was for his own and his 
family's use. 

The peace-offerings were 
vows of thanksgiving, or a sup- 
plication for mercies^and were 
similar in kind, and manner 
of presentation, with the burnt- 
offe.ring. (Lev. iii.) 

• The sin-offering had pecu- 
liar respect to sins committed 
ignorantly, and was modified 
according to the persons pre- 
senting i;. (Comp. Lev. iv. 3. 
13. 22/27.) Part of the blood 
of the victim was poured out 
at the bottom of the altar; a 
471 



OIL 

part was sprinkled on the 
norns of the altar of incense ; 
and a part was carried by the 
priest into the most holy place. 
(Lev. xvi.) 

The trespass - offering, the 
manner ana occasion of which 
are described, Lev. v. — vii., 
seems to have differed but 
slightly from the last. It may 
be remarked, that all the blood 
of the trespass-offering appears 
to have been sprinkled around 
he altar, and that it was offered 
only for individuals, and never 
<as the sin-offering) for the con- 
gregation. The burnt, sin, and 
trespass-offering were of ah ex- 
piatory character, though not 
exclusively so. 

The consecration - offerings 
were made at the time of con- 
secrating the priests, (Lev. viii. 
£2 ;) from which circumstance 
(and not from any thing pecu- 
liar in the ceremony) the name 
is derived. (See Sacrifices. 
See also Biblical Antiqui- 
ties, by Am. S. S. Union, vol. 
ii. ch. v., for a clear- and most 
interesting history of the sub- 
ject.) 

OG. (Deut. iii. 1.) A king 
of Bashan, of gigantic stature, 
(Deut. iii. 11,) who opposed the 

Eassageof the Israelites through 
is territories. Moses, being di- 
vinely admonished of his suc- 
cess, attempted to force his way 
through the country, and suc- 
ceeded in capturing the king, 
and ultimately became master 
of the whole country. (Deut. 
iii. 3—5.) 

OIL. (Ps. xcii. 10.) Among 
eastern nations the practice 
has prevailed, from the earliest 
periods, of anointing the head 
with oil, made fragrant with 
the richest aromatics of the 
east, especially on festivals and 
other joyous occasions. The 
Greeks and Romans applied 
oil to the whole body, and the 
uodern orientals anoint their 
beards. Hence the use of oil 
is significant of joy and glad- 



{)L1 

| ness, (Ps. xxiii. 5,) and the 
omission of it betokened sor- 
! row. (2 Sam. xiv. 2. Matt, vi 
17. See Olive.) 

Oil tree (Isa. xli. 19) is pro- 
bably the same with the olive 
tree, (1 Kings vi. 23 ;) but whe- 
ther the olive, properly speak* 
ing, is intended in these pas- 
sages, admits of some doubt. 

OINTMENT. (See Anoint.) 

OLIVE. (Job xv. 33.) The 
soil and climate of Syria were 
very favourable to the produc 
I tion of the olive. (Deut. vi. 11; 
; vii. 13; viii. 8; xi. 14; xxviii. 
;40. 1 Kings v. 11.) The fruit 
is like a plum in shape and 
colour; being first green, then 
pale, and, when ripe, nearly 
black. They are sometimes 
plucked in an unripe state, 
and put into some piekle, oi 
other preserving liquid, and 
exported. For the most part, 
however, they are valuable 
for the oil they produce, and 
which is expressed from the 
fruit in various ways, and con- 
stitutes an important article 
of commerce and luxury. (Job 
xxiv. 11. Ezek. xxvii. 17.) The 
fruit is gathered by beating 
(Deut. xxiv. 20) or shaking the 
tree, (Isa. xvii. 6;) and glean- 
ings were to be left for the poor. 
A full-sized tree in its vigour 
produces a thousand pounds 
of oil. 

The olive is a beautiful and 
durable tree, and the fruit rich 
and valuable; hence the fre- 
quent figurative allusions to 
it, which are self-explanato- 
ry. (Judg. ix. 8, 9. Ps. Iii. 8; 
cxxviii.3. Jer. xi. 16. Hos. xiv 
6.) The olive branch is re- 
garded universally as an em- 
blem of peace. (Gen. viii. 11.) 

The wild olive (Rom. xi. 17) 
is smaller, and its fruit, if it 
produces any, far inferior to 
the cultivated. 

The olives, from which oil is 
to be expressed, must be ga- 
thered by the hands, or softly 
shaken from the trees before 
472 



OL 

they are "fully ripe. The best ' 
oil is that which comes from 
the fruit with very light pres- 
sure. This is sometimes called 
in Scripture green oil, not be- 
cause of its colour, for it is 
pellucid, but because it is from 
unripe fruit. It is translated 
in Ex. xxvii. 20, pure oil-olive 
beaten, and was used for the 
golden candlestick. For the 
extraction of this first oil, pan- 
niers or baskets are used, which 
are gently shaken. The second 
andlhircl pressing produces in- 
ferior oii. The best is obtained 
from unripe fruit; the worst, 
from that which is more than 
ripe. The oil of Egypt is worth 
little, because the olives are 
too fat. Hence the Hebrews 
sent gifts of oil to the Egyptian 
kings. (Hos. xii. 1.) The in- 
ferior quality is used in mak- 
ing soap. But the Hebrews 
used oil not merely in lamps, 
and with salads, but in every 
domestic employment in which 
butter is serviceable, and in the 
meat-offerings of the temple. 
It is observed by travellers, 
that the natives of oil countries 
manifest more attachment to 
this than to any other article 
of food, and find nothing ade- 
quately to supply its place. 

A press was also used for the 
extraction of the oil, consist- 
in? of two reservoirs, usually 
eight feet square and four feet 
de~ep, situated one above thu 
other. The berries, being in 
the upper one, were trodden 
out with the feet. Mic. vi. 15. 

OLIVES, mount of, (Matt, 
xxvi. 30,) or OLIVET, (2 Sam. 
xv. 30,) or Mount of Corrup- 
tion, (2 Kings xxiii. 13,) over- 
looks Jerusalem on the east, so 
that every street, and almost 
every house may be distinguish- 
ed from its summit. It doubtless 
had its name from the abun- 
danceof olives whichgrewupon 
it; someof which,of remarkable 
age and size, are still standing. 

A late traveller describes ttie 
40* 



OL1 

mount of Olives as about a 
mile in length, and about seven 
hundred feet in height. Tc a 
spectator on the west, it has a 
gently waving outline, and 
appears to have ttree summits 
of nearly equal height. On 
the top of the centre "one is a 
church, erected over the spot 
where, they inform us. our Sa- 
viour ascended into heaven; 
and, in confirmation of the tra- 
dition, point to a stone with the 
impressionof the left foot } made, 
as they pretend, when he was 
about leaving the earth : that of 
the right foot bavins been car- 
ried away by the Turks. On 
Ascension-day they come up in 
great crowds, and have service 
here. The chapel had been 
shaken down by a recent earth- 
quake, and the floor was cover- 
ed by rubbish, so that he did 
not see the stone of such sacred 
pretensions. In Luke xxiv 
50, it is very clearly stated, 
that the ascension occurred 
near Bethany, which is on the 
eastern side of the mountain, 
more than a mile from this. 
(Comp. this passage with Acts 
i. 12, where the ascension is 
also spoken of.) There are 
two roads to Bethany; one 
around the southern end of 
the mount of Olives, and one 
across its summit; the latter 
being considerably shorter, but 
more difficult. It was probably 
on this latter road, in the de- 
scent to Bethany, that the 
Saviour was taken up from the 
apostles. 

" From this central height a 
ridge stretches off towards the 
easi for a distance of three- 
fourths of a mile, when it ter- 
minates by a bold descent. We 
were conducted to the end of 
it in order to enjoy the view- 
eastward, which is very exten- 
sive. The plain of Jordan, the 
mountain beyond, the Bead 
Sea, and the dark and singular 
chain of mountains on the east 
of it, were in full view, as w«dl 
473 



ON 

as all the country intermediate 
between them and us. Some 
of us thought that we could 
gee the waters of the Jordan ; 
but, although this was uncer- 
tain, we could easily trace the 
course of the river, through 
the plain, by the verdure ; and, 
where this Vailed, by the bro- 
ken nature of the ground. 
Beyond it towered the lofty 
mountains of Moab, rising 
peak above peak in great ma- 
jesty, including among them 
mount Nebo." 

(For a minute description of 
the geography and scenery of 
mount Olivet, see Selumiel, 
ch. viii. pp. 154—169, by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 
OMEGA. (See Alpha.) 
OMER. (See Measures.) 
OMRI. (1 Kings xvi. 16.) 
An officer in the army of Is- 
rael. He was engaged in the 
siege of Gibbethon, a Philis- 
tine city, when he received in- 
telligence that Zimri, another 
officer of the army, had assas- 
sinated the king, and had 
usurped the throne. The ar- 
my? by general acclamation, 
made Omri king, and, raising 
the siege of Gibbethon, they 
forthwith marched to Tirzah, 
where Zimri resided, and cap- 
tured it. Zimri set fire to the 
house he occupied, and was 
consumed. Thelsraeliteswere 
then divided into two parties; 
but, after a short struggle, 
Omri prevailed, and took the 
throne, which he polluted and 
disgraced through a reign of 
twelveyears. OmribuiltSama- 
ria, which thereafter became 
the capital of the ten tribes. 
ON, (Gen. xli.45,) or AVEN, 
(Ezek. xxx. 17,) is the same 
with Bethshemesh, or house of 
the sun, (Jer. xliii. 13,) and 
was called by the Greeks He- 
liopolis, or city of the sun. 
These names are given to the 
place, because it was the prin- 
. cipal seat of the Egyptian 
i: worship of the sun. It was 



ONE 

one of the oldest cities in the 
world, and was situated in 
Egypt, in the land of Goshen, 
on the east of the Nile, about 
five miles above modern Cai- 
ro. Eighteen centuries ago, 
this city was in ruins, when 
visited by Strabo. 

According to Josephus, this 
city was given to the family 
of Jacob, when they first came 
to sojourn in Egypt; and we 
know that it was a daughter 
of the priest of the temple si- 
tuated here who was given in 
marriage to Joseph. Here also, 
in the time of Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, Onias, a Jew, obtain- 
ed leave to erect a temple si- 
milar to the one at Jerusalem, 
which was for a long time fre- 
quented by theHeilenist Jews* 
There is an apparent reference 
to it by several of the prophets 
(See passages above cited.) 

The ruins of this ancient 
city lie near the modern vil- 
lage Matarea, about six miles 
from Cairo, towards the north- 
east. Nothingnow remains but 
immense dikes and mounds, 
full of pieces of marble, gra- 
nite, and pottery, some rem- 
nants of a sphinx, and an obe- 
lisk, still erect, of a single 
block of granite, fifty-eight 
feet above ground, and co- 
vered with hieroglyphics. 

ONESIMUS. (Col. iv. 9.) A 
servant of Philemon, at Co- 
losse, who, having been guilty 
of some delinquency, had fled 
to Rome ; and, being convert- 
ed under the preaching of 
Paul, was sent back to Phile- 
mon with a most affectionate 
letter, commending the peni- 
tent, not only to the forgive- 
ness of Philemon, but to his 
love and confidence as a fel- 
lowdisciple. (SeePHiLEMON.) 

ONESIPHORUS. (2Tim.i. 
16.) A primitive Christian, re- 
sident at Ephesus, where he 
ministered very seasonably to 
the relief and comfort of Paul. 
(2 Tim. i. 18.).When Paul waa 
474 



OPH 

imprisoned at Rome, Onesi- 
phorus came thither, and again 
afforded timely relief to the 
afflicted apostle ; for which he 
expresses his gratitude in the 
warmest terms in the passage 
above cited. 

ONION. (Num. xi. 5.) A 
well known garden vegetable, 
which grew in great perfection 
in Egypt. The onions of Egvot 
are described by travellers as 
of large size and exquisite fla- 
vour ;"drffering (says one) from 
the onions of our country as 
much as a bad turnip differs 
in palatableness from a good 
apple. 

ONO. (Neh. vi. 2.) A city 
and its suburbs, occupying a 
small section of the plain of 
Sharon. It was about five 
miles from Lod, or Lydda, 
(1 Chron. viii. 12,) and is called 
the valley of Charashim, or 
the craftsmen. (1 Chron. iv. 14. 
Neh. xi. 35.) 

ONYCHA. (Ex. xxx. 34.) An 
ingredient of the sacred in- 
cense, which was prepared 
under divine direction. It was 
probably an odoriferous shell 
or gum. A species of muscle is 
still found in the Red Sea, the 
shell of which, when burnt, 
emits a smell not unlike musk. 

ONYX, (Ex. xxviii. 20,) or 
banded agate. A precious stone 
(Ex. xxv. 7) or gem, (Ezek. 
xxviii. 13,) exhibiting two or 
more colours disposed in paral- 
lel bands or zones. It was 
obviously of high value, from 
the uses made of it, (Ex. xxviii. 
9—12. 20; xxxix. 6. 13,) and 
from its being named with 
other highly valuable sub- 
stances. (Job xxviii. 16.) Per- 
haps the onyx used in the 
construction of the temple 
(1 Chron. xxix. 2) was a spe- 
cies of marble resembling the 
onyx. 

OPHEL. (2 Chron. xxvii. 3.) 
in the angle formed by the 
eastern extremity of mount 



OPH 

Zion, and the southern extre- 
mity of mount Moriah, or, in 
other words, at the outlet of 
the valley of Cheesemongers, 
there was a considerably ele- 
vated point, called Ophel. It 
was strongly defended by its 
natural position, and by a tow- 
er, and was separated from 
mount Zion by a wall. (2Chron. 
xxxiii. 14.) This tower is per- 
haps intended in Mic. iv. 8. 
In some modern maps this is 
called Ophlas. 

OPHIR. (1 Kings ix. 28.) A 
country of the east, celebrated 
for its production of gold and 
precious stones. (1 Kinss x. 11. 
2 Chron. viii. 18; ix. 10.) It is 
supposed to have been settled 
by the descendants of Joktan. 
(Gen. x. 29.) It is certain that 
its gold was renowned in the 
time of Job, (Job xxii.24 ; xxviii. 
16;) and that, from the time 
of David to the time of Jeho- 
shaphat, the Hebrews traded 
with it, and that Uzziah re- 
vived this trade when he made 
himself master of Elath, a 
noted port on the Red Sea. In 
Solomon's time, the Hebrew 
fleet took up three years in 
their voyage to Ophir, and 
brought home gold, apes, pea- 
cocks, spices, ivory, ebony, and 
almug trees. 

The articles imported from 
this place, the port from which 
the ships sailed engaged in the 
trade, and the time required 
for the performance of the voy- 
age, all go to prove that Ophir 
could not be anywhere in the 
west of Asia, or on the conti- 
nent of Europe ; and some of 
these facts are also sufficient to 
render it entirely improbable 
that it was anywhere on the 
coast of Arabia, or even any- 
where on the coast of Africa. 
It seems far more probable 
that this place was situated 
somewhere in the East Indies ; 
but the precise spot, or even 
district, cannot now be ascer 
475 



OR1 

tained. Not fewer than sixteen 
different countries have been 
regarded as the site of Ophir. 
t OPHNI. (Josh.xviii.24.) A 
city of Benjamin, latterly call- 
ed Gophna between Shechem 
and Jerusalem. It is men- 
tioned by profane historians 
among the places through 
which Vespasian and Titus 
passed in their march of con- 
quest. 

OPHRAH, (Judg. vi. 11,) or 
APHRAH. (Mic.i.10.) There 
were two cities of this name ; 
one in the territory of Benja- 
min, (Josh, xviii. 23. 1 Sam. 
xiii. 17:) and the other in that 
of Manasseh, where Gideon 
was born. (Judg. .vi. 11 ; viii. 
27 ; ix. 5.) 

ORACLE. (2 Sam. xvi. 23.) 
This term is sometimes applied 
to the most holy place, whence 
God declared his will to an- 
cient Israel. (1 Kings vi. 5. 19 — 
23; viii. 6.) It is also applied 
to the sacred writings, which 
were intrusted to the nation 
of Israel. (Acts vii. 38. Rom. 
iii. 2.) It is probable that the 
oracles of the heathen world 
were invented in imitation of 
the responses given by Jeho- 
vah to the patriarchs . and 
priests of ancient days. 

ORDINANCES. (Ex. xviii. 
20.) As used by the sacred 
writers, the term generally de- 
notes established laws, rules, 
or appointments of God's go- 
vernment. 

OREB. (Judg. vii. 25.) A 
prince of Midian^ whose fate 
is alluded to, Ps. lxxxiii. 11 ; 
snd Isa. x. 26. 

ORGAN. (Gen.iv.21.) The 
m gem, as it is called, is thought 
to have been what the ancient 
Greeks called the pipe of Pan. 
. It consisted of seven or more 
reeds of unequal length. These 
are still used by theshepherds 
of the east, and, in skilful 
hands, produce quite tolerable 
music. 

ORION. (Jobix.9.) A con- 



OS1 

stellation of about eighty stars 
seen in the sol them hemi- 
sphere about the middle of o- 
v ember; and hence associal ** 
with cold and frost, figurative, 
ly represented as bands whic> 
no human power can dissolve. 
(Job xxxviii. 31.) 

ORNAN. (See An a una h.) 

OSEE. (Rom. ix. 25.) The 
Greek form of writina Hosea 

OSPRAY, OSS1FRAGE, 
(Lev. xi. 13.) are both reckoned 
among unclean birds,*and pro- 
bably both belonged to the 
eagle family. The black eagle 
of Egypt might have been the 
ospray ; and the sea eagle of 
modern science, the ossifrage. 

OSTRICH. (Job xxxix. 13.) 
A remarkable bird, of the hot 
regions of Africa and Arabia, 
often attaining the height of 
seven feet, of which the head 
and neck make three. It is 
also seven feet from the head 
to the end of the tail, when the 
neck is stretched horizontally 
on a line with the body. It 
loves solitary and desolate 
places; and is the bird intend- 
ed in Job xxx. 29. Isa. xiii. 21 ; 
xxxiv. 13. Jer. 1. 39, (though 
called the owl.) and its cry is 
piercing and mournful. 

The plumage of the ostrich 
is white and black. Its weight, 
(which is often seventy-five of 
eighty pounds.) and the con- 
struction of its body, prevent 
its flying. 

The habits of this bird are 
described with scientific accu- 
racy, Job xxxix. 13—18. Its 
timidity is such, that the least 
noise frightens it from the 
nest, which is often made on 
the ground, and in the most 
exposed places ; and from the 
same cause the young of the 
ostrich are often suddenly 
abandoned. Hence she seems 
to be regarded as lacking the 
usual share of instinct or na« 
tural affection. (Lam. iv. 3.) 
A modern traveller tells us 
that the Arabs meet sometimes 
tf6 



OST 

with whole nests of these egs:s, ! 
(containing from thirty to fifty 
in number,) five inches in di- 
ameter, and weighing several 
pounds; some of them are 
sweet and good, others are 
addled and corrupted ; others, 
again, have their young ones 
ctf different growth, according 
to the time, it may be pre- 
sumed, since they have been 
forsaken of the dam. They 
often meet with a few of the 
little ones no bigger tnan well- 
grown pullets, half starved, 
straggling and moaning about, 
like so many distressed or- 
phans, for their mother. In 
this manner, the ostrich may 
oe said to be hardened against 
her young ones, as though they 
were not her's ; her labour, in 
hatching and attending them 
so far, being vain, without/ear, 
or the least concern of what 
becomes of them afterwards. 

The most remarkable cha- 
racteristic of the ostrich is the 
rapidity with which it runs, 
and which the fleetest horse 
cannot equal. The surprising 
swiftness of this bird is ex- 
pressly mentioned by Xeno- 
phon. Speaking of the desert 
of Arabia, he states that the 
ostrich is frequently seen 
there; that none could take 
them, the horsemen who pur- 
sue them soon giving it over; 
for they escaped far away, 
making use both of their feet 
to run, and of their wings, 
when expanded, as a sail to 
waft them along. This repre- 
sentation is confirmed by the 
writer of a voyage to Senegal, 
who says, " She sets off at a 
hard gallop; but, after being 
excited a little, she expands 
her wings as if to catch the 
wind, and abandons herself to 
a speed so great, that she seems 
not to touch the ground. I 
am persuaded," continues that 
writer, "she would leave far 
behind the swiftest English 
courser." 



OVE 

The Persians call the ostrich 
the camel-bird. (See Peacock, 
For a full description of the 
ostrich, and illustrative cut, 
see Youth's Friend, vol. iv. 
pp. 28—30. See, also, Bedouin 
Arabs, p. 36, both by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 

OTHNIEL. (Judg. i. 13.) The 
son of Kenaz, who displayed 
his valour in seizing the city 
of Debir, or Kirjath-sepher, 
for which exploit he was re- 
warded by the gift of the daugh- 
ter of his uncle, Caleb, in 
marriage. Afterwards he wa3 
made the instrument of de- 
livering the Israelites from 
the oppression of the king of 
Mesopotamia. (Judg. iii. 8, 9.) 

OUCHES (Ex. xxxix. 6) 
were probably sockets for fast- 
ening the precious stones into 
the shoulder-pieces of the high- 
priest's ephod. These ouches, 
with their stones, are supposed 
to have served for buttons to 
confine the golden chains 
whereon the breast-plate was 
hunsr. (Ex. xxviii. 11. 25.) 

OUTER. (Matt. viii. 12.) 
This word, when connected 
as it frequently is with dark- 
ness, implies the uttermost 
degree or very extreme of 
darkness, both as it respects 
depth, or intensity, and dura- 
tion. 

OVENS. (Ex. viii. 3.) In the 
eastern cities the ovens, at 
the present day, are not mate- 
rially different from our own. 
The more common way of 
constructing them in the coun- 
try, however, is to take a jar, 
or pot, of a cylindrical shape, 
and after having partly filled 
it with pebbles, to apply heat, 
and use it for baking. The 
dough is plastered upon tho 
outside, and, when baked, (as 
it is almost instantly,) comes 
off in thin cakes. All eastern 
bread is of this thin sort. The 
bread made in this way is 
clean and white. The Bedouin 
Arabs use three or four different 
4T7 



OWL 

ovens, the description of which 
may throw some light upon 
the oven of the Bible. 

1. The sand oven.— This is 
nothing more than the sand 
©f the earth, upon which a fire 
is made, until it is supposed to 
De sufficiently heated. The 
fuel and fire are then cleared 
away, and the dough is laid 
on the.hot sand, in flat pieces, 
about the thickness of a plate. 
(Isa. xliv. 15. 19.) These are 
the ash-cakes. (Gen. xviii. 6. 
1 Kings xvii. 13 ; xix. 6. See 
Cake.) 

2. The earth oven is a round 
hole in the earth. Stones are 
first put into this, and a fire is 
kindled upon them. When the 
stones have become thoroughly 
hot, the fire is removed, and 
the dough spread in thin flakes 
upon the heated stones, and 
turned as often as may be ne- 
cessary. A modern traveller 
tells us that this kind of bread 
■s left all night in the earth 
*ven: and the ovens used in 



OWL 

Persia are about two and a. 
half feet wide, and not less 
than five or six feet deep. Le 
Bruyn tells us that they re- 
semble pits or wells, and that 
sheep are hung lengthwise 
in them, and cooked whole. 
These may be what are ren- 
dered in our version ranges 
for pots. (Lev. xi. 35.) 

3. Portable oven.— This is 
an earthen vessel, without a 
bottom, about three feet high ; 
smeared outside and inside 
with clay, and placed upon a 
frame, or support. Fire is made 
within it, or below it. When 
the sides are sufficiently heat- 
ed, thin patches of dough are 
spread on the inside, and the 
top is covered, without remov- 
ing the fire as in the other 
cases ; and the bread is quick 
ly baked. To this we may 
refer the phrase baken in the 
oven. (Lev. ii. 4.) The follow- 
ing representation of it is taken 
from Niebuhr. 

Convex plates of iron, pans 




jr plates, flat stones, &c. are 
>ften used for baking. ^See 
Bake. Bread.) 

OWL. (Lev. xi. 16.) Though 
,he owl is frequently men- 
»ioned in our Scriptures, it 
leldom if ever denotes the 



bird known to us by this nam 
The allusions of the sacra, 
writers are evidently to som. 
bird that loves solitary an 
desolate places. Some vi- 
sions render the original words 
translated great owl (Lev. xi. 
478 



ox 

17) the ibis, and the little owl j 
in the same passage some kind 
of water-bird. The screech 
ai?l (Isa. xxxiv. 14, rendered 
night-monster in the margin) 
must have resembled the barn 
owl, known to us as the com- 
mon screech or white owl. It 
haunts deserted barns, and 
old and decayed buildings; 
and in Europe, old towers and 
buildings in the vicinity of 
churchyards. By night it 
seeks its prey, and often 
makes a doleful and even 
frightful sound, rendered more 
so by the surrounding still- 
ness. (See Ostrich.) 

OX. (Isa. i. 3.) A well known 
aomestic animal, clean by the 
Levitical law, strong and pa- 
tient of labour, of great use 



OX 

jy agricultural pursuits, and 
/thi ing a large item of the 
wealth of the patriarchs. (Gen. 
xxiv. 35; xxx. 43. Job i. 3.) 
They were used for ploughing, 
(Deut. xxii. 10. 1 Kings xix. 19. 
Job i. 14. Prov. xiv. 4. Isa. 
xxx. 24;) for drawing, (Num. 
vii. 3. 7, 8;) for threshing 
or treading out grain, (Deut. 
xxv. 4. 1 Cor. ix. 9,) and for 
food. (1 Kings xix. 21. 1 Chron. 
xii. 39, 40. Matt. xxii. 4.) 

The wild ox is mentioned 
Deut. xiv. 5, and the wild bull, 
Isa. li. 20; the former is thought 
to be a species of the stag" or 
goat ; but there is no reason to 
doubt that the animal might 
be found in a wild state in 
Judea, or some of the moun- 
tainous districts in its vicinity. 



PAL 

OADAN ARAM, (Gen. xxv. 
JL 20,) or the plain of Syria, 
one of the Hebrew names of 
Mesopotamia. (See Mesopo- 
tamia.) 

PALESTiNA. {.Ex. xv. 14.) 
The country lying along the 
Mediterranean coast, between 
Joppa aii'! Gaza, was inhabited 
by the Philistines, and was 
hence called Palestina; but in 
the above passage, and in Isa. 
xiv. 29 — 31, it seems to denote 
the whole of Judea, as the word 
Palestine does in its modern 
acceptation. 

PALM TPvEES. (Ex. xv. 27.) 
The palm tree abounds in 
Arabia, Egypt, and the whole 
of southern Asia, from the 
Indus to the Nile, but is rare 
in Palestine. Yet, in ancient 
times, when the land was peo- 
pled with many industrious 
inhabitants, it was very com- 
mon. (Lev. xxiii. 40. Deut. 
xxxiv. 3. Judg. i. 16; iii. 13; 
iv. 5.) Ancient historians cor- 
roborate these statements, and 
inform us that the region of the 
Dead Sea was noted for the 



PAL 

palm, of which there were 
groves twelve miles in extent. 

The palm tree is found upon 
ancient Hebrew coins, as the 
symbol of Jc-dea; tnd Ro.nan 
coins, struck after the conquest 
of Judea, have a palm with 
an inscription commemorating 
that event. 

The general figure and ap- 
pearance of this tree is fami- 
liar to our minds, from pictures 
and descriptions. It grows in 
sandy soils, in hot and dry 
climates, but flourishes best in 
the vicinity of streams, and 
where it can be watered, and 
in valleys and plains, espe- 
cially where the water w 
moderately salt or brackish. 
It is always green, and grows 
to a great height, from sixty to 
one hundred feet. Its straight 
and slender trunk rises very 
hign before it puts forth any 
branches, and its foliage is in 
one mass at the top. (Sol. Song 
vii. 7. Jer. x. 5.) This ever 5 
green and stately tree is the 
emblem of the righteous. (Ps 
i. 3, and xcii. 12.) The co- 
479 



PAL 

!umn& of costly edifices were 
sometimes hewn in imitation 
of its trunk, as may be observed 
in some of the ruins of Egypt. 
Palm trees were carved upon 



PAL 

the doors of the temple. (IKinffs 
vi. 32. Comp. Ezek. xli. 19.)" 
Strictly speaking, the palm 
has no branches; but at tha 
summit, from forty to eighty 




PAL 

twtes, or leafstalks, spring 
forth, which are intended in 
Neh. viii. 15. The leaves are 
set around the trunk in circles 
of about six. The lower row 
is of great length, and the vast 
leaves bend themselves in a 
curve towards the earth ; as 
the circles ascend, the leaves 
are shorter. In the month of 
Februa'/y, there sprout from 
between the junctures of the 
lower stalks and the trunk 
little scales, which develope 
a kind of bud, the germ of the 
coming fruit. These germs 
are contained in a thick and 
tough skin, not unlike leather. 
According to the account of a 
modern traveller, a single tree 
in Barbary and 'Egypt bears 
from fifteen to twenty large 
clusters of dates, weighing 
from fifteen to twenty pounds 
each. The palm tree lives 
more than two hundred years, 
and is most productive from 
the thirtieth until the eightieth 
year. The Arabs speak of 
three hundred and sixty uses 
to which the different parts 
of the palm tree are applied. 

The inhabitants of Egypt, 
Arabia, and Persia depend 
much on the fruit of the palm 
tree for their subsistence. 
Camels feed on the seed, and 
the leaves, branches, fibres, 
and sap are all very valuable. 

When the dates are ripe, 
they are plucked by the hand, 
or are shaken into a net which 
is held below. The person 
who ascends the lofty trunk is 
assisted by the ragged pro- 
cesses or scales with which 
the body of the tree is armed. 
(For an illustrative engraving 
of the process of gathering 
dates, see Hebrew Customs, 
by Am. S. S. Union, pp. 73— 
78.) The dates ripen at dif- 
ferentrtimes, so that a tree is 
commonly ascended two or 
three times in a season. When 
gathered, they are spread upon 
mats in the open air, and after 
4i 



PAL 

a few days begin to be used. 
Some are eaten fresh, and 
some laid aside for future use. 
Others yield a rich syrup, 
which being expressed, the 
remaining mass is steeped in 
hot water, and, after being ma- 
cerated and cleansed, affords 
a pleasant drink. These dif- 
ferent kinds of syrup are the 
celebrated date wine, which 
was greatly prized in ancient 
times by the Orientals. Some 
suppose it to be the strong 
drink often named in the 
Scriptures; but this term ra- 
ther designates all intoxicating 
liquors except wine. (See 
Wine.) 

The shoots, which are an- 
nually cut away from the bot- 
tom of the tree, and the leaves 
themselves, are used for mak- 
ing ropes, baskets, sacks, mats, 
fans, hats, and sandals. The 
Hebrews were accustomed to 
carry these branches in the 
solemn festivities of the feast 
of tabernacles, and to strew 
them in the way of triumphal 
processions. Thus branches 
were strewed in the way of 
Christ, upon his entry into 
Jerusalem. (John xii. 13.) 

The branches of the palm 
were anciently used as a 
symbol of victory, and car- 
ried before the conqueror in 
triumphal processions. Hence 
the force and beauty of the 
figure, Rev. vii. 9. 

The word Tamar, signify- 
ing a palm, was a common 
female name among the He- 
brews, and was derived from 
the tall, straight, and graceful 
appearance of the tree. 

PALMER- WORM. (Joel L 
4.) A destructive insect of the 
caterpillar or locust tribe, 
figuratively spoken of in these 
passages, as an instrument 
employed to afflict the rebel- 
lious Jews. (Amos iv. 9.) 

PALSY. (Matt. iv. 24.) A 
disease which deprives the 
part affected of sensation, or 
481 



PAR 

the power of motion, or both. 
As the term is used in the 
New Testament, it imports 
apoplexy, or paralysis of the 
whole system; paralysis of 
one side ; a paralysis affecting 
the whole body below the neck, 
and a paralysis caused by a 
contraction of the muscles, 
so that the limbs can neither 
be drawn up nor extended, 
and soon become emaciated 
and dried up. (1 Kings xiii. 
4—6. Matt. xii. 10— 137 Luke 
vi. 6. John v. 5—7.) 

A fearful disease called pal- 
sy, is known in eastern coun 
tries. The limbs remain im- 
moveably fixed in the position 
in which they were at the time 
of the attack ; and the suffering 
is so exquisitely severe, that 
death is often occasioned in a 
few days. (Matt. viii. 6.) 

PAMPHYLIA. (Acts xiii. 
13.) A hilly province of Asia 
Minor, lying north of the 
Mediterranean, between Ci- 
licia and Lycia. Perga was 
once its chief town, and was 
twice visiteu by W. apot'le 
Paul. 

PAPER, PAPER REEDS. 
(See Book.) 

PAPHOS. (Acts xiii. 6.) A 
celebrated maritime city, lying 
at the western extremity of 
the island of Cyprus, now 
called- Baffa. It was the place 
where Barjesus, or Elymas 
the sorcerer, was struck with 
blindness ; and where Sergius 
Paulus was converted to Chris- 
tianity. (See Cyprus.) 

PARABLE, (Num. xxiii. 7,) 
or PROVERB, (John xvi. 29,) is 
a form of speech, inwhichsome- 
thing is presented to us in lieu 
of some other thing which it 
resembles, and which we wish 
to illustrate. (Matt. xiii. 3—52.) 
It is derived from a Greek 
word signifying to compare 
together. Thus a narrative of 
evsnts, either real or supposed, 
is made the medium by which 
the attention is arrested, of- 



PAR 

fence is avoided, conviction 
is secured, and important truth 
is illustrated and enforced 
with great power upon the 
heart and conscience. (Jadg. 
ix. 7—20. 2 Sam. xii. 1-9. 
2 Kings xi v. 9. Eccl. xii. 1—7.) 
Our Saviour's parables are 
remarkable for clearness, 
force, simplicity, and appro- 
priateness ; and they are 
always employed to convey 
truths of the first importance. 
They relate to daily objects, 
(Matt. xx. 1—14. Mark iv. 
26—29;) to domestic labours, 
(Matt. xiii. 33;) to common 
occurrences, (Luke vii.36— 50; 
x. 25—37 ;) and to the scenery 
by which he and his audience 
were surrounded. (Matt. xiii. 
47—50. Luke xiii. 8—9. John 
iv. 35—38.) Thus they were 
especially adapted to his un- 
learned and prejudiced hear- 
ers, and, being easily appre- 
hended, the force of them was 
instantly felt and acknow- 
ledged. 

PARADISE. (Luke xxiii. 43. 
IU v. ii. 7. Thu is a v *ord o» 
Persian origin, and means a 
garden, orchard, or other en- 
closed place, filled with objects 
fitted to regale the senses. 
Hence it is used figuratively 
for any place of peculiar hap- 
piness, and particularly for the 
kingdom of perfect happiness 
which is the abode of the bless- 
ed beyond the grave. (2 Cor. 
xii. 4. See Eden.) 

PARAN, WILDERNESS OF, 

(Gen. xxi. 21,) was situated 
south of Jordan, and extended 
to the peninsula of Sinai, and 
from the Dead Sea to the desert 
of Egypt ; so that, in its largest 
sense, it included the deserts 
of Kadesh and Zin. It was in 
this wilderness that Hagar 
dwelt with Ishmael, and to this 
place David retired after the 
death of Samuel. (1 Sam. xxv 
1.) Nearly all the wanderings 
of the children of Israel were 
in the great and terrible wil 
4S2 



PAR 
derness of Paran. (Deut. i. 19. 
Comp. Num. x. 12, and xii. 16.) 
It is now a dreary expanso 
of calcareous soil, covered with 
black flints. 

Mount Paran was within 
the wilderness of Paran. A 
modern traveller represents 
its appearance as singular 
and indescribably grand. Its 
sides are formed of precipitous 
rocks, and three sharp-pointed 
summits rise like towers. 
When seen, as it reflects the 
rich beams cf the rising or 
declining sun, the sublime de- 
scription of the prophet forces 
itself upon the mind. (Deut. 
xxxi-il. 2. Hab. iii. 3.) 

PARCHMENTS. (2 Tim. iv. 
13. x The skins of beasts were 
early and extensively used 
for writing. Herodotus says 
that the Ionians, who received 
the an from the Phenicians, 
wrote upon sheepskins, which, 
ho adds, the barbarians also 
do, (b. c. 500.) Very slight pre- 
paration was used, until under 
Eumenes, a king of Pergamus, 
a mode of preparing fine parch- 
ment was discovered, whence 
the prepared skins were call- 
ed by the Latins pergamena, 
whichis translated parchments. 
CSee Book.) The mode of 
preparing it is to remove the 
wool or hair and every particle 
of flesh from the skin; then 
scrape it with an iron instru- 
ment while wet, and stretch it 
tight on a frame, and then rub 
and smooth it with a pumice 
stone ; after which it is fit for 
writing. 

Vellum is prepared in nearly 
the same manner, from the 
skins of very young calves. 
It is much finer and whiter, 
and was formerly in common 
use. 

PARDON. (Ps.xxv.ll.) The 
scriptural import of this term 
is very imperfectly indicated 
by the common acceptation of 
it amonsr men. In the dispen- 
sation of grace, pardon is inse- 



PAR 

parably connected with justifi 
cation. Hence it is spoken o! 
as the covering of sin. (Ps. 
lxxxv. 2,) the non'imputation 
of it, (Ps. xxxii. 2:) a blotting 
out, (Ps. li. 1. 9. Isa. xliii. 25 ;) 
forgetting it, (Heb. viii. 12;) 
passing by it, or removing it to 
an immeasurable distance from 
us. (Ps. ciii. 12. Mic. vii. 19.) 

It is evident that God only 
has power to bestow pardon, 
(Mark ii. 7. 10-12;) and that it 
proceeds from free, sovereign 
grace, (Eph. i. 6,7.) through the 
mediation and atonement of 
Jesus Christ. (Heb. ix. 9—28. 
1 John i. 7.) 

Men are commissioned to 
preach pardon and salvation 
through the blood of Christ; 
but no man can forgive sin, or 
pretend to the right~and power 
of absolution, without direct 
and daring blasphemy. 

PARLOUR. (See Dwell 

INGS.) 

PARTHIANS, (Acts ii. 9,) or 
the inhabitants of Parthia, ori- 
ginally a province of Media, 
on its eastern side, situated be- 
tween the Persian Gulf and the 
Tigris. The Parthians seem to 
have resembled the Cossacks 
of our day, and were celebrated 
for their skill in archery, and 
especially for shooting as they 
fled, and were a part of the 
Scythian horde who so long 
disputed with Rome for the 
dominion of the east. Parthia 
was united to the Persian em- 

f)ire, a. n. 226. The Persian 
anguage was spoken there ; 
and' indeed in Scripture and 
o*,her ancient writings, Persia 
and Parthia are often used as 
synonymous. 

* PARTITION, MIDDLE WALL 

of, (Eph. ii. 14,) is supposed to 
have reference to the wall in 
the temple which separated 
the court of Israel from the 
court of the Gentiles. In this 

I passage it is figuratively used 
to denote whatever in their 

1 laws or customs separated the 
4S3 



PAS 

Jews from the Gentiles, and 
rendered the former any more 
the objects of divine favour 
than the latter. 

PARTRIDGE. (Jer. xvii. 11.) 
The bird commonly known 
by this name is also known 
in the east. Travellers tell 
us that the Arabs esteem 
their flesh a luxury, and pur- 
sue them until they are weary 
with flying, when they kill 
them with the hand. The 
figurative allusion in 1 Sam. 
xxvi. 20, may express the labo- 
rious and persevering zeal with 
which Saul pursued David; 
and in Jer. xvii. 11, reference is 
probably made to the exposure 
of the partridge's nest, which 
is built on the ground, and is 
exposed to be trampled on and 
destroyed, and from which she 
is also liable to be driven sud- 
denly by similar causes. 

PAS-DAMMIM. (1 Chron.xi. 
13.) A valley in the north- 
west of Judah, the same with 
Ephes-da?nmim, (1 Sam. xvii. 
1.) 

PASSENGERS, valley of 
the. (Ezek. xxxix. 1 1 .) A plain 
on the east of the Jordan, at the 
southern extremity of the sea 
of Tiberias, where there is a 
ford or passage over the river. 

PASSION." (Acts i. 3.) The 
word, in this connexion,denotes 
the last sufferings of Christ, or 
rather his death, as the con- 
summation of his sufferings. 
The expression in Acts xiv. 
15, and James v. 17, signifies 
like propensities, feelings, and 
susceptibilities. 

PASSOVER. (Lev. xxiii. 5.) 
A Jewish feast, appointed to 
commemorate the exemption 
or passing over of the families 
of the Israelites, when the de- 
stroying angel smote the first- 
born of "Egypt ; and also their 
departure from the land of 
bondage. 

On the fourteenth day of the 
first month, (Nisan,) between 
;he evenings, the passover was 



PAS 
to be celebrated; and on the 
fifteenth day commenced the 
seven days' feast of unlea- 
vened bread. The term pass- 
over is strictly applicable only 
to the meal of the oaschal 
lamD, or the fourteenth day; 
and the feast of unleavened 
bread was celebrated on the 
fifteenth onward, for seven 
days, to the twenty-first, inclu* 
sive. This order is recognised, 
Josh. v. 10, 11. But, in the sa- 
cred history, the term passover 
is used to denote the whole 
period ; the fourteenth day, and 
the festival of the seven days 
following. (Luke ii.41. John ii 
13.23; vi. 4; xi. 55.) 

This mode of expression is 
recognised by Josephus, the 
Jewish historian, who uses the 
expression, "the festival of 
unleavened bread, which is 
called the passover." (Luke 
xxii. 1.) 

As to the time of the cele- 
bration of the passover, it is 
expressly appointed between 
the evenings, or, as it is else- 
where expressed, at even, at 
the going down of the sun. 
(Deut. xvi. 6.) This is supposed 
to denote the commencement 
of the fourteenth day of Nisan, 
or at the moment when the 
thirteenth day closed, and the 
fourteenth began. The twenty- 
four hours, reckoned from this 
point of time to the same period 
of the next day, or fourteenth, 
was the day of the passover. 
At sunset of the fourteenth 
day, the fifteenth began ; and 
with it the feast of unleavened 
bread. The lamb was to be 
selected on the tenth day, by 
each individual or family, and 
kept up till the fourteenth day, 
in the evening of which day it 
was to be killed. (Ex. xii. 3— 
6.) Then followed the feast of 
unleavened bread, occupying 
seven days; the first and last 
of which were peculiarly holy, 
like the Sabbath. (Ex. xii. 15,16.) 

The preparation of the pass- 






PAS 
over j (John xix. 14,) or the day 
of the preparation, (Matt.xxvii. 
62,) was the fourteenth day, or 
the day preceding thefirst dayof 
unleavened bread. At the time 
of our Saviour's passion, it so 
happened that the fifteenth of 
the month, or the first day of 
the festival, was also the proper 
Sabbath. Hence we find, upon 
comparing the various histories 
of this event, and its attendant 
circumstances, that at the close 
of the thirteenth day of the 
month, when the feast of un- 
leavened bread, called in the 
largest sense, the passover, 
(Luke xxii. 1,) approached, Je- 
sus directed the lamb for the 
paschal # sacrifice to be pre- 
pared for himself and his dis- 
ciples. This being done im- 
mediately after sunset of the 
thirteenth, which was the be- 
ginning of the fourteenth, the 
paschal supper was eaten. After 
this supper, and in the course 
of that night, Christ was arrest- 
ed, the next morning was tried, 
and in the afternoon was cru- 
cified and buried. This was 
on the eve of preparation for 
the Sabbath, and also for the 
festival,' (which fell on the 
same day,) towards the close 
of the fourteenth. The whole 
series of events occurred be- 
tween what we should call 
Thursday and Friday evening. 
The facts of chief import- 
ance in reconciling all the 
evangelists are, that the word 
passover is applied sometimes 
strictly to the fourteenth day, 
and at other times to the 
whole festival of unleavened 
bread; that the passover, or 
paschal supper, strictly speak- 
ing, was celebrated at the be- 
ginning of the fourteenth day 
of the month, or immediately 
after sunset of the thirteenth ; 
and that the fourteenth, or 
Friday of passion week, hap- 
pened to be the day of pre- 
f>aration f)r the feast of un- 
eavened bread, and also for 
41* 



PAS 

the Sabbath. (For a particular 
account of the mode of cele- 
bration, see Feasts. See also 
Biblical Antiquities, vol. ii» 
ch. vi. § 4; Selumiel, pp. 72— 
82.99; and Youth's Friend, 
1835, p. 186—183, all by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 
PASTOR. (See Shepherd.) 
PASTURE. (Isa. xxxii. 14.) 
This word is used by the 
sacred writers chiefly in a 
figurative sense. The places 
qf pasturage in Canaan were 
chiefly those uninhabited spots 
which are called deserts, or 
wildernesses, in the sacred 
writings. These were some- 
times hilly ranges, abounding 
in herbage and shrubbery; 
sometimes sandy plains, in 
which, here and there, in moist 
places, a little green grass is 
found. These meagre spots 
are better for sheep, goats, 
and camels, than rich mea- 
dows, which are necessary for 
kine. 

These tracts belong to no 
persons in particular, but are 
commons which all may use ; 
though sometimes they are the 
property of tribes of people, as 
such. The whole land of 
Canaan was originally such a 
possession, and as such was 
occupied by Abraham, Isaac, 
and Jacob. When the country 
became settled by the Israel- 
ites, they had particular pas- 
turages connected with their 
farms. Sharon and Achor 
(Isa. lxv. 10) are named as 
affording good pasturage for 
flocks, and Gilead and Bashan 
for neat cattle. (Mic. vii. 14.; 
Among these widely scattered 
and numerous pastures, the 
shepherds and herdsmen of 
Palestine wandered, as their 
descendants continue to do. 
In summer they migrate north- 
ward, to the hill country; in 
winter southward, to the 
plains : thus not only avoiding 
the winter's cold and the heat 
of summer, but finding amfie 
485 



i*AT 

sustenance for their cattle at 
both seasons. 

PATARA. (Acts xxi. 1.) 
A large, rich, seaport town 
of Lycia, lying over against 
Rhodes, at the mouth of the 
Xanthus, called by Ptolemy 
Philadelphia, Arsinoe, in ho- 
nour of his queen. Here Paul 
took ship for Phenicia, when 
going from Philippi to Jeru- 
salem. 

PATHROS. (Isa. xi. 11. 
Comp. Jer. xliv. 1. 15. Ezek. 
xxix. 14— xxx. 14.) The The- 
bais of the Greeks, and Said 
of the Arabs, the same with 
upper or southern Egypt. 
Some of the Jews had with- 
drawn to this region, and 
there given themselves up 
to idolatry ; but Jeremiah fore- 
warns them of the tremendous 
judgments which awaited 
them. The Pathrusim, its 
inhabitants and early settlers, 
were descendants of Mi.zraim. 
(Gen. x. 14.) 

PATHRUSIM. (SeePATH- 

ROS.) 

PATMOS. (Rev. i. 9.) An 
island in the Egean Sea, now 
called Patimo or Patmosa, 
situated near the promontory 
of Miletus, between Samos 
and Naxos, about twenty or 
twenty-five miles in circum- 
ference. It was used by the 
Romans as a place of exile 
for convicts, and is distin- 
guished as the place to which 
John the Evangelist was ba- 
nished by Domitian, a. d. 94. 

Its soil is very thin and 
sterile, lying on a rugged rock, 
probably of volcanic origin. 
About a mile back from the 
beach is a chapel, enclosing 
the cave which, it is said, John 
occupied when writing the 
book of Revelation during his 
banishment. 

PATRIARCH. (Acts ii. 29.) 
In the early history of the 
Jews, we find the ancestor or 
father of a family retaining 
authority over his children, 



PAT) 

and his children's children, so 
long as he lived, whatever 
new connexions they might 
form. When the father died, 
the branch-families did not 
break off and form new com- 
munities, but usually united 
under another common head. 
The eldest son was generally 
invested with this dignity. 
His authority was paternal. 
He was honoured as the cen- 
tral point of connexion, and 
as the representative of the 
whole kindred. Thus each 
great family had its patriarch 
or head, and each tribe its 
prince selected from the seve- 
ral heads of the families it 
embraced. These * princes 
were called elders of Israel. 
(See Elders.) The word pa- 
triarch is also applied to the 
founder of a family, or any 
illustrious ancestor. '(Acts ii. 
29.) In later ages of the 
church, the same title is found, 
but is applied to ecclesiastical 
dignitaries, and denotes the 
supposed paternal character 
of their authority. The sons 
of Jacob, as the progenitors 
of the Jewish nation, are 
called, byway of distinction, 
the twelve patriarchs. (Acts 
vii. 8.) 

PAUL, or SAUL, (Acts xiii. 
9,) was a native of Tarsus, in 
Cilicia, and inherited the pri- 
vileges of a Roman citizen, 
(Acts xxii. 28,29.) His descent 
and education >vere wholly 
Jewish, and the latter was of 
the highest order. Under the 
instruction of Gamaliel, a dis- 
tinguished Jewish Rabbi at 
Jerusalem, (Acts v. 34,) he be- 
came master of the Jewish 
law, (Acts xxii. 3. Gal. i. 14;) 
and was also taught a useful 
mechanical trade, according 
to the custom of the nation. 
(Acts xviii. 3.) His residence 
at Jerusalem commenced at 
an early period, (Acts xxvi. 4,) 
and he was probably from 
twenty -two to t wentv-fi ve years 
4£& 



PAU 

old when Christ commenced 
nis public ministry. He be- 
longed to the sect of 'he Phari- 
sees, as did also nis father. 
(Acts xxiii. 6.) 

The preaching of the gospel 
by the apostles^ and especially 
the fact of Christ's resurrection 
from the dead, on which they 
placed their chief stress, ex- 
cited, of course, a violent op- 
position among the Jews, 
which, before long, broke out 
in open violence. Stephen, 
an eloquent and powerful ad- 
vocate of the new religion, was 
seized and stoned to death. 
Among the spectators, and 

gerhaps promoters, of this 
loody deed, was Paul; who, 
we may suppose, from the 
manner in which he was re- 
garded by the murderers, and, 
indeed, from his own confes- 
sion, was fully with . them in 
the act. (Acts vii. 58. Comp. 
xxii. 20.) His temperament, 
talents, and education fitted 
him to become a leader in the 
persecution of the apostles 
and their adherents ; and he 
commenced his career with a 
degree of zeal bordering on 
madness. He even sought for 
authority to go to Damascus, 
whither many of the disciples 
had fled after the murder of 
Stephen, and bind and drag 
to Jerusalem, without distinc- 
tion of age or sex, all the fol- 
lowers of Christ whom he could 
find. Just before he reached 
Damascus, however, he was 
arrested by a miraculous light, 
so intense as to deprive him 
of sight. (Acts xxii. 11.) At 
the same time Christ revealed 



PAU 

himself as the real object of 
his persecution. (Actsxxvi.15 
Comp. ICor. xv. 8.) From 
this time he became a new 
man, and received from the 
lips of Christ himself his com- 
mission as an apostle to the 
Gentiles. (Actsxxvi. 16.) The 
miraculous restoration of his 
sight, his baptism, and the 
gifts of the Holy Spirit, fol- 
lowed in quick succession ; and 
we soon find him zealously 
preaching the faith he had set 
out to subvert. (Acts ix. 20, 21. 
Gal. i. 16.) To this one pur- 
pose he thenceforth gave all 
the energies of his mind and 
all the affections of his heart. 
Forsaking, and indeed forget- 
ting, all other purposes and 
pursuits, he seems to have 
resolved to crowd into the 
residue of his life whatever he 
could do to repair the injury 
he had done to the cause of 
Christ, and to show his strong 
and exclusive attachment to 
the interests of his kingdom. 
The miracles he wrought ; the 
churches he gathered ; his ser- 
mons, orations, and letters; 
the extent and success of his 
missionary tours; the visions 
and revelations with which 
he was favoured, and the final 
attestation which it is gene- 
rally supposed he gave to the 
faith he had preached, by the 
suffering of martyrdom, (2 Tim. 
iv. 6, 7,) all place him among 
the very chief of the apostles. 

The following chronological 
arrangement vrill enable the 
student to* connect the prin- 
cipal events in the life of 
Paul. 



A.D. 

Paul's conversion, (Actsix. 21st year 
of Tiberius) 36 

He goes into Arabia, (see Arabia,) 
and returns to Damascus, (Gal. i. 
17 ;) at the end of three years in 
all, he escapes from Damascus and 
goes to Jerusalem. (Acts ix. 23, &c.) 39 

From Jerusalem Paul goes to Cilicia 
and Syria. (Acts ix. 30. Gal. i. 21.) 
From Antioch he i« sent with Bar- 



A.D. 

nabas to Jerusalem to carry alms, 
(Acts xi. 30.) 4& 

The first missionary journey of Paul 
and Barnabas from Antioch, con- 
tinued about two year.s, (Acts xiii. 
xiv.,) commencing .... 45 

After spending several years in Anti- 
och, (Acts xiv. 2S,) Paul and Bar- 
nabas are sent a second time to Je- 
rusalem, to consult the apostles re- 

487 



PAU 

AD. 

specting circumcision, &c. (Acts 



xv. 2.) 



52 



The Jews expelled from Rome, A. D. 
52—54 ; Paul, on his second mis- 
sionary journey, (Acts xv. 40,) 
after passing through Asia Minor • 
to Europe, finds Aquila and Pris- 
cilla at Corinth. (Acts xviii. 2.) . 54 

Paul remains eighteen months in 
Corinth. (Acts xviii. 11.) After 
being brought before Gallio, he 
departs for Jerusalem the fourth 
time, and then goes to Antioch. 
(Acts xviii. 22.) . . . . . .56 

The apostle winters at Nicopolis, 
(Tit. iii. 12.) and then goes to 
Ephesus. (Acts xix. 1.) . . . .57 

The places visited by the 
apostle, in his various jour- 
neys, are . presented at one 
view in the following sketch. 

After he was recognised as 
a disciple by the brethren at 
Jerusalem, he became so bold 
an advocate for the truth, as 
to excite the anger of the Gre- 
cians, who were taking mea- 
sures to slay him. This led 
to his first journey from Jeru- 
salem, in the course of which 
he visited Cesarea, Tarsus, 
(where he continued four 
years,) Antioch in Syria, 
(where he tarried one year.) 
thence to Jerusalem. 

Second journey. — From Je- 
rusalem to Antioch, Seleucia, 
Salamis, and Paphos in the 
island. of Cyprus, Perga, An- 
tioch in Pisidia, Iconium, 
Lystra, Derbe, Pisidia, Pam- 
phylia, Perga, Attalia, Antioch 
in Syria, Phenice, Samaria, 
and thence to Jerusalem. 

Third journey— -From Jeru- 
salem to Antioch, "Syria, Cili- 
cia, Derbe, Lystra, Phrygia, 
Galatia, Mysia, Troas, (where 
he' was joined by Luke,) Sa- 
mothracia, Neapolis, PhWippi, 
Amphipolis, Apollonia, Thes- 
salonica, Berea, Athens, Co- 
rinth, Cenchrea, Ephesus, Ce- 
sarea, and thence to Jeru- 
salem. 

Fourth journey.— -From Je- 
rusalem to Antioch, Galatia, 
Phrygia, Ephesus, Macedonia, 



FATJ 

A.D. 

After a residence of two years or 
more at Ephesus, Paul departs for 
Macedonia. (Acts xx. 1.) . . .50 

After wintering in Achaia, Paul 
goes the fifth time to Jerusalem, I 
where he is imprisoned. (Acts 
xx. xxi.) 60 

The apostle remains two years iu 
prison at Cesarea, and is then 
sent to Rome, where he arrives 
in the spring, after wintering- in 
Malta. (Acts xxiv. 27; xxv. — 
xxviii.) 63 

The history in Acts concludes, and 
Paul is supposed to have been set 
at liberty . . * 65 

Probable martyrdom . .... 65 

Greece, Philippi, Troas, Assos, 
Mitylene, Chios, Samos, Tro- 
gyll ium, Miletus, Coos, Rhodes, 
Patara, Tyre, Ptolemais, Cesa- 
rea, and thence to Jerusalem. 

Fifth journey ^r-From Jeru- 
salem to Antipatris, Cesarea, 
Sidon, Myra, Fair Haven, 
Melita, Syracuse, Rhegium, 
Puteoli, Appii Forum, Three 
Taverns, Rome, where the 
narrative in the Acts ends. 

Probable journeys from his 
first to his second imprison' 
mentinRome.— Spain, France, 
Britain, Jerusalem, Antioch in 
Syria, Colosse, Ephesus, Phi- 
lippi, Corinth, Troas, Miletus, 
Rome, where he suffered mar- 
tyrdom. (For a full and com- 
plete biography of the apostle 
Paul, with a map of his tra- 
vels, see Life of Paul, Union 
Questions, vol. v., and Help 
to the Acts, parts i. and ii. ; 
see also a large outline map 
of Paul's travels, drawn on 
muslin; all by Am. S.S.Union.) 

Epistles of. These are 
fourteen in number, and are 
unquestionably among the 
most important of the primi- 
tive documents of the Chris- 
tian religion, even apart from 
their inspired character. Al- 
though they have reference 
often to transient circum- 
stances and temporary rela- 
tions, yet they everywhere 
bear the stamp of the great 
and original mind of the apos- 



PAU 



PAU 




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489 



TEA 

tie, as pikitn d, elnvated, and 
sustained Ly the influences 
of the Holy Spirit. (For the 
order in which these letters 
were written, and the date 
of them, see Epistles.) 

PAVEMENT. (Johnxix. 13.) 
An area in Pilate's court-room, 
the floor of which was paved 
with marble or other stones. 
(Esth. i. 6.) 

PAVILION. (Jer. xliii. 10.) 
A small moveable tabernacle 
or tent, chiefly used, for a king, 
prince, or general. (1 Kings 
xx. 12. 16.) Jahn thinks it was 
the cloth used for Jewish meals, 
and which, when done with, 
was drawn up by a cord, like 
a wine skin or bottle, and hung 
upon a nail. 

The psalmist sublimely de- 
scribes Jehovah as surrounding 
himself with dark waters, and 
thick clouds of the skies, as 
with a tent or pavilion. (Ps. 
xviii. 11.) 

PEACOCKS. (lKingsx.22.) 
This singular and beautiful 
bird is mentioned among the 
articles imported by Solomon, 
though some suppose the origi- 
nal word might be more pro- 
perly rendered parrots. In Job 
xxxix. 13, also, the word pea- 
cocks would be better rendered 
ostriches, and the word ostrich 
should be translated (as it is 
elsewhere) stork. The wings 
of the ostrich cannot raise it 
from the ground ; yet, in run- 
ning, it catches (or, as the 
word rendered goodly imports, 
drinks in) the wind. The 
construction of the ostrich and 
the stork are thus contrasted, 
as are also their habits ; for the 
stork is as proverbial for her 
tenderness to her young, as 
the ostrich for her seeming 
^ indifference. (Job xxxix. 14 — 
W 16. See Ostrich. See, also, 
for description and engravings, 
Youth's Friend for June, 1829, 
and Natural History op Bi- 
ble, art. Peacock, both by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 



PEA 
1 PEARLS (Matt. xiii. 45, 46) 
are produced by a shell-fish 
of the oyster sp'ecies. It is a 
malady of the animal, which 
completely developes itself in 
seven years. If not secured 
at or about the end of that 
period, the animal dies, and 
the pearl is lost. The pearl 
oysters are found in' clusters 
on rocks, (hence called pearl 
banks,) in the Persian Gulf, on 
the western coast of Ceylon, 
and on the coasts of Java^ 
Sumatra, &c, and in some 
parts of Europe. The shells 
are obtained by diving, and 
this is done by a class of per- 
sons trained to the business. 
The Ceylon pearl-fishery bank 
is about fifteen miles from the 
shore, and seventy-two feet 
deep on an average. The 
fishery begins in April, when 
the sea is most calm, and con- 
tinues five or six weeks. One 
shell contains from eight to 
twelve pearls. The largest 
are of the size of a walnut, 
but they are rarely as large 
as a cherry-stone. The shells 
of the pearl oyster, or, more 
properly, the interior coat, is 
called mother of pearl. A sin- 
gle pearl has been valued at 
£350,000. 

In our version of the Old 
Testament, this word occuro 
only in Job xxviii. 18. In Prov. 
iii. 15; viii. 11; xx. 15; xxxi. 
10. Lam. iv. 7, the word trans- 
lated rubies some suppose 
means coral, but it probably 
means pearls ; and in the pas- 
sage last cited, reference ia 
probably had to the beautiful 
red blush of some species of 
the pearl. 

Pearls were anciently used 
in the east as personal orna- 
ments, (1 Tim. ii. 9. Rev. xvii, 
4; xviii. 12. 16,) and are se 
used now. From the various 
illustrations in which the pearl 
is introduced, it was evidently 
regarded as among the most 
precious substances. (Matt- 
490 



PEN 
vii. 6; xiii. 45, 46., Re 7. xxi. 
21.) 

PEKAH. (2 Kings xv. 25.) 
A general of the Israelitish 
army. He assassinated the 
king Pekahiah in his palace, 
and usurped the government. 
His reign, which lasted twenty- 
years, was highly inauspicious ; 
the country was invaded and 
greatly harassed by the Assy- 
rians, and Pekah himself was 
the victim of a conspiracy. 

PEKAHIAH. (See Pekah.) 

PELATIAH (Ezek. xi. 1) 
was one of the five-and-twenty 
men who withstood the pro- 
phet, and counselled the peo- 
ple of Israel wickedly. He 
was suddenly struck dead, 
while the prophet was utter- 
ing his prediction. (Ezek. xi. 
13.) 

PELETHITES. (See Che- 

RETHIMS.) 

PELICAN. (Deut. xiv. 17.) 
A voracious water bird, unclean 
by the Levitical law, (Lev. xi. 
18,) of singular construction 
and habit?, resembling the 
goose., though, neai.y twic3 as 
large. Its bill is fifteen inches 
long. The female has a large 
pouch, or bag, capable of con- 
taining two or three gallons 
of water, and food enough for 
six common men. Out of this 
pouch she feeds herself and 
her young, whence the vulgar 
notion that she feeds them on 
her own blood. It is classed 
with the bittern, and other 
birds who delight in solitary 
and desolate places, and its 
cry is harsh and melancholy, 
(Job xxx. 29. Ps. cii. 6. Isa. 
xxxiv. 11. Zeph. ii. 14;) in 
some of which passages the 
same word is translated owl, 
cormorant, or bittern, which, 
in others, is translated pelican. 
(For description and engrav- 
ing, see Youth's Friend for 
July, 1829, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

PEN. (Judg. v. 14.) The in- 
struments with which the cha- 
racters were formed in the 



PEN 

writing of the ancients, varieA 
with the materials upon which 
the letters were to be traced. 
(1.) Upon hard substances, such 
as stone or metallic plates, a 
graver of steel was used, the 
same which Job calls an iron 
pen. It i3 possible that an 
instrument pointed with dia- 
mond, such as glaziers now 
use, was not unknown, as the, 
sin of Judah is written with 
a pen of iron, and with a point 
of a aiamond; it is graven 
upon the table of their heart, 
and upon the horns of your 
altars. (Jer. xvii. 1.) Pliny 
gives an account of such an in- 
strument as having been long 
in use. (2.) Upon tablets of wax 
a metallic pen or stylus was 
employed, having one end 
pointed to trace the letters, 
the other broad and flat, to 
erase any erroneous marks by 
smoothing the wax. We have 
seen a copper style, several 
inches in length, now used by 
the natives of Ceylon in writing 
upon the leaves of trees. 

Upou pape*, linei.:, cotu.n, 
skins, and parchments, it was 
in very early times common 
to paint the letters with a hair 
pencil, brought to a fine point, 
as the Chinese do at this day. 
Afterwards, however, the reed 
penwas introduced, which was 
at first used without being split 
at the point. The reed pen is 
used by the modern Turks, Sy- 
rians, Persians, Abyssinians, 
Arabs, and other orientals, as 
their languages could not be 
written without difficulty with 
pens made, like ours, from 
quills. A particular kind cf 
knife is used to split the reed. 
(Jer. xxxvi. 23. See Book.) 

PENIEL, (Gen. xxxii. 30,) 
or PENUEL. (Judg. viii. 9.) 
The place at the ford of the 
Jabbok, east of Jordan, where 
Jacob wrestled with the angel 
on his return from Mesopo- 
tamia. There was a town 
built here, the tower of which 
491 



fER 

was beaten down by Gideon. 
fJudg. viii. 17.) Jeroboam re- 
built and fortified the place. 
(1 Kings xii. 25.) 

PENNY. (See Measures, 
&c.) 
PENTECOST. (See Feast.) 
PENUEL. (See Peniel.) 
PEOR, mount. (Num. xxiii. 
28.) A rise of ground east of 
the Jordan, and part of the 
same chain with Nebo and 
Pisgah. It is supposed to have 
been the site of an idol tem- 
ple. (Num. xxv. 3. Deut. iv. 
3. 45.) 

PERAZIM, mount. (See 
Baal-perazim.) 
PEREZ. (See Mene.) 
PERFECTION. (Ps. 1. 2.) 
That which is entire and com- 
e in all its parts, without 
defect, blemish, or redundancy, 
is called perfect. The word 
perfection is used in various 
senses, which can generally 
hi determined by the subject 
and connexion. The most de- 
sirable things in the view 
of worldly men, are honour, 
wealth, pleasure, learning ; 
and to see an end of these, is 
to see how insufficient any 
thing but God himself is, to 
satisfy an immortal soul. (Ps. 
cxix.96.) The word also means 
tne more mysterious principles 
of the Christian faith, (Heb. vi. 
1,) or the full measure and de- 
gree of excellence, holiness, 
or happiness. (2 Cor. xiii. 9.) 
PERGA. (See Pamphylia.) 
PERGAMOS, (Rev. i. 11,) 
now Bergamo. A city of the 
ince of Troas, in Asia Mi- 
?:o'. about sixty miles north 
Smyrna. Here was one 
of the seven churches of Asia 
addressed by John, from whose 
language we infer that the city 
was infested by false teach- 
ers, wno grossly corrupted 
the people, and led them 
into many abominable errors. 
There are still to be seen evi- 
dences of the former magni-v 
^cence of this place, such as 



PER 

granite walls and marble co- 
lumns, and the ruins of what 
is said to have been the tenv 
pie of Esculapius. 

The population of the mo- 
dern city is variously estimat- 
ed from 15,000 to 30.000, and 
among them 3000 nominal 
Christians. It was the birth- 
place of Galen. There was 
once at Pergamos a royal li- 
brary, containing 200,000 vo- 
lumes, which were added by 
Cleopatra to. the Alexandrian 
library. It is said that perga- 
mentum, the Latin word for 
parchment, is derived from 
this place. (See Parchment.) 
Pergamos was visited by 
Messrs. Fisk and Parsons, 
American missionaries, in No- 
vember, 1820. The people of 
the place pretend to show the 
very church where the disci- 
ples assembled, to whom John's 
message w T as addressed, (Rev. 
ii. 12.) and also the tomb of 
Antipas. (Rev. ii. 13.) 

PERIZZITES, (Gen. xxxiv. 
30,) signifying lowlanders, in- 
habitants of the plain, or of 
unwalled villages : a tribe of 
the Canaanites', or a peopl 
mingled with them, and scat- 
tered over the land. (Gen. xifk 
7. Josh. xvii. 15. Judg. iii. 5> 
1 Kings ix. 20. 2 Chron. viii. 7. 
Ezra ix. 1.) 

PERSIA. (Ezek. xxvii. 100 
An ancient kingdom of Asia, 
whose limits have varied con- 
siderably at different periods 
The kingdom as such \vj 
founded by Cyrus, its inhabit- 
ants having been anciently 
called Elamites, from thei 
ancestor Elam the son of 
Shem, and in later times 
Parthians. The thrones of 
Media and Persia were united 
under Cyrus, b. c. 536, (comr^. 
Dan. vi. 8. 12;) and indeed the 
whole country, from Egypt to 
the Ganges, became w inco> 
porated in what was called 
the Persian empire. 

This empire was overthrown 
492 



PES 

py Alexander's invasion, and 
in the seventh century fell 
into the power of the Saracens, 
subject to the caliphs of Bag- 
dad, until the middle of the 
thirteenth century, when it 
was taken by Gengis Khan, 
and in the close of the four- 
teenth by Timour, or Tamer- 
lane. 

Modern Persia is bounded 
north by Georgia, the Caspian 
Sea, and Tartary, east by Af- 
ghanistan and. Beloochistan, 
south by the Persian Gulf and 
straits of Ormus, and west by 
Turkey. But the district known 
to the Hebrews as Persia is the 
modern Farsistan, bounded by 
Irak-Adjemi on the north, Ker- 
man on the east, Saristan and 
the gulf on the south, and 
Khusistan on the west: and is 
about equal in extentto France. 

For some time, the Persians 
have been governed by their 
own kings ; and no country has 
ever been the theatre of more 
cruelty and confusion; but 
still it has, as a country, re- 
tained its name and integrity ; 
and modern travellers are of 
opinion, that the manners de- 
scribed in the Bible are no- 
where upon earth so perfectly 
retained as in Persia, of which 
they give many illustrations. 

An interesting American 
mission is now in successful 
progress in Persia. The trans- 
lation of the Bible into the 
language of the Nestorians 
has been commenced, and 
schools have been opened 
with flattering prospects. 

PESTILfljjCE, (Jer. xxi. 6,) 
or plague, ^presses all sorts 
of distempers and calamities. 
The Hebrew word, which pro- 
perly signifies the plague, is 
applied to all epidemical and 
contagious diseases. 

Pestilences are still very 

common in Asia and Africa. 

ft is supposed to have been by 

a species of pestilence that the 

42 



PET 

first-born of Egypt were cut 
off. (Ps.lxxviii. 50,51.) 

A pestilent fellow is one wha 
is mischievoup, and disposeq 
to corrupt and ruin a multK 
tude. (Acts xxiv. 5.) 

PETER, (John i. 40,) the son 
of Jonas, or Jona, and brother 
of Andrew, was a native of 
Bethsaida. His original name 
was Simon, or Simeon. The 
name Cephas (a Syriac word 
signifying a rock, and in Latin 
Petra,- translated Peter) was 1 
given him when he was called 
to the apostleship. (John i. 42, 
Comp. Matt. xvi. 18.) He had 
a family resident at Caper- 
naum, (Matt. viii. 14. Mark i. 
23. Luke iv. 38,) and was by 
occupation a fisherman. (Luka 
v. 1—3.) The religious life 
of this apostle, from its com- 
mencement to its close, is filled 
with the most interesting inci- 
dents. He was with Christ 
during his ministry, probably, 
more than any other man. 
He was the most decided and 
forward of the disciples, fol- 
lowed his Divine Master in 
his most eventful journeys, 
and was with him when he 
performed his most wonderful 
miracles; and though he fell 
into some dreadful sins, he 
probably did more to extend 
the religion of the Redeemer 
than almost any other man that 
ever lived. 

From the beginning to the 
end of his illustrious course, 
we are struck with Peter's fear 
lessness and simplicity ; his 
strong faith and ardent love; 
the promptness and decision 
with which he carried out his 
Master's instructions ; and the 
distinguished regard in which 
he was held by his fellow 
apostles. 

That Peter was too forward 
and positive in his professions 
of attachment to Christ may 
be admitted, without any im 
peachment of his motives, oi 
493 



PET 

doubt oi his sincerity. Cer- 
tainly, we see nothing in him 
like cunning or hypocrisy. 
The general impression made 
on the mind of a superficial 
reader of the Bible respecting 
Peter's character, might, how- 
ever, be unfavourable ; and, 
besides this general impression 
against him, which is confirm- 
ed and strengthened by the 
frequent and severe reproofs 
he received from the lips of 
Christ, there is the one deep 
and aggravated sin of denying 
him. Peter was alone in de- 
nying his Master; but he was 
not alone in forsaking and 
fleeing from him. Then all 
the disciples forsook him, and 
fled, is the mournful record 
of inspiration. The fulness of 
Peter's forgiveness exceeded, 
immeasurably, all the guilt 
and aggravation of his sin; 
and the history of his life and 
apohtleship is, of itself, an eter- 
nal monument of the purity, 
consistency, and elevation of 
His Christian ^haraci°r. 

It is H uite uncertain when 
or where Peter died. It is sup- 
posed that he suffered martyr- 
dom; and the circumstances 
of his arrest, imprisonment, 
and crucifixion are related 
very particularly by some of 
the ancient historians. There 
is, however, so little confidence 
to be placed in these accounts, 
that we shall present only one 
of them to the reader, and that 
rather as a matter of curiosity. 

There is an ancient prison 
in Rome tailed the Mamertine 
prison. It is considered the 
oldest building of any kind in 
the city, and derives its name 
from Martius, or Mamertinus, 
the fourth king of Rome, by 
whom it was built. 

The tradition is, that Peter 
and Paul were both confined 
in this prison bv order of Nero, 
the Roman emperor, and it is 
not improbable that they both 
suffered martyrdom here about 



PHA 

the year 65. But few can be 
found credulous enough to be- 
lieve the guides in the Mamer- 
tine prison, when they pretend 
to show the very pillar to which 
Peter was fastened when he 
sealed his faithfulness as an 
apostle of the Lord Jesus with 
the blood of a martyr. (For a 
full history of Peter, and his 
letters, with a beautiful view 
of his birthplace, and illus- 
trative maps and cuts, see Life 
op Peter, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

Epistles of. They are 
called epistles general be- 
cause they were not addressed 
to any particular church or 
community of believers. They 
are supposed to have been 
written in a time of violent 
persecution, by which the con- 
verts were scattered abroad. 
(1 Pet. i. 1 ; iv. 16—19.) The 
date usually assigned to them 
is between a. d. 64 and 66. 
Babylon, from which the first 
of these epistles was written, 
(1 Pet. v. 13,) is supposed to 
bt Baby^uont s e Euphrates-, 
which, though in ruins, con- 
tained many thousand inhabit- 
ants, among whom were very 
many Jews. There is no rea- 
son to believe that this Baby- 
lon is not intended; and, in 
the absence of all evidence 
in favour of any other place, 
it is safest to take the place 
which is most generally known 
and mentioned by that name. 
Both the epistles of Peter ex- 
press the noble vehemence 
and fervour of his spirit; his 
full knowledge of the genius 
and tendency qflfciristianity, 
and his strong^Bsurance of 
the truth and certainty of all 
he taught. (See preface to the 
letters of Peter in Life of 
Peter, pp. 213, 214, by Am 
S. S. Union.) 

PETHOR. (Deut. xxiii. 4.) 
A city of Mesopotamia, and 
the residence of the prophet 
Balaam. (Num. xxii. 5.) 

PHARAOH, (Gen. xii. & 
494 



PHA 

An Egyptian word signifying 
king, adopted into the Hebrew, 
and applied to eight or ten 
different persons mentioned in 
the Bible as kings of Egypt. 
(Gen. xii. 17; xxxix. 1. Ex. 
i.8. 11. 1 Kings iii. 1; xi. 19 
—21. 2 Kings xxiii. 29. Jer. 
xliv. 30.) After the subjuga- 
tion of Egypt, the word Pto- 
lemy was substituted. The 
Pharaoh who is distinguished 
as the oppressor of Israel, and 
the object of such signal judg- 
ments from the Almighty, is 
supposed to have reigned from 
b. c. 1493 to 1473. It is said 
by the sacred historian that 
God hardened his heart, (Ex. 
iv. 21;) by which we are to 
understand simply that he did 
not impose upon him those 

Erovidential gracious restraints 
y which men are often kept 
from the commission of crimes, 
but suffered him to become the 
slave of his own heart's lusts, 
(Ex. viii. 15,) and to be led 
captive by Satan at his will. 
To one thus abandoned, all 
the dealings and dispensations 
of God serve only as occasions 
of increasing obduracy, and 
pride, and obstinacy, and pre- 
sumption. In the case of 
Pharaoh. God simply let him 
alone; forebore to extend to 
him the gracious influences 
of his Spirit, and suffered his 
character to develope itself 
under the circumstances in 
which he was placed. 

PHARAOH-HOPHRAH, 
against whom several of Eze- 
Riel's prophecies are uttered, 
(Ezek. xxix. xxxii.,) and with 
whom Zedekiah formed an 
alliance against Nebuchad- 
nezzar king of Babylon, reign- 
ed over Egypt twenty-five 
years. The prophecy against 
him (Jer. xliv. 30) was lite- 
rally fulfilled. He was unfor- 
tunate in an expedition against 
Cyrene, and his army was dis- 
tontented. Amasis, one of his 
generals, was sent to suppress 



PHE 

a rebellion which had broken 
out ; but, instead of submitting 
to his expostulations, the army 
made him king, and he march- 
ed at their head against Pha- 
raoh, and finally took him pri- 
soner. Amasis was disposed 
to save him; but the enraged 
soldiery forced the unhappy 
monarch from under his pro- 
tection, and strangled him. 

PHARISEES. (Matt, xxiii. 
26.) A famous sect which 
arose among the Jews after 
their return from their long 
captivity in Babylon. Thei* 
name is derived from a He- 
brew word which signifies to 
separate ; but the history of 
their origin is buried in obscu- 
rity. Pride and hypocrisy 
were their prominent cha- 
racteristics. They affected un- 
common sanctity, and abound- 
ed in rites of purification, which 
they received on the authority 
of tradition, (Matt. ix. 11 ;) but 
in many cases they made void 
the law of God by their super- 
stitious observance of the com- 
mandments of men, and were 
the slaves of lust, and avarice, 
and pride. They were re- 
proved by our Saviour, par- 
ticularly for ostentation in 
their prayers and alms, (Matt. 
vi. 2. 5;) for pride in dress, 
salutations, titles, broad j)hy- 
lacteries, and taking the high- 
est seats at feasts and in the 
synagogues. (Matt, xxiii. 2 — 
36.) On account of the de- 
tection of their hypocrisy 
and the open denunciation of 
their crimes, they became 
almost universally the bitter 
i enemies of Christ. Their the- 
ological opinions were more 
correct than those of the Saddu- 
cees; as they believed in the 
resurrection of the body, and 
in a future state of rewards 
and punishments, as also in 
the existence of angels and 
spirits. (Acts xxiii. 3.) 
PHARPAR. (See As ana.) 
PHEBE. (Rom. xvi. 1.) A 
495 



PHI 

distinguished member of the 
church at Cenchrea, a city of 
Corinth. She is called a ser- 
vant of the church, (see Dea- 
con;) and the strong com- 
mendation of the apostle shows 
her to have been prominent 
in works of faith and labours 
of love. 

PHENICE. (Acts xxvii.12.) A 
winter harbour on the southern 
shore of Crete. (See Crete.) 

PHENICIA. (Acts xxi. 2.) A 

f>rovince of Syria, and, in the 
argest extent of the term, em- 
bracing a strip of land adjoin- 
ing the eastern coast of the 
Mediterranean, eighty miles 
long and twelve broad. Pro- 
perly, however, it included 
only the territories of Tyre 
and Sidon. The Phenicians 
were descendants of the Ca- 
naanites, and a Syro-pheni- 
cian was a Phenician of Syria. 
Phenicia was also subject to 
the Greek government in the 
time of our Saviour, and hence 
Tyre and Sidon might be re- 
garded as Greek cities. (Comp. 
Matt. xv. 22. Mark vii. 26.) 
The Jews regarded all the rest 
of the world as Greeks. (See 
Greece.) Phenicia is now 
subject to the Turks, and is 
included in the pashalic of 
Acre. 

Phenicia is considered as 
the birthplace of commerce, 
if not of letters. The soil is 
still fertile, producing a rich 
variety of grains and fruits ; 
but all the enterprise and 

Erosperity of the people is 
lasted by the despotism of 
the government. 

Carthage was established by 
a colony of Phenicians; and 
Cadiz, in Spain, is also sup- 
posed to have been settled by 
the same people about one 
thousand years before Christ. 

PHILADELPHIA. (Rev. iii. 
7 — 13.) A city of the province 
of Lydia in Asia Minor, about 
seventy miles east of Smyrna. 
Its modern name is Allah- 



PHI 

shehr, or Alah-sher, {city of 
God.) It contains a popula 
tion of about fifteen thousand, 
one-twelfth of whom are nomi- 
nal Christians. This church 
was highly commended ; more 
than any of the seven. churches 
of Asia, and while her sister 
cities have fallen into decay 
she still survives, with the 
remains of her Christian tent- 
pies and worship. Her popu- 
lation is said to be the purest 
in Asia Minor. ' Even Gibbon 
says of her : " Among the Greek 
colonies and churches of Asia, 
Philadelphia is still erect— a 
column in a scene of ruins." 

This place was visited by 
Messrs. Fisk and Parsons, 
American missionaries, in the 
autumn of 1820. The inha- 
bitants pretend to show the 
church in which the disciples, 
to whom the message of John 
was addressed, formerly as- 
sembled. 

PHILEMON (Phile. 1) is 
generally supposed to have 
been a resident at Colosse, and 
a Christian of some distinction, 
who was probably converted 
under Paul's preaching. (Phile. 
19.) 

Epistle to, was written by 
Paul from Rome, where he 
was detained as a prisoner. 
Onesimus, a servant of Phile- 
mon, had fled to that city, and 
was there converted to the faith 
of the gospel. Being about to 
return to Philemon, Paul wrote 
this letter, chiefly with a design 
to conciliate the feelings of 
Philemon towards his penitent 
servant, and now fellow dis- 
ciple. The letter has been 
regarded by learned critics as 
a "master-piece of epistolary 
composition. An eminent cri- 
tic of ancient days says of it: 
"The apostle craves pardon 
in behalf of a fugitive and pil- 
fering slave, whom he sends 
back to his master; but while 
pleading his cause, he dis- 
courses "with so much weight 
496 



PHI 

respecting the rules of Chris- 
tian kindness, that he seems 
to be consulting for the whole 
church, rather than managing 
the business of a particular 
individual. He intercedes for 
the humble man so modestly 
and submissively, as to show, 
more clearly than almost any- 
where else, the gentleness of 
his nature, which is here 
drawn to the life." 

PHILIP, (1.) THE APOSTLE, 

(John i. 43,) was a native of 
Bethsaida, and a firm believer 
in the messiahship of Christ. 
(John i. 45.) 

(2.) The evangelist, (Acts 
xxi. 8,) one of the seven per- 
sons appointed to the office of 
deacon in the primitive church 
in Jerusalem, (Acts vi. 3—5,) 
and who afterwards went to 
Samaria, and there preached 
the gospel with great success. 
(Acts viii. 6—8.) While in 
Samaria, Philip received a 
divine intimation (comp. Acts 
viii. 26. 29 and 39) to go south- 
ward from Samaria, to the road 
leading from Jerusalem to Ga- 
za, la the course of this jour- 
ney, 1 >e found a distinguished 
Ethic 3ian traveller, on his way 
home from Jerusalem. He 
was, Probably, either a Jew or 
a proselyte to the Jewish reli- 
gion; and had been to the city 
of their solemnities to celebrate 
some feast. He was an officer 
of high rank, in the court of 
Candace, queen of Ethiopia; 
and as he was sitting in his 
chariot, in the leisurely pur- 
suit of his journey, he read 
aloud a portion of the Jewish 
Scriptures. At this time Phi- 
lip saw him, and was divinely 
admonished to approach him. 
Philip, without hesitation, 
obeyed the suggestion, and 
ran to overtake the chariot. 
He overheard him reading 
Isa. liii. 7, 8, and immediately 
inquired of him if he under- 
stood the force and scope of 
the passage. The traveller 
42* 



PHI 

meekly acknowledged his 
need of instruction,~and in- 
vited Philip to take a seat 
with him in the chariot. The 
latter improved the opportu 
nity to explain the great sub- 
ject of redemption, to which 
the passage so naturally led ; 
and the result was, that the 
traveller became a convert to 
the faith of the gospel, and 
was baptized. Philip, again 
divinely directed, immediately 
separated himself from the tra- 
veller, who pursued his jour- 
ney towards Egypt, while he 
himself proceeded to Azotus, 
about forty miles from Gaza, 
in the opposite direction. He 
afterwards settled, it is sup- 
posed, in Cesarea. (Acts xxi. 
8.) He had four daughters, 
who were endued with gifts 
of prophecy. (Acts xxi. 9.) 

3. The tetrarch. (Luke 
iii. 1. See Herod.) 

4. The husband of Hero- 
dias. (Matt. xiv. 3. See He- 
rod.) 

PHILIPPI. (Acts xvi. 12.) A 
city of Macedonia, formerly 
called Dathos ; but being re- 
built and greatly magnified by 
Philip, father of Alexander the 
Great, it took from him the 
name Philippi. It is at the 
head of the Egean Sea, nine 
or ten miles north-west of Ne- 
apolis, and its modern name 
is Diliba. It is a place of great 
celebrity in profane history, 
and is called the chief or first 
city of that part of Macedonia, 
and a colony. The latter ex 
pression denotes that it enjoyed 
the privileges of a Roman co- 
lony, a fact established by 
ancient medals ; and the for- 
mer may mean either that 
Philippi was the first city they 
arrived at in that part of Mace- 
donia, or that it was the chief 
city of that district of the coun- 
try. 

About a. d. 50, a church was 
gathered in Philippi by Paul 
and Silas, the former of whom 
497 



PHI 

addressed to them the affec- 
tionate and grateful letter 
called the Epistle to the Phi- 
lippians. This was the first 
apostolic labour on European 
ground. 

At Philippi, Lydia was con- 
verted under Paul's preaching, 
(Acts xvi. 14—16,) and hospita- 
bly entertained the apostles 
at her house. The populace 
became excited against them, 
however, and they suffered 
scourging and imprisonment 
in the most cruel form. By- 
miraculous power the pri- 
son doors were all opened at 
midnight, and the bands of 
the prisoners were all loosed, 
though none escaped. The 
jailer, fearing thai 'the prison- 
ers had escaped, and knowing 
that death might be the pe- 
nalty for his seeming neglect, 
(Acts xii. 19,) was about to 
commit suicide. At Paul's 
entreaty he desisted, and im- 
mediately applied to the apos- 
tles to teach him the way of 
salvation. This they did, and 
their teaching being made 
effectual by the Spirit of God, 
he and all his w T ere imme- 
diately baptised. (Acts xvi. 
22—34.) At the solicitation 
of the magistrates, they soon 
after left the city. 

Two American missionaries 
visited the site of Philippi in 
May, 1834. They describe some 
of the monuments of the for- 
mer magnificence of the city. 
They saw the ruins of what 
might have been the forum or 
market-place, where the apos- 
tles were beaten, (Acts xvi. 
19;) and, also, the fragments 
of a splendid palace. The 
road by which Paul went from 
Neapolis to Philippi, they 
think, is the same that is 
now travelled, as it is cut 
through the most difficuli 
passes of the mountains, and 
is now raved throughout. 

PHILIPPI ANS, EPISTLE TO, 
■s the eleventh in the order of 



PHI 

the books of the New Testa- 
ment, and was addressed by 
Paul to the Christians at Phi- 
lippi. It was probably writ- 
ten about a. d. 62, when Paul 
was a prisoner at Rome. (Phil, 
iv. 22.) The Philippians had 
kindly ministered to his ne- 
cessities, by sending Epaphro- 
ditus to him with the fruits 
of their benevolence. (Phil, 
iv. 18.) On his return to Phi- 
lippi, Paul acknowledged their 
kindness in grateful and affect- 
ing terms, and mingled with 
his thanks some of the most 
sublime and animating exhi 
bitions of divine truth that are 
to be found in the sacred pages 

PHILISTIA, (Ps. lx. 8,) or 
the land of the Philistines^ 
(Ex. xiii. 17,) was situated on 
the coast of the Mediterra- 
nean, between Joppa and the 
border of Egypt. It is sup- 
posed that the Philistines were 
of Egyptian origin, (Gen. x. 
14,) and that they came to 
Canaan from Caphtor, or Crete, 
(Amos ix. 7,) whence they are 
called Caphtorims. (Deut. ii. 
23.) When the Hebrews took 
possession of Canaan, Philistia 
was divided into five districts, 
or satrapies. (Josh. xiii. 3.) The 
historical books of tho Old 
Testament abound with ac. 
counts of the conflicts of the 
Philistines and the Hebrews, 
and their alternate victories 
and defeats. (1 .Sam. iv. vii. 
xvii. 2 Sam. v. 17: viii. 1; 
xxiii. 9. 2 Kings xviii. 8. 
2 Chron. xxi. 16; xxvi. 6, 7; 
xxviii. 18. Isa. xx. 1.) They are 
the subject of several remark- 
able prophecies, (Jer. xlvii. 
Ezek. xxv. 15—17. Amos i. 
6—8. Zech. ix. 5,) which were 
fulfilled to the very letter ; and 
they are scarcely mentioned 
as a distinct people after the 
destruction of Gaza by Alex- 
ander the Great. 

Volney describes the former 
land of the Philistines par. 
Ocular 1 y, and he says, thai 
49S 



PHR 

except the immediate environs 
of a few villages, the whole 
country is a desert abandoned 
to the Bedouin Arabs, who feed 
their flocka on it. (Zeph. ii. 
5, 6.) Another traveller tells 
us, that while Gaza still sub- 
sists, and Ashkelon and Ashdod 
retain their names in their 
ruins, the very name of Ekron 
is missing. (Zeph. ii. 4) 

PHILOSOPHY. (Col. ii. 8.) 
This term denotes the system 
of opinions embraced by va- 
rious sects, both among Jews 
and Gentiles, as the Epicu- 
reans, Stoics, &c, in'the apos- 
tolic age. (Acts xvii. 18.) As 
their system was framed ac- 
cording to human traditions 
and the principles of worldly 
science, and not according to 
the doctrine of Christ, it was 
vain and false, and therefore 
a proper subject of caution. 
(1 Tim. vi. 20.) 

PHINEHAS. 1. (lSam.i.3.) 
A son of Eli, and noted for his 
wickedness. (See Eli.) 

2. (Ex. vi. 25.) A son of Ele- 
azar and grandson of Aaron. 
He filled the office of high- 
priest of the Jews for nearly 
twenty years. His zeal and 
promptitude in punishing the 
sin of Zimri, a distinguished 
Simeonite, turned away the 
anger of the Lord against the 
nation, and secured to him and 
his family the right of perpe- 
tual succession in the Jewish 
priesthood. This promise was 
fulfilled; for, except the in- 
terval from Eli to Zadok, the 
priesthood continued in the 
family of Phinehas until the 
destruction of the temple and 
the captivity of the nation. 
Phinehas was remarkable for 
nis zealous attachment to the 
purity and integrity of the Jew- 
ish church. (Num. xxv. 7. Josn. 
xxii. 30, 31. See Eleazar.) 

PHRYGIA. (Acts ii.10.) The 
largest province of Asia Minor, 
having Bythinia north, and 



PHY 

Lycia south. Its chief towns 
were Colosse, Laodicea, and 
Hierapolis. Some of its inha- 
bitants were at Jerusalem, and 
among the converts, on the 
day of Pentecost. The pro- 
vince was more than once vi- 
sited by the apostle Paul. (Acts 
xvi. 6 ; xviii. 23.) 

PHUT, (Gen. x. 6.) or PUT, 
(Nah. iii. 9,) was the third son 
of Ham ; and his descendants, 
sometimes called Libyans, are 
supposed to be the Mauritani- 
ans, or Moors of modern times. 
They served the Egyptians and 
Tyrians as soldiers. (Jer. xlvi. 
9. Ezek. xxvii. 10; xxx. 5; 
xxxviii. 5.) 

PHYLACTERIES. (Matt, 
xxiii. 5.) The original word 
denotes preservation; and may 
indicate either the preserving 
of the words of the law in the 
memory, or the preservation 
of the person from danger, as 
by the amulets or charms of 
modern superstition. 

The practice of using phy 
lacteries was founded on a lite- 
ral interpretation of that pas- 
sage, where God commands 
the Hebrews to have the law 
as a sign on their foreheads, 
and as frontlets between their 
eyes. (Ex.xiii. 16. Comp.Prov. 
iii. 1. 3 ; vi. 21.) It is probable 
that the use of phylacteries 
came in late with other super- 
stitions; but it should be re- 
membered, that our Lord does 
not censure the Pharisees for 
wearing them, but for making 
them broad, out of ostentation ; 
and it is still uncertain whether 
the words referred to ought not 
to be taken literally. One kind 
of phylactery was called a 
frontlet, and was composed of 
four pieces of parchment; on 
the first of which was written, 
Ex. xii. 2 — 10; on the second, 
Ex. xiii. 11—21; on the third, 
Deut.vi.4— 9; and on the fourth, 
Deut. xi. 18—21. These pieces 
of parchment, thus inscribed 
they enclosed in a piece of 
499 



PHY 
tough skin, making a square, 
on one side of which is placed 
the Hebrew letter shin, jp, and 




bound them round their fore- 
heads with a thong or riband, 
when they went to the syna- 
gogue. Some wore them eve- 
ning and morning; and others 
only at the morning prayer. 

As the token upon the hand 
was required, as well as the 
frontlets between the eyes, the 
Jews made two rolls of parch- 
ment, written in square letters, 
with an ink made on purpose, 
and with much care. They were 
rolled up to a point, and en- 
closed in a sort of case of black 
calfskin. They then were put 
upon a square bit of the same 




leather, whence hung a thong 
of the same> of about a finger 
in breadth, and about two feet 
long. These rolls were placed 



P1L 

at the bending of the left arm, 
and after one end of the thong 
had been made into a little* 
knot in the form of the Hebrew 
letter yod, i , it was wound 
about the arm in a spiral line 
which ended at the top of the 
middle finder. (See Omar, p 
23. by Am^S. S. Union.) 

PHYSICIAN. (Mark v. 26.) 
Physicians are mentioned in 
the time of Joseph, (Gen. 1.2;) 
and many suppose that medi- 
cine was among the professions 
of Egypt, and that Moses was 
learned in it. There is abun- 
dant evidence that the healing 
art, in some branches, was a 
profession. (2Chron. xvi. 12. 
Prov. xvii. 22. Jer. viii. 22 ; xlvi. 
11. Ezek.xxx.21. Matt. ix. 12. 
Luke iv. 23. Col. iv. 14.) 

PIBESETH. (Ezek. xxx. 17.) 
The Bubastis of modern geo- 
graphers, the ruins of which 
are supposed to be discernible 
between Cairo and Sin, or Pe- 
lusium. 

PIGEON. (See Dove.) 

PILATE, (John xix. 1,) or 
PONTIUS PILATE, (Matt, 
xxvii. 2,) was appointed the Ro- 
man governor or procurator of 
Judea, a. d. 29, and was in office 
at the time of Christ's trial, and 
some years after. His proper 
residence was Cesarea; but he 
went up to Jerusalem at stated 
periods, and though his chief 
duty respected the revenues, he 
exercised his judicial authority 
there (John xix. 10) in a palace 
or government house provided 
for the purpose. (John xviii v 28.) 
His administration was exceed- 
ingly offensive. Profane history 
tells us that he was accustomed 
to sell justice, and, for money, 
to pronounce any sentence that 
was desired. It mentions his 
rapines, his injuries, his mur- 
ders, the torments he inflicted 
on the innocent, and the per- 
sons he put to death without 
form or process. In short, he 
seems to have been a man 
that exercised excessive cru- 
500 - 



P1L 

elty during all the time of his 
government. (Luke xiii. 1.) 
He was finally recalled, and 
banished, and died in exile, 
probably by suicide. 

The character of Pilate ren- 
ders more remarkable the fact, 
that when Jesus was arraigned 
before him, he was not only 
anxious to avoid trying him, 
(Lukexxiii.4. 7,) but he once 
and again, in the most solemn 
and impressive manner, even 
in presence of his malicious 
and bloodthirsty persecutors, 
declared his conviction of his 
perfect innocence. (Luke xxiii. 
14. John xix. 6.) He even re- 
monstrated with them on the 
iniquity and unreasonableness 
of their conduct, and would 
fain throw upon them the whole 
responsibility of the deed they 
were about to perpetrate. This 
they assumed i n the most dread- 
ful imprecation ever uttered by 
human lips* (Matt, xxvii. 25.) 
Pilate, moved probably by a 
fear of losing his office, (John 
xix. 12,) notwithstanding his 
full conviction of his inno- 
cence, scourged him, and then 
resigned him to the hands of 
the enraged multitude to be 
crucified. 

Hs directed the form of in- 
scription which was placed on 
the cross ; and when the Jews 
would persuade him to alter 
the phraseology, so as to re- 
present him claiming to be 
king of the Jews, and not as 
being so in fact, Pilate, con- 
scious probably of having al- 
ready sacrificed justice to ex- 
pediency or popularity, pe- 
remptorily refused to do it. 
(John xix. 19—22.) He gave 
Joseph the privilege of remov- 
ing the body from the cross, 
and placing it in his own tomb; 
and, at the solicitation of the 
Jews, he appointed a guard to 
protect it from violation. (Matt. 
xxvii. 57-66,) 

PILLAR. (Ex. xiii. 21.) This 
word is used in the Bible for 



PIN 

the most part metaphorically 
Thus a pillar of fire, cloud, 
smoke, &c., denote a fire, a 
cloud, or a column of smoke in 
the form of a pillar. (Ex. xiii. 
21. Judg. xx. 40.) It was com- 
mon to erect a pillar as a mo- 
nument of some distinguished 
person or event. (Gen. xxviii. 
18; xxxv. 20. Josh. xxiv. 26.) 
Pillar of salt. (See Salt.) 
Pillar of Absalom. (2 Sam. 
xviii. 18.) This proud prince, 
during his own life, erected in 
the valley of Jehoshaphat a 
pillar, or column, as a monu- 
ment to himself, to perpetuate 
the remembrance of his name ; 
as at that time he had no chil- 
dren to preserve it. 

PILLED. (Gen. xxx. 37.) 
The same with peeled. 

PILLOWS. (Ezek.xiii.18.) 
In this passage those women 
are intended who utter false 
prophecies, and use every art 
and device to allure to luxury 
and voluptuousness. 'Wo to 
those who sew or embroider 
luxurious cushions for all arms, 
making pillows, bolsters, head- 
coverings, &c, for persons of 
every stature, age, and condi- 
tions: so nicely adapted in 
their dimensions as to suit all 
leaning arms, and produce 
their full voluptuous effect, 
thus making effeminacy more 
effeminate. These are like 
toils and snares, by which 
hunters secure their game.' 
(Comp. Amos vi. 4.) 

PINE. (Neh. viii. 15.) The 
original word denotes a class 
of oily or gummy plants or 
trees, and probably means here 
the cypress, or some tree of 
that family. The pine is a state- 
ly and beautiful tree, and hence 
is used as an emblem of the 
flourishing state of a church. 
(Isa. xli. 19; lx. 13.) 

PINNACLE. (Matt. iv. 5.) 

The word translated pimiacle 

signifies not a summit, but a 

wing ; and the part of the tem- 

501 



PIT 

pie to which our Lord- wts 
taken by Satan, was probabi/ 
the elevation over the row 
of Solomon's porch, to whicn 
there was a passage by staira, 
and which overlooked the val- 
ley of the east, and had be- 
neath a perpendicular depth 
of six or seven hundred feet; 
for at this part of the valley a 
wall had been carried up to a 
level with the ground on which 
the temple stood, (some histo- 
rians say seven hundred and 
fifty feet.) 
PIPE. (See Flute.) 
PISGAH. (See Abarim.) 
PISIDIA. (Acts xiii. 14.) A 
province of Asia Minor, north 
ofPamphylia. Antioch, though 
within the province of Phrygia, 
belonged to Pisidia, and was 
called Antioch in (or of) Pisi- 
dia, to distinguish it from Anti- 
>ch in Syria. Paul laboured in 
the gospel not only at Aniioch, 
but throughout the province. 
'Acts xiv. 24.) 

V * PIT. (Gen. xxxvii. 20.) This 
is spoken of an empty cistern, 
or a reservoir, which the east- 
ern people are in the habit 
of preparing in those regions 
where there are few or no 
springs, for the purpose of pre- 
serving rain water for travel- 
lers and cattle. These cisterns 
and trenches are often without 
water, no supply being to be 
nad for them, except from the 
rain. 

It was in such a dry cistern 
that Joseph was cast. In old 
decayed cisterns, the water 
leaks out, or becomes slimy. 
(Jer. ii. 13.) The word is often 
used for the grave, (Ps. xxviii. 
1 ; xxx. 3. 9 ; lxxxviii. 4,) and 
for the place used to entrap 
game. (Ezek. xix. 8.) The 
pit here spoken of is used at 
this day in all wild countries. 
A deep hole in the earth 
is covered very slightly with 
boughs or shrubs, upon which 
is placed a living lamb, which 
by its cries allures the lion or 



PIT 

wolf; and when the beast 
makes a sudden spring upon 
his prey, he is caught in the 
pit below. This affords a sig- 
nificant figure of the devices 
of crafty men and devils. (Ps, 
cxix. S5. Prov. xxvi. 27. Ezek. 
xix. 4. See Biblical Antiq,., 
ch. vii. § 2, by Am. S. Union.) 
PITCH. (See after Pitcher.) 
PITCHER. (Gen. xxiv. 14.) 
The custom of drawing water 
in pitchers still prevails in the 
east, an earthen vessel with 
two handles being used for the 
purpose ; and the letting down 
of the pitcher upon the hand 
(Gen. xxiv. 18) justifies the in- 
ference that it was carried 
upon the head, or left shoulder, 




502 



PLA 

and balanced with the right 
hand, and, when presented, 
was rested on the left hand. 
The preceding cut of an an- 
cient pitcher shows their size, 
shape, and beauty of workman- 
shiD. 

PITCH. (Gen. vi. 14.) This 
word is supposed to be used in 
the above passage, and in Ex. 
ii. 3, for a sort of bitumen or 
asphaltum, elsewhere called 
slime. (Gen. xi. 3; xiv. 10.) 
It is obtained in a soft or liquid 
state, in pits, and on the sur- 
face of the Dead Sea, (hence 
'called the lake of Asphaltites,) 
and becomes dry and hard, 
like mortar, when exposed to 
the weather. It is found at 
this day in masses of wall and 
other ruins on the supposed 
site of Babylon, and is now 
employed for the like purpose 
in that part of the world. 

PITHOM. (Ex. i. 11.) One 
of Pharaoh's treasure - cities, 
public granaries, or places for 
the storage of grain. It is sup- 
*x»sed, r rom ij* relative situa- 
tion, to ue the Patoumos of the 
Greeks, inasmuch as the faci- 
lities of access to it, and trans- 
portation from it, would lead 
to its selection for this purpose. 

PLAGUE. (Ex. xi. 1.) An 
eminently contagious and de- 
structive disease, prevalent in 
the east from the earliest ages. 
It has ranged over the princi- 
pal parts of the habitable world, 
and sometimes for many suc- 
cessive years. The sacred 
writers employ the word to 
express any terrific and deso- 
lating disease, (Lev. xiii. 3. 
1 Kings viii. 37 ;) and not un- 
frequently as a general term 
for the judgment of God. (Ex. 
ix. 14.) It is also used to denote 
any severe calamity or scourge. 
(Mark v. 29. 34. Luke vii. 21.) 
The judgments of God on Pha- 
raoh are called plagues. (See 
Pharaoh. See also Biblical 
Ajs T TiauiTiEs. ch. vii. § 6, by 
4m. S S. Union.) 



PLO 

PLAIN. (Deut. i. I; ii 8./ 

This word is often used alone, 
leaving the particular plain 
intended to be inferred, as in 
the above passages, from the 
connexion. So ot Gen. xiii. 12. 
2 Kings xxv. 4, &c, where the 
plain of Jcrdan is obviously in- 
tended. 

PLAITING. (IPet. iii. 3.) 
Weaving or braiding the hair. 
The business of dressing the 
hair is mentioned oy Tewisb 
writers as an art by itself, prat 
tised by women. It was folded 
up in curls, tied up in knots, 
and put into the form of horns 
and towers, made by theii 
crisping-pins, with their cauls 
and round tires, like the moon, 
(Isa. iii. 18—22,) as was the 
custom of those times, and 
still is. 

PLANETS. (See Stars.) 

PLATTED. (Matt, xxvii. 
29.) Woven together. 

PLEDGE. (Ezek. xxxiii. 15./ 
That which is given as security 
for the performance of a con 
tract. The Jev.'ish la~v con 
tained many wise and benevo- 
lent provisions on this subject, 
(Ex. xxii. 25,26. Deut. xxiv.6. 
10. 12. 17;) and any thing like 
oppression in respect to pledges 
was severely reprobated. (Job 
xxii. 6; xxiv. 3. 7.) For a Jew 
to be <*bliged to give these 
pledges, and. then to see them 
used by idolaters in their vain 
worship, was a sore grief to 
him. (Amos ii. 8.) 

PLEIADES. (Job ix. 9; 
xxxviii. 31.) A cluster of stars, 
placed in modern times in the 
neck or near the shoulder of 
the constellation Taurus. They 
appear about the middle of 
April, and hence are associated 
with the return of spring, the 
season of sweet influences. 

PLOUGH. (Luke ix. 62.) The 
process of ploughing is men- 
tioned so early as the time of 
Job. It is also mentioned in 
Gen. xlv. 6 ; for earing proper, 
ly means ploughing, and the 



POE 

original word is elsewhere 
translated so. (1 Sam. viii. 
12.) 

Considering the shape of the 
share and coulter, we may see 
that the prophecy, Isa. ii. 4, 
and Joel iii. 10, might well 
have been literally fulfilled. 
The proper direction of so light 
a plough requires constant and 
close attention; and the least 
diversion of the husbandman 
from his work would not only 
make a crooked furrow, but 
probably his whole weight was 
required to secure the entrance 
of so light an implement into 
the soiL Hence the figure in 
the above passage from Luke. 

In the first instance the 
plough was probably nothing 
more than the bough of a tree, 
from which another limb or 
p'.ece projected, which was 



POM 

sharpened, and tore up the 
earth in a rude manner. At the 
present day they have in east* 
ern countries ploughs which 
are entirely wooden. Travel' 
lers describe ploughs of the 
former construction as usual in 
Syria. They are drawn chiefly 
by cows and asses. In Persia 
one ox or one ass is used. The 
next improvement was the ad- 
dition of handles or stilts, by 
which it might be more easily 
directed. In process of time, 
the various forms of the imple- 
ment, as known among our- 
selves, were added; though it 
is probable that the best of an- 
cient ploughs was inferior to 
the worst which we have ever 
seen. 

The following cut represents 
the form, &c. of the eastern 
plough. 




PLUMB-LINE, (Amogvii.7, 
6,) PLUMMET. (Isa. xxviii. 
17.) A line by which a plum- 
met or leaden weight hangs, 
and by the application of 
which, the exactness of perpen- 
dicularity may be ascertained. 

POETS. (Acts xvii. 28.) 
The poet referred to in this 
verse is supposed to be Aratus, 
a citizen of Cilicia, and of 
course a townsman of Paul. 
Aratus was speaking of a hea- 
then deity as the author and 
upholder of all things ; and 
Paul attempts to persuade them 
that, if this sentiment is true, 
(as it emphatically is when ap- 
plied to the true God.) we 
ehould worship him, and not a 



senseless image, graven by art 
and man's device. 

POLL, POLLED. (Num. iii. 
47.) When used as a noun, poli 
means a head ; and when used 
as a verb, it means to cut the 
hair from the head. (2 Sam. 
xiv. 26.) 
POLLUX. (See Castor.) 
POMEGRANATE, (Num. 
xiii. 23,) or granate apple, 
grows wild in Palestine, (Num. 
xx. 5. Deut. viii. 8. ISam. xiv 
2,) and Syria, as well as in 
Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and 
so s me parts of Europe, Africa, 
and theUnited States. The fruit 
is of the size of an orange, flat- 
tened at the ends like an ap- 
ple; and when cultivated, is 
504 



POO 

<*f a beautiful colour, (Sol. Song 
iv. 3; vi. 7,) and of a highly- 
grateful flavour. (Sol. Song iv. 
13.) It was sometimes used, 
perhaps, as lemon-juice is at 
the present day, to which re- 
ference may be had in Sol. 
Song viii. 2. The rind is at 
first green ; but, in August and 
September, when the fruit is 
ripe, it assumes a brownish-red 
colour, becomes thick and hard, 
yet easily broken. The inside 
of the pomegranate is of a bright 

fsink, with skinny partitions 
ike thoseof theorange;abounds 
with a juice which is both 
sweet and acid, and a great 
multitude of little white and 
purplish-red seeds. Henry IV. 
of Spain chose this fruit for his 
royal arms, with the motto, 
"Sour, yet sweet;" intimating 
that in a good king severity 
should be thus tempered with 
mildness. 

Figures resembling the pome- 
granate in appearance were 
worked into the high-priest's 
robe, (Ex. xxviii. 33,) and were 
also used in the ornamental 
work of architecture. (1 Kings 
vii. 18. For a full description 
and beautiful engraving of the 
pomegranate, see Youth's 
Frieno for Nov. 1829, by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

PONTUS. (IPet. i. 1.) The 
north-eastern province of Asia 
Minor, lying; along the Black 
Sea, having Colchis on the east, 
Cappadocia south, and Paphla- 
(Smia west. Many Jews resided 
hsre in the time of Christ, (Acts 
it. 9,) and the gospel was early 
introduced and entertained by 
many, whom Peter addresses 
in his first epistle. 

Aquila, Paul's companion, 
was cf this province. (Acts 
xviii. 2.) It became a province 
of Rome in the time of rompev. 

POOLS OF WATER. (Eccl. 
it. 6. See Cisterns, Water.) 

POOLS OF SOLOMON. (See 
Solomon.) 

43 



POR 

1 POOR. (Matt. xxvi. 11.) Un- 
der the Jewish dispensation, 
God accommodated almost 
every kind of offering to the 
case of the poor; he seems 
to take special notice of them : 
he appointed the gleanings of 
fields and vineyards, anif the 
increase of the seventh year, 
and part of the third tithe, to 
be their's. (Lev. xix. 10; xxv. 
25 — 47.) Christians are also 
charged to provide for them; 
and a blessing is promised on 
such as wisely consider their 
case and help them. (Ps. xll 
1—3. Gal. ii. 10.) Judges are 
charged to do them justice, but 
not unjustly to favour them 
for their poverty. (Ex. xxiii. 6. 
Lev. xix. 15. Ps. lxxxii. 4.) 
God claims to be the special 
protector of them. (Prov. xiv. 
31.) 

POPLAR. (Hos. iv. i3.) Pro- 
bably the white poplar, com- 
mon in the south of Europe, is 
here meant, as it is a hand- 
some shade-tree; and hence 
might be chosen for idolatrous 
worship. 

PORCH. (See Dwellings.) 

Solomon's porch. (See 
Temple.) 

PORTERS. (IChron. xvL 
42.) Such as attend the gate 
of a city or house, to open and 
shut it. (2 Sam. xviii. 26. 2 
Kings vii. 10.) The temple 
had four thousand of them. 
(1 Chron. xxiii. 5.) They wera 
classified, and had leaders or 
directors. (IChron. xxvi. 1— 
13. 2 Chron. viii. 14.) 

PORTION. (Neh. viii. 10.) 
Among the Egyptians, Greeks, 
and Hebrews of ancient times 
the portion of food intended for 
every guest was set before him 
separately. Something of the 
same kind is common at the 
court of Persia. When it was 
intended to confer special 
honour upon any one, a por- 
tion much greater than com- 
mon was given to him. (Geo,. 
605 



POS 

xliii. 34.) A worthy portion 
(1 Sam. i. 5) means, literally, 

3l double portion. 

TOSSESSED. (Matt. iv. 24.) 

"The possession of devils, which 
is often mentioned in the sa- 
cred Scriptures, is generally- 
regarded as an actual and 
complete possession of the 
faculties, held by one or more 
evil spirits, and manifesting 
itself in various diseases of the 
mind and body, such as melan- 
choly, madness, epilepsy, &c. 
They are represented as going 
out of persons, and entering 
into them. They speak and 
are spoken to, ask and answer 
questions, express their know- 
ledge and fear of Christ, are 
threatened and commanded, 
and, indeed, are always treated 
and regarded as living, active, 
sensible beings. The same 
degree of power which was 
given to Satan in the case 
of Job, may be exercised in 
various forms, and with greater 
or less malignity, on others. 
Nor is there any thing more 

\ irrational or anomalous (so far 
as we know) in the fact that 
evil spirits should have power, 
under the government of God, 
to execute his will in one form, 
than that holy angels should 
b8 employed to minister to his 
purposes in another. (Heb. i. 
14.) It is much more difficult 
to reconcile the language of 
the sacred writers with the 
idea that possessions so called 
were merely bodily diseases 
affecting the mind, and lead- 
ing the sufferer to suppose 
himself possessed, than it is 
to admit that the possession 
was real ; though an entire 
ignorance of the nature of spi- 
ritual existences prevents us 
from understanding how it 
could be. (Comp. Matt. x. 1. 
Mark vi. 12, 13. Luke ix. 38- 

-48 : x. 17—20. See Biblical 
Antiquities, vol. i. ch. vii. 

■■% 1, by \m. S. S. Union.) 
POST. (Jobix. 25.) A mes- 



1 POT 

senger or bearer of tidings 
(2 Sam. xviii. 27. Jer li. 31.) 
There is reason to believe that 
persons, fleet of foot, were 
trained to the business of run- 
ning ; and we are told, by pro- 
fane historians, of those who 
travelled from Tyre to Jerusa- 
lem, a distance of one hundred 
miles, in twenty-four succes- 
sive hours. To convey intel- 
ligence quickly, the Persian 
kings had sentinels placed at 
proper distances, who, by cry- 
ing one to another, gave notice 
of public occurrences. This 
method, however, was imprac- 
ticable for secret intelligence. 
Cyrus therefore settled posts 
that rode night and day, in the 
manner of our expresses. (Esth. 
iii. 13.) Nothing swifter was 
known for a journey by land. 

The expression (Ezek. xliii. 
8) that the Jews set up their 
posts by God's post, figurative- 
ly alludes to their valuing and 
observing their idolatries and 
traditions equally with his 
statutes and worship. 

POT. (Jobxli.20.) The word 
here translated pot is trans- 
lated basket } (Jer. xxiv. 2,) 
kettle, (1 Sam. ii. 14,) and cal- 
dron. (2Chron. xxxv. 13.) In 
Ps. lxxxi. 6, reference is pro- 
bably had to the close-wrought 
baskets which the eastern 
labourers now use as we do 
the hod for carrying mortar. 
The same vessel is probably 
intended in Judg. vi. 19. 2 Kings 
x. 7. Jer. vi. 9. 

Ranges for pots (Lev. xi 
35) probably means the ex 
cavations for the fire over whic ; . 
the pots were placed. Sue/; 
excavations are still found i n 
Persia and Arabia, and arc 
used in like manner. (See Oven.) 

POTIPHAK. (Gen. xxxviu 
36.) A distinguished officer in 
Pharaoh's court, who elevated 
Joseph to a place of trust, and 
committed to him the charge 
o^ the household. 

POTI-PHERAH. (Gen. xh 
506 



PRA x ■ 

45.) A priest or prince of On, 
and father-in-law of Joseph. 

POTSHERD. (Isa. xlv. 9.; 
The fragment of an earthen 
vessel. (Job ii. 8.) When such 
fragments are brought into col- 
lision, being alike brittle, each 
breaks the other into pieces. 
Not so in the unequal contest 
between man and his Maker. 

POTTAGE. (Gen. xxv. 29.) 
At this day, in many parts of 
the east, lentiles are boiled or 
stewed like beans with oil and 
garlic, and make a dish of a 
chocolate colour, which is eaten 
as pottage. Other ingredients 
were used, as in soups of mo- 
dern times. (2 Kings iv. 39.) 

POTTER. (Rom. ix. 21.) A 
manufacturer of earthen ware. 
The manner of working the 
clay into shape is alluded to 
by the prophet, (Jer. xviii. 3,) 
and may be seen in some 
branches of the modern manu- 
facture. The freedom of the 
potter to make what sort of 
vessel he chooses, and to mould 
or mar it at his pleasure, is 
used as an illustration of God's 
dominion over the works of his 
hands. (Ps. ii. 9. See also 
the passages before cited from 
Jeremiah and Romans.) 

POTTER'S FIELD. (See 
Aceldama. See also Selu- 
miel, pp. 187—194, by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 

POUND. (See Measures.) 

PRAISE. (Ps. xxxiii. 1.) In 
the ordinary Scripture use of 
the term, it denotes an act of 
worship, and is often used 
synonymously with thanks- 
giving. It is called forth by 
the contemplation of the cha- 
racter and attributes of God, 
however they are displayed; 
and it implies a grateful sense 
and acknowledgment of past 
mercies. Expressions of praise 
abound in the Psalms of David, 
in almost every variety of force 
and beauty; and the nature 
of the duty, as well as the pro- 
per manner of its performance, 



PRE 

may be ;est ascertained by a 
diligent study of his language 
and spirit. 

PRAYER (2 Sam. vii. 27) is 
the expression: of our desires 
unto God. It is a privilege 
with which our Maker has 
favoured us, and a necessary 
part of that obedience which 
he has required of us, to pray 
without ceasing; in everything, 
by prayer and supplication, 
with thanksgiving, letting our 
requests be made known unto 
God ; praying always with all 
prayer and supplication. (Eph. 
vi. 18. Phil. iv. 6. 1 Thess. v. 
17.) Considered as a duty of 
worship, prayer has been re- 
garded as consisting of invoca- 
tion, (Ps. v. 2;) adoration, Q 
Chron. xx. 6 ;) confession, (Ezra 
ix. 6;) petition, (Ps. vii. 1 ;) 
pleading, (Jer. xii. 1 ;) profes- 
sion or self-dedication, (Ps. 
lxxiii. 25;) thanksgiving, (Ps. 
cxlvii. 1 Tim. ii. 1 ;) blessing. 
(Ps. ciii. 20—22.) 

God is the only object of 
prayer. His throne of grace is 
to be approached by sinful and 
dying men, through Christ the 
one Mediator between God and 
man, and in entire dependence 
on the Holy Spirit to help our 
infirmities. This is not the 
place to enter upon the con- 
sideration of the kinds, forms. 
and postures of prayer. (For 
postures in prayer, with illus- 
trative cuts, see Youth's 
Friend for Aug. 1836, by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

PREACH. (Isa. Ixi. 1.) T& 
preach is to discourse publicly 
on religious subjects. From 
the earliest period of associa- 
tions for the worship of God, 
preaching has been the chief 
instrument by which the know- 
ledge of the truth has been 
spread, (2Pet. ii. 5. Jude 14, 
15 ;) and is still to be so. (1 Cor. 
i. 21.) We have a beautiful 
account of the ancient mode 
of preaching in Neh. viii., from 
which timetill the aopearance 

m 



PRE 

of Chi ist, public preaching was 
universal ; synagogues were 
•multiplied and well attended, 
and officers were duly appoint- 
ed for the purpose of order and 
instruction. John the Baptist 
was especially commissioned 
to preach the coming of Christ, 
the great teacher sent from 
God. Since the introduction 
of the gospel, the preaching 
of it has been generally re- 
garded as a sacred profession, 
and has, for the most part, been 
confined to an appointed order 
of men. 

PREPARATION. (Matt, 
xxvii. 62.) The first day of 
the feast of the passover was 
called the day of preparation, 
because all things were on that 
day made ready for the solem- 
nities of the paschal week. 
(See Passover.) 

PRESBYTERY. (1 Tim. iv. 
14.) A court or council of ec- 
clesiastics, for ordaining offi- 
cers, and governing the church. 

PRESENTS. (ISam. ix. 7.) 
Gifts or offerings with which 
men in authority or high 
esteem are approached. In 
many eastern countries at this 
day, even the common people, 
in their familiar visits, take a 
flower, or an orange, or some 
other token of respect, to the 
person visited. 

PRESSES, (Isa. xvi. 10,) or 
PRESSFATS, (Hag. ii. 16,) 
were vessels or cisterns placed 
in the side of a hill, into which 
the juice of grapes flowed 
when it was pressed out by 
treading them with the feet, 
or by pressing them with a 
machine. (Prov. iii. 10. Matt. 
xxi. 33.) Such are now used in 
Persia. The upper vessel, being 
eight feet square and four deep, 
*s used to p^ress out the juice, 
which runs into another cistern 
below. (See "Wine.) 

PRETORIUM. (Mark xv. 
16.) The palace in Jerusalem 
where the pretor or Roman 
governor resided, and in the 



PRI 

hall of which he sat to admi- 
nister justice. (Comp. Matt. 
xxvii. 27. John xviii. 28. 33.) 
There was a similar place at 
Cesarea. (Acts xxiii. 35.) 

PRICKS, (Acts ix. 5,) or 
goads. Long, sharp-pointed 
sticks, which were used to 
drive cattle, &c, by pricking 
them. The expression in this 
passage was a proverb, and 
originated in this, that restive 
oxen often push themselves 
or kick back against the goads, 
and thus wound themselves 
the more deeply. Hence the 
the proverb is used to denote 
the folly and madness of resist- 
ing lawful authority. A great 
number of heathen writers use 
the proverb familiarly, and 
always to signify the absurdity 
of such rebellion. 

PRIEST. (Gen. xiv. 18.) This 
is the general name for minis- 
ters of religion in all ages and 
countries. In the sacred Scrip- 
tures it denotes one who offers 
sacrifice. Previous to the Mo- 
saic ritual, the offering of sacri- 
fices pertained to private indi- 
viduals. Fathers were the 
griests of their own families, 
erhaps a more general priestly 
office existed, such as that ex- 
ercised by Melchizedek. But 
when the dispensation by Mo- 
ses was introduced, a particu- 
lar order of men were appointed 
to that special service, (Ex. 
xxviii.) with very solemn and 
imposing ceremonies ; and from 
that time the offering of sacri- 
fices was chiefly restricted to 
those who were duly invested 
with the priestly office. (2 
Chron. xxvi. 18.) All the male 
descendants of Aaron were 
priests; and the first-born of 
every family of his descend- 
ants in succession sustained 
the dignified and important 
office of high-priest. (See High 
priest.) The principal em 
ployments of the priests, next 
to attending on the sacrifices 
and the temple service, con 
508 



PRO 

gistod in the instruction of the 
people and the deciding of 
controversies and questions 
arising under the administra- 
tion of the Jewish law, which 
were very numerous. In time 
of war their duty was to carry 
the ark of the covenant; to 
consult the Lord ; to sound the 
holy trumpets, and to encourage 
the army. (Num. x. 8, 9. Deut. 
xx. 2. For a full account of 
the manner of their consecra- 
tion, dress, duties, &c. see Ex. 
xxix. 1—35. Lev. viii. 1—36. 
See also Biblical Antigiui- 
ties, ch. iv. § ii. and iii., and 
Evening Recreations, vol. 
iv. pp. 26—43, both by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 

PROPHECY, (Matt. xiii. 14,) 
PROPHETS, (1 Sam. x. 5,) or 
SEERS. (ISam. ix. 9.) To 
prophesy is to foretell, under 
divine inspiration, certain 
things which are to happen. 
Of course prophecy is a reve- 
lation from God, made through 
man to man, respecting future 
events. (2 Pet. i. 2i.) In a 
strict sense, a prophet is one 
to whom the knowledge of 
secret things is revealed, whe- 
ther past, (John iv. 19,) present, 
(2Kine:s v. 26,) or to come. 
(Lukel. 76—79.) 

Different modes seem to have 
been employed to convey to 
the prophets the knowledge 
of future events. Some sup- 

Eose that the events passed 
efore their minds like a pic- 
ture or panorama, and that 
they describe its parts in suc- 
cession, as one would an ex- 
tended landscape. This, it is 
supposed, will account for their 
often speaking of the occur- 
rences which they predict as 
passing at the moment, or al- 
ready passed : as, for instance, 
in the liii. chapter of Isaiah. 
Objects and symbols were pre- 
sented to the prophetic eye 
waking and sleeping, and 
sometimes there was probably 
%n articulate audible voice; 
43* 



PRO 

but in whatever form the com 
munication was made, the im- 
pression w^s doubtless as dis- 
tinct and vivid as were objects 
of ocular vision. The spirit 
of prophecy, seating itself in 
the rational powers, informed > 
enlightened, and employed 
them to understand and de- 
clare to others the will of God. 

Some think it uncertain 
whether the prophets always 
or even generally knew the 
time of the future events, or 
the meaning of what was com- 
municated to them. Hence it 
is said that Daniel and John 
made inquiries as to the mean- 
ing of certain portions of their 
revelations, and they were 
distinctly explained to them. 
(Dan. viii. 15, &c. Rev. xvii. 
7, &c. Comp. Dan. xii. 8, 9. 
IPet. i. 11.) 

Others, on the contrary, 
maintain that there is no 
sufficient ground for this opi- 
nion, and "that there is every 
reason to believe that the fa- 
culties of the prophets were 
purified, strengthened, and ele- 
vated, in a supernatural de- 
gree ; that they^ understood dis- 
tinctly the subject of prophetic 
revelation; and that the ob- 
scurity in which the prophetic 
writings are involved in our 
view, arises from our imperfect 
conceptions, and not from any 
want of clearness in the pro- 
phecies themselves. 

The predictions were some- 
times announced by the pro- 
phets to the people, both in 
assemblies and by writing. 
(Isa. viii. 2; lviii. 1, &c. Jer. 
vii. 2.) Sometimes they were 
posted up on the public 
gates, and sometimes an- 
nounced with the most affect- 
ing tokens upon the persons 
or in the conduct of the pro- 
phets, that the predictions they 
uttered were true. (Isa. xx. 
Jer. xix. and xxvii.) 

The heathen poets are called 
prophets, because it was sup- 
609 



PRO 

posed they wrote under the 
influeace of the gods. (Tit. i. 
12.) Aaron is called the pro- 
phet of Moses, (Ex. vii. 1,) 
because he declared the com- 
munications of Moses to the 
people. 

The term prophesy is also 
used analogically, (1 Cor. xi. 4, 
5; xiv. l,&c.,) probably because 
those who exercised these func- 
tions were regarded as under 
the direction of the Holy Spirit. 
So it is said that Judas and 
Silas were prophets; and in 
Acts xiii. 1, that there were in 
the church at Antioch cer- 
tain prophets and teachers; 
that is, official instructers. 
(Comp. 1 Cor. xii. 28. See also 
Acts xxi. 9. Eph. ii. 20. Rev. 
xviii. 20.) It is also applied to 
the sacred musicians. (1 Chron. 
xxv. 1.) It may be only because 
Miriam led the concert (Ex. 
xv. 20, 21) that she is reckoned 
as a prophetess. 

Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, 
and Daniel are called the 
greater prophets from the size 
of their books, and the extent 
and importance of their prophe- 
cies. The others are called the 
minor or lesser prophets. 

The supposed chronological 
arrangement of the prophe- 
cies, and the order in which 
they may be most intelligibly 
read, is as follows. 



Jonah - 


B. C. 856—784 


Amos 


- S10— 785 


Hosea - 


810-725 


Isaiah 


- 810—698 


Joel • • 


810—660 


Micah • 


. 758—699 


Nahum 


720— 69S 


Zephaniah 


- 640—609 


Jereiiiiah • 


628—586 


Habakkuk 


• 612—593 


Daniel 


606—534 


Obadiah - 


- 588—583 


Ezekiel 


595—536 


Hagscai • 


- 620—513 


Zechariah - 


520—518 


Malachi . 


- 436—420 



A useful classification of the 
prophets assigns the first eight 
to the period before the Baby- 
lonian captivity ; the five next 



PRO 

to a period near to and during 
the captivity; and the three 
last after the return of the Jews 
from Babylon. The historical 
books of these three periods il- 
lustrate the prophetical. They 
were all uttered within a pe- 
riod of about four hundred 
years. 

The prophets were the di- 
vines, the philosophers, the in- 
structers, and the guides of the 
Hebrews in piety and virtue. 
They generally lived retired. 
Their habitations and mode of 
life were plain, and simple, 
and consistent. 

Sons of the prophets. 
(2 Kings ii. 3. 5.) Probably pu- 
pils of the prophets, trained up 
by them in a knowledge of re- 
ligion, and in habits of devottbn 
and piety. Perhaps they were 
employed as assistants to the 
prophets, and stood in the rela- 
tion which evangelists are sup- 
posed by some to have borne 
to the apostles. 

The phrase, that it might 
be fulfilled which icas spoken, 
&c, (Matt. i. 22,) does not al- 
ways mean that the event hap- 
pened, or was brought about, in 
order to make good the predic- 
tion; but often merely that 
thus, or in this manner, a 
certain prophecy was accom- 
plished. (See Fulfilled.) 

PROPHETESS. (Ex.xv.20.) 
Prophetess signifies not only 
the wife of a prophet, (Isa. viii. 
3,) but also a woman that has 
the gift of prophecy. Among 
these were Miriam, Deborah, 
Hannah, and Anna. 

PROPITIATION. (Rom. iii. 
25.) The word, wherever it oc- 
curs in our Scriptures, (1 John 
ii. 2; iv. 10,) is of like deriva- 
tion, and denotes, in the origin 
nal use of it, the action of a 
person who in some appointed 
way averts the wrath of a de- 
ity, or pacifies an offended 
party. A word of kindred ori- 
gin is elsewhere translated 
sin-offering, (Ezek. xliv 27 
510 



PRO 
and xlv. 19 ;) and atonement, 
Num. v. 8;) the mercy-seat, 
rHeb. ix. 5 ;) or the place 
or instrument of propitiation, 
where the blood of the sin-of- 
fering was sprinked by the 
high-priest to make an atone- 
ment for sin. (Lev. xvi. 14.) 

PROSELYTE. (Matt, xxiii. 
15.) A name given by the Jews 
to such as were converted from 
heathenism to the Jewish faith. 
The Jewish Rabbins mention 
at least two classes. Proselytes 
of righteousness, who fully em- 
braced the Jewish religion, 
were admitted to the enjoy- 
ments of all its rites and ordi- 
nances; (proselytes of this 
Glass are described in Ezra vi. 
21 ;) and proselytes of the 
gate, who renounced heathen- 
ism, and conformed in some 
respects to the Jewish religion, 
and were allowed only limited 
privileges. (See Biblical An- 
tiquities, vol. ii. ch. vii., by 
Am. S. S. Union.) It seems to 
be the better opinion, however, 
that this distinction is without 
authority, and that the only 
proselytes were such as em- 
braced the whole system of 
Jewish worship. 

PROVERB. (1 Sam. x. 12.) 
This word is sometimes used 
as synonymous with parable. 
(John xvi. 29.) Strictly speak- 
ing, a proverb is a short moral 
sentence, expressing an im- 
portant principle in a striking 
and forcible manner. 

The Proverbs op Solomon 
constitute an important por- 
tion (and the twentieth in 
order of the books) of the Old 
Testament. It is a collection 
of wise maxims or sayings, 
chiefly of Solomon, concern- 
ing almost every duty and re- 
lation of life. It is indeed 
a storehouse of wisdom, and 
abounds with the most plain 
and practical rules for the re- 
gulation of the life and heart. 

The first ten chapters con- 
tain cautions and exhortations 



PSA 

on a variety of subjects. From 
ch. x. to ch. xxii. 16, we fino 
what are, strictly speaking, pro- 
verbs. From ch. xxii. 17, to 
ch. xxiii. we have important 
instruction addressed in a con- 
nected form to a pupil supposed 
to be present. Ch. xxiii.— xxix. 
constitute a collection of in- 
spired proverbs, which there 
is some reason to believe were 
derived not exclusively from 
the lips of Solomon. Ch. xxx. 
contains the admonitions of 
Agur, and ch. xxxi. the coun- 
sels given to king Lemuel by 
his mother. The general simi- 
larity of the matter which con- 
stitutes the book of Proverbs 
may well account for the 
mingling of authors, withoui 
resorting to the presumption 
that Agur and Lemuel were 
none other than Solomon him- 
self, under a fictitious name. 
It is said by judicious critics 
that the canonical authority of 
no part of the Old Testament 
is better ratified by the evi- 
dence of apostolic quotations 
than the book of Proverbs. 

PSALMS, (Luke xxiv. 44,) 
or holy songs. A psalm is a 
poetic composition adapted to 
music, vocal or instrumental, 
but especially the latter. When 
psalms, hymns, and spiritual 
songs are mentioned together, 
psalms may denote such as 
were sung on instruments ; 
hymns, such as contain only 
matter of praise ; and spiritual 
songs, such as contain doc- 
trines, history, and prophecy 
for men's instruction. (Eph. 
v. 19.) 

The Psalms of David con- 
stitute the nineteenth in the 
order of the books of the Old 
Testament, and their right to a 
place in the canon has never 
been disputed. They consist 
of inspired hymns and songs, 
meditations and prayers, chief- 
ly of David. It is supposed 
they were collected into one 
book by Ezra, though without 
511 



PSA 

any regard to chronological ' 
order. They are a complete 
and perfect manual of devo- 
tional exercises; and there is 
scarcely a grief or disease of 
the soul, for" which there is not 
in this divine book a present 
comfortable remedy always to 
be found by those who rightly 
seek it. 

They are sometimes called 
The Psalter, from the psaltery, 
a musical instrument used to 
accompany them when sung. 

The titles of the Psalms 
sometimes have reference to a 
choice. of tunes, or instruments, 
or v^niain some directions to 
persons appointed to set them 
to music, or to the leaders of 
the choir, or something pecu- 
liar in the subject, season, or 
style of the composition. The 
conjectures as to their meaning 
are various. 

This book was once publish- 
ed in five parts, each conclud- 
ing with a doxology, viz.i. — xli.; 
xlii.— lxxii. ; lxxiii. — lxxxix. ; 
xc— cvi; cvii.— cl.; but it is 
cited as one book, Luke xx. 
42. 

The original collection would 
eeemto have comprised psalms 
i.— lxxii. (See the subscription, 
Ps. lxxii. 20. And for a chro- 
nological arrangement of the 
Psalms, with the occasion 
which led to the composition 
of them, see Life of David, by 
Am. S. S. Union, pp.273— 275.) 

PSALTERY (Ps. xxxiii. 2) 
was a Babylonish instrument. 
In our version of the Bible the 
name is given to other instru- 
ments : but the genuine psal- 
tery was a stringed instrument, 
as far as we can learn, like the 
len-stringed lyre, or harp. (See 
Harp.) 

The modern instrument call- 
ed psaltery is flat, and in the 
form of a trapezium, or triangle 
cut off at the top, and is strung 
with thirteen strings. It is 
struck with a plectrum, or 
small iron rod. 



PUR 

PTOLEMAIS. (SeeAcCHo.> 
PUBLICAN. (Matt, xviii 

17.) An inferior collector c. 
the Roman tribute. The prin- 
cipal farmers of this revenue 
were men of great credit and 
influence ; but the under-farm- 
ers, or publicans, were remark- 
able for their rapacity and ex- 
tortion, and were accounted as 
oppressive thieves' and pick- 
pockets. Hence it is even said 
that the Jews would not allow 
them to enter the temple, or 
the synagogues ; to partake of 
the public prayers, or offices 
of judicature ; or to give testi- 
mony in a court of justice. 

There w T ere many publicans 
in Judea in the time of our Sa- 
viour. Zaccheus, probably, was 
one of the principal receivers, 
since he is called chief among 
the publicans, (Luke xix. 2;) 
but Matthew was only an in- 
ferior publican. (Luke v. 27.) 
The Jews reproached Jesus 
with being a friend of publi- 
cans and sinners, and eating 
with them. (Luke vii. 34.) 

PUL. (2 Kings xv. 19.) The 
first king of Assyria, who in- 
vaded Canaan, and by a pre- 
sent of one thousand talents of 
silver, (equivalent to nearly 
two millions of dollars in our 
day,) was prevailed on by Me- 
nahem to withdraw his troops, 
and recognise the title of that 
wicked usurper. This is the 
first mention of Assyria m the 
sacred history after the days of 
Nimrod, and Pul was the first 
Assyrian invader of Judea. A 
town of this name is mentioned 
Isa. lxvi. 19; which is sup- 
posed, without authority, to be 
the island of PhikE, in the Nile, 
not far from Syene, where are 
found magnificent ruins. 

PULSE. (2 Sam. xvii. 2S.) 
Coarse grain, as peas, beans, 
and the like. (Dan. i. 12. 16.) 

PUR, or PURIM, feast of 
(See Feasts.) 

PURPLE. (Ex. xxv. 4.) The 
purple dye, so famous among 



PUR 

the orientals in ancient days, 
was much used by the Babylo- 
nians. (Jer. x. 9. Ezek. xxiii. 
15 ; xxvii. 16.) The hangings 
of the temple and some of the 
priests' garments were of this 
colour. ~(Ex. xxv. 4; xxxv. 6; 
xxxix. 29. 2Chron. iii. 14.) It 
was imported from some coun- 
try beyond Persia, and there 
is good reason to believe that 
it was obtained from the body of 
an insect. The robes of royalty 
and distinction were of purple, 
and hence the intended gross- 
ness of the insult and mockery 
of our Saviour. (John xix. 2. 5.) 
The colour called purple was 
probably scarlet. The term 
purple was applied to any co- 
lour into which red entered. 

PURSE. (Mark vi. 8.) A 
sort of girdle, such as is often 
found at the present day in 
eastern countries, A part of 
the girdle, sufficient to encom- 
pass'the body, is sewed double, 
and fastened with a buckle. 
The residue is wound around 
above or below the first fold, 
and tucked under. The first 
fold has an opening, closed 
with a leathern cover and strap, 
through which the contents of 
the purse are passed. (See 
Clothes.) 

A modern traveller says— 
K I bought to-day in the bazaar 
a woollen girdle, whose con- 
struction amply explains the 



phrase so often occurring in ori- 
ental tales, of " carrying mo- 
ney in the belt." On one end 
being passed once round the 
waist, it is fastened by a buckle; 
and this entire portion, being 
sewed double all round, con- 
tains the money, which is 
extracted by means of a small 
opening in the front, closed 
with a leathern cover and 
strap. This being secured, the 
remainder of the zone is folded 
around the body till the suc- 
cessive envelopementstake up 
all the cloth, ihe end of which 
is then tucked in at the side so 
as to secure the folds." 

The word translated purses, 
in Matt. x. 9, signifies literally 
girdles ; and from their adap- 
tation lo the use pointed out by 
our Saviour, were undoubtedly 
of the same fashion with that 
which is above described. 

PUTEOLI, (Acts xxviii. 13,) 
or the wells, now Pozzuoli, a 
city eight miles north-west 
from Naples, containing about 
ten thousand inhabitants, for- 
merly celebrated for its warm 
baths and springs. The har- 
bour was once regarded as the 
best in Italy. 

PYGARG (Deut. xiv. 5) is 
the name of a bird of the eagle 
kind ; but here, probably, de- 
notes a beautiful species of the 
gazelle, or the mountain goat, 
found in Africa and Asia. 



QUA 

QUAILS, (Ex. xvi. 13,* or 
partridges, as they are 
called in some parrs of the 
United States, were a part of 
the food miraculously supplied 
to the Israelites in the wilder- 
ness. (Ps. lxxviii. 27.) Quails 
are still common in the deserts 
of Arabia, and are brought to 
the market at Jerusalem by 
thousands. The supply to the 
Israelites was furnished on two 
occasions. (Ex. xvi. 13. Num. 



QUA 

xi. 31.) Both were at the sea- 
son when the quails pass from 
Asia into Europe, and are 
found in immense flocks on 
the coast of the Mediterranean 
and Red Sea. That they were 
thrown in such vast quantities 
into the camp of the Israelites 
as to suffice for the food of 
perhaps a million of persons 
for more than a month, is cer 
tainly supernatural. The de- 
scription of the quantity is lia 
513 



QUA 



QUI 




ble to misapprehension. The 
original does not represent the 
exact height, as our translation 
does; and some suppose it has 
no reference at all to quantity ; 
fior does it mean that the least 
amount gathered was exactly 
a homer. In the latter instance 
a large but indefinite quantity 
is intended. They were proba- 
bly dried in the sun and salted, 
as many kinds of provisions 
are at this day. Hence the ex- 
pression, they spread them 
abroad for themselves round 
about the camp. (Num. xi. 32.) 
QUATERNION. (Acts xii. 
4.) When Peter is said to have 
been delivered to four quater- 
nions of soldiers, it is to be un- 
derstood that he was guarded 
by four men at a time, viz. two 
in the prison with him,(ver. 6,) 
and two before the doors, and 
that they were relieved every 
three hours, or at each suc- 
cessive watch of the night, by 
four others ; making in all six- 
teen men. (See Life of Pe- 
ter, pp. 194— 19G, by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 



-JKL. 

The Common Quail. 



QUEEN OF HEAVEN 
(Jer. vii. 18.) The title under 
which the moon was worship- 
ped by the heathens. Cakes 
having the image of the moon 
stamped on them are supposed 
. to have been presented in sa- 
crifice, as a part of their idola- 
trous worship. 

QUICKSANDS. (Actsxxvii. 
17) Reference is had in this 
passage (as it is supposed) to 
two very dangerous sandbars 
on the coast of Africa, over 
against Sicily, which were con- 
tinually shifting their position, 
and forming powerful currents^ 
by which ships were drawn 
from their course. 
. QttlVER. (Ps. cxxvii. 5.) 
The\)ox or case for arrows. 
The word is often used figura- 
tively. (Isa. xlix. 2. Lam. iij. 
2.) In Jer. v. 16, the slaugh- 
ter and desolation which should 
be brought upon the Israelites 
by the invasion of the Chal- 
deans, is expressed by calling 
their quivers an open sepul- 
chre^ or their arrows certain 
death. (See Armour.) 



RAA 

RAAMAH. (Ezek.xxvii.22.) 
A country or district of 
Arabia, trading with Tyre in 
spices, stones, and gold ; and is 
supposed to have been settled 
by the descendants of Raamah, 
grandson of Ham. (Gen. x. 7.) 



RAA 

RAAMSES or RABIESES. 
(Gen. xlvii. 11. Ex. xii. 37 
Num. xxxiii. 3.) One of 
Pharaoh's treassr,e-cities, or 
public granaries, probably for- 
tified for the security of the 
stores. Travellers tell us of a 
514 



RAC 

mas3 of ruins found at the mo- 
dern village of Aben-keyshid, 
about forty miles from Suez, 
and near the canal connecting 
that city with the Nile. The 
central and convenient loca- 
tion of this place points it out 
as the probable site of the an- 
cient city. (See Pithom.) 

RABBATH, of the children 
of Ammon, (Deut. iii. 11,) was 
the chief city of the land of the 
Ammonites, and was situated 
in the mountains of Gilead, not 
far from the source of the Ar- 
non. It was here that Uriah ' 
lost his life in the siege of the 
city by Joab, (2 Sam. xi. 17;) 
and afterwards it was captured, 
David himself taking the head 
of the army. (2 Sam. xii. 29.) 
As the capital of the Ammon- 
ites, the severest judgments 
are denounced against it in 
several prophecies. (Jer. xlix. 
1—3. Ezek. xxi. 20; xxv. 5.) 
Its modern name is Ammon, 
about twenty miles south-east 
of Szalt, where extensive ruins 
are now found. (See Ammonites.) 

RABB ATH-MOAB. (SeeAR.) 

RABBI. (Matt, xxiii. 7.) A 
title of dignity, literally signi- 
fying great or chief. It was 
given by the Jews to distin- 
guished teachers of their law. 

RABBONI. (John xx. 16.) A 
Hebrew word signifying my 
master, and regarded as the 
highest title of honour among 
the Jews. 

RABSHAKEH, (2 Kings 
xviii. 17,) or the chief butler or 
cup-bearer, was sent with Rab- 
saris, or the chief of the eu- 
nuchs, and Tartan, messengers 
of the king of Assyria, to Heze- 
kiah, summoning him, in the 
most indecent and blasphe- 
mous manner, to surrender his 
capital. The history is record- 
ed in 2 Kings xviii. 17—37. 

RACA. (Matt. v. 22.) ASy- 
riac term denoting perfect con- 
tempt of the individual to 
whom it is applied. 
RACE. (1 Cor. ix. T4.) The 



RAC 

word which is rendered race 
(Ps. xix. 5) signifies way, road, 
or path. Races were known 
to the Hebrews. (Eccl. ix. 11.) 
The eastern couriers are usu- 
ally taken from among the 
strong or distinguished officers 
of the kirg r s forces. Hence 
the sun, in the above passage 
from Psalms, is represented as 
an officer honoured by the Al- 
mighty to bear the announce- 
ment of his power through 
every clime ot his dominion, 
in language silent, but expres- 
sive, and equally intelligible 
to all. 

When the word occurs in 
the New Testament, it alludes 
to the Grecian games for th* 
trial of strength and skill in 
running on foot or horseback, 
or in chariots. To win a prize 
at these games was considered 
as the highest honour to be at- 
tained on earth. The most 
strict and laborious preparation 
was made for it, (1 Cor. ix. 24— 
27,) and the contest was go- 
verned by established rules. 
(2 Tim. ii. 5.) Those who con- 
tended for the prize were di- 
vested of clothing; every im- 
pediment was removed ; the 
prize was in full view ; and the 
crown was placed upon thtf 
conqueror's head the moment 
the issue was proclaimed. (Phil, 
iii. 12—14. 2Tim. iv.6— 8. Heb. 
xii. 1.) 

RACHEL. (Gen. xxix. 6.) 
The daughter of Laban, the 
wife of the patriarch Jacob, 
and the mother of Joseph and 
Benjamin. (See Jacob.) The 
name of Rachel is used by the 
prophet (Jer. xxxi. 15) figura- 
tively, as the maternal ancestor 
of the tribes of Ephraim and 
Manasseh; and the prophecy 
he uttered is supposed to have 
been fulfilled wnen those tribes 
were carried into captivity be- 
yond the Euphrates. A similar 
use is made of her name by the 
evangelist, (Matt. ii. 18,) where 
Rachel, who was buried in that 
515 



RAI 

vicinity, is supposed to renew 
her lamentations at the slaugh- 
ter of so many of her descend- 
ants as fell under the barbarous 
edict of Herod. (See Rama.) 
RAGUEL. (SeeJETHRO.) 
RAHAB. (Josh. ii. 1.) A wo- 
man of Jericho, who kept a 
public house, and, as some sup- 
pose, was of depraved charac- 
ter. She had heard of the Israel- 
ites, and of the favour of God 
towards them, (Josh. ii. 8—11 ;) 
and when the two spies sent 
out by Joshua came to Jericho 
to explore the land of promise, 
she concealed them from the 
officers who were sent in search 
of them, and at a convenient 
time let them down by a cord, 
upon the outside of the city 
wall, to which her house joined; 
and following her directions, 
they escaped. It was agreed 
between her and the spies, 
that she should take a scarlet 
thread and fasten it in the 
window or aperture through 
which they had escaped ; and 
when the city was destroyed, 
her house and all that were in 
it should be protected. (Josh, 
ii. 17—23.) The intelligence 
received from Rahab induced 
Joshua to go forward at once to 
the siege of Jericho ; and when 
the city was taken and burnt, 
Rahab and her family were 
/escued and preserved, accord- 
ing to the promise of the spies. 
(Josh. vi. 17—25.) The faith 
of Rahab is commended, (Heb. 
jrf. 31. James ii. 25 ;) and it is 
supposed she married into a 
noble family of the tribe of 
Judah. (Matt. i. 5.) The term 
Rahab is used poetically as 
descriptive of Egypt, in Ps. 
lxxxvii.4; lxxxix. 10. Isa. Ii. 9. 
(See Egypt.) 
RAIMENT. (See Clothes.) 
RAIN. (Gen. ii. 5.) The 
force of the various allusions to 
this subject cannot be appre- 
hended without some know- 
ledge of the seasons in Judea. 
(See Seasons.) Rain falls 



RAI 

very frequently during what^ 
we call the cold months, from 
November to April. Sometimes 
it rains powerfully for several 
days, with thunder and light- 
ning, and a strong wind. In 
the summer season, from May 
to October, the earth is parched, 
verdure is destroyed, and vege- 
tation languishes. The first 
rain after the summer drought 
usually falls in October, and 
is called the former or au- 
tumnal rain, because it pre- 
ceded seed-time, and prepares 
the earth for cultivation. The 
latter rain falls in April, just 
before harvest, and perfects 
the fruits of the earth. (Hos. 
vi. 3. Joel ii. 23. See Evening 
Recreations, vol. i. p. 82, and 
Bedouin Arabs, ch. i. : both 
by Am. S. S. Union.) 

RAINBOW. (Rev. i v.' 3.) A 
natural phenomenon which 
consists of two arches, and is 
always formed in the part of 
the sky which is opposite to 
the sun. It is never seen ex- 
cept when the sun shines while 
rain is falling, through which 
the rays of the sun pass, and 
are so reflected as to produce 
the rainbow. The same phe- 
nomenon is produced bjf the 
spray of a water-fall, and even 
by throwing water up from a 
brush or syringe, when the 
sun's rays can pass through, 
and be reflected on an opposite 
surface. The same laws by 
which this effect is produced 
were probably in operation be- 
fore the deluge, and we may 
suppose, therefore, that the bow 
was then employed or appoint- 
ed as a sign of the covenant 
that the earth should not be 
again destroyed by a flood. 
The phrase, I do set my bow 
in the clouds, (Gen. ix. 13,) 
might with equal propriety be 
translated, I have set, &c. 
The language of the covenant 
would be in substance, 'As 
surely as that bow is the result 
of established laws which must 
516 



RAM 

continue as ljng as the sun 
and atmosphere endure, so sure- 
ly shall the world be preserved 
from destruction by a deluge. 
Its preservation shall be as ne- 
cessary an effect of my promise 
as that bow is the necessary 
effect of the shining of the sun 
upon the fallins drops of rain.' 

RAISINS. (See Grapes.) 

RAM. (Mic. vi. 7.) A clean 
animal by the ceremonial law, 
and used for sacrifice. (Gen. 
xv. 9.) In prophetic language 
the ram denotes power and 
wealth, and also cruelty and 
oppression. 

The ram of consecration, 
(Ex. xxix. 26.) was sacrificed 
when the priests were invested 
with their office ; and the put- 
ting of part of the blood of this 
sacrifice on the three extremi- 
ties of the body, aptly denoted 
the consecration of the whole 
body to the service of the Lord. 

RAM SKINS. (Ex. xxv. 5.) 
Probably the beautiful article 
common at this day in Asiatic 
Turkey and Morocco, made 
of goat skins and dyed red. 
(Comp. 2Kings iii. 4.) 

RAM, battering. (See 
Battering Ram.) 

RAMA, (Matt. ii. 18,) or RA- 
MAH, (1 Sam. i. 19,) was a 
small town, situated on an 
eminence in the territory of 
Benjamin, (Josh, xviii. 25,) and 
about six miles north of Jeru- 
salem, on the way to Bethel. 
The name Rama, or Ramoth, 
signifies an eminence, and 
hence is a constituent part of 
the names of several places, 
and is sometimes used gene- 
rally for any high place. It 
was here that the Jews were 
assembled after the destruction 
of Jerusalem by Nebuzara- 
dan, (Jer. xl. 1.) to take their 
departure from their beloved 
country, and to go as captives 
into a land of strangers, if not 
of tyrants. It was this place 
that Baasha, king of Israel, 
once possessed and fortified ; 



RAM 
but the king of Judah by stra- 
tagem wrested it from him. (1 
Kings xv. 17.) Near to Rp- 
mah Rachel was buried ; and 
she is represented by the pro- 
phet (Jer. xxxi. 15) as weep- 
ing over the loss of her chil- 
dren, and refusing to be com- 
forted because of their cap- 
tivity. This, though called 
Ramathaim-zophim, was also 
the place of Samuel ; s birth, 
residence, death, and burial, 
and where he anointed Saulras 
king. (ISam. i. 1. 19; ii. 11 ; 
vii. 17; viii. 4; xix. 18; xxv. 
1.) Ramah, or Ramathaim, or 
Ramathaim-zophim of the Old, 
is the Arimathea of the New 
Testament, where dwelt Jo- 
seph, in whose tomb the body 
of Christ was buried. (John 
xix. 38.) There is now a vil- 
lage on the hill which was the 
site of Ramah, called Samueh 
by the Arabs. Jerusalem is 
easily seen from this height. 

There was another Rama in 
Naphtali. (Josh. xix. 36.) Mr. 
King, an American missionary, 
was at Arimathea, now Romba, 
in February, 1824, and sold to 
the Arabs several copies of the 
Bible in Arabic ; and Mr.Whit- 
ing, another American mission- 
ary, was there in April, 1835. He 
says, " The situation is exceed* 
ingly beautiful. It is about 
two hours distant from Jerusa- 
lem, to the north-west, on an 
eminence commanding a view 
of a wide extent of beautifully 
diversified country. Hills, 
plains, and valleys, highly 
cultivated fields of wheat and 
barley, vineyards and olive* 
yards, are spread out before 
you as on a map ; and nume- 
rous villages are scattered he*e 
and there over the whole view. 
To the west and north-west, 
beyond the hill-country, ap- 
pears the vast plain of Sharon, 
and farther still you look out 
upon the great and icide sea. 
It occurred to me as not impro- 
bable that in the days of David 
517 



RAM 

and Solomon, this place may 
have been a favourite retreat 
during the heat of summer; 
and that here the former may 
have often struck his sacred 
lyre. Some of the psalms, or 
at least one of them, (see Ps. 
civ. 25,) seem to have been 
composed In some place which 
commanded a view of the Me- 
diterranean; and this is the 
only place, I believe, in the 
vicinity of Jerusalem, that af- 
fords such a view." 

Raman was once a strongly 
fortified city, but there is "no 
city here at present. A half- 
ruined Mohammedan mosque, 
which was originally a Chris- 
tian church, stands over the 
tomb of the prophet; besides 
which, a few miserable dwell- 
ings are the only buildings that 
remain on this once celebrated 
spot. 

There is a town about thirty 
miles north-west of Jerusalem, 
on the road to Joppa,now called 
Ramla, or Ramie, which is de- 
scribed by many geographers, 
and some of the best maps, as 
the Rama of Samuel, and the 
Arimathea of Joseph. It com- 
manded a view of the whole 
valley of Sharon, from the 
mountains of Jerusalem to the 
sea, and from the foot of Car- 
mel to the hills of Gaza. 

RAMATHAIM-ZOPHIM. 
(See Rama.) 

RAMESES. (SeeRAAMSES.) 

RAMOTH, (Josh. xx. 8,) or 
RAMOTH-GILEAD, (1 Kings 
xxii. 29,) or RAMATK MIZ- 
PEH, (Josh. xiii. 26,) or watch- 
tower. It was a famous city 
in the mountains of Gilead, 
within the territory of Gad, 
about fifteen miles from Rab- 
bah. It was appointed for one 
of the chies of refuge. (Deut. 
iv. 43.) During the reigns of 
the later kings of Israel, this 
place was the occasion of seve- 
ral wars between them and the 
kings of Damascus, who had 
conquered it. and from whom 



RAV 

the kings of Israel endeavoured 
to regain it. (1 Kings xvii. 2 
Kings viii. 28, 29. See Omar, 
p. 137, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

South Ramoth (1 Sam. xxx. 
27) is probably so called to dis- 
tinguish it from Ramoth beyond 
Jordan. 

RANSOM. (Matt. xx. 28. 
Mark x. 45.) The price paid 
to purchase the freedom of a 
captive or slave. (1 Cor. vi. 19, 
20. 1 Tim. ii. 6.) Under the 
Levitical law, an offering was 
required of every Israelite over 
twenty years of age, at the time 
the census was taken. This 
offering is called a ransom, or 
atonement money. (Ex. xxx. 12 
— 16.) It amounted to half a she 
kel, or about twenty-five cents 
It was to be made upon penalty 
of the plague ; and every per- 
son, rich or poor, was required 
to give that sum, and neithei 
more or less. (1 Pet. i. 18, 19.) 

RAVEN. (Gen. viii. 7.) A 
bird of prey, resembling the 
common crow of the United 
States in size, shape, and co- 
lour, and ceremonially un- 
clean, (Lev. xi. 15;) and de- 
lighting in deserted and soli- 
tary places. (Isa. xxxiv. 11.) 
When about to feed upon a 
dead body, it is said to seize 
first upon the eyes. Hence the 
allusion, Prov. xxx. 17, imply- 
ing the exposure of the body 
in the open field, than whbh 
nothing was regarded as mor». 
disgraceful. (See Burial.) 

The young of the raven leavv 
the nest early, before they art 
able to supply themselves witk 
food. This fact is alluded to, Jol 
xxxviii. 41. Ps. cxlvii. 9. Luk. 
xii. 24. Whether the raves 
sent out of the ark by Noah 
ever returned to him, is no. 
agreed : according to the literal 
reading of the Hebrew, also of 
the Samaritan text, and tht 
Chaldee, it did; but a differ 
ent opinion is supported by thi 
LXX., the Syriac. *,he Uatin 
and most of the fatners. (Ge* 
S18 



REB 

viii. 7.) There is also some i 
lifference of opinion respecting | 
the ravens by which Elijah ; 
was fed at the brook Cherith. | 
An ingenious writer has dis- 1 
covered that in that res ion | 
there was a village called ^Ero- j 
bi, and a brook called Corith, j 
and he conjectures that the 
iErobit^s supplied the prophet 
with food : but if they supplied 
him with food, why not with 
water, when the brook failed 1 
and why, in that case, could 
not Akab find him? (I Kings 
xvji. 4—7) There seems to be 
no good reason to doubt that 
the "natural and commonly re- 
ceived impression of the history 
is just. (For cut and explana- 
tion, see Youth's Friend for 
April, 1829, by Am S S. 
Union.) 

REBEKAH. (Gen. xxiv. 15.) 
The sister of Laban and wife 
of Isaac. The circumstances 
of her marriage with Isaac con- 
stitute one ofthe most simple 
and beautiful passages of the 
sacred history. (Gen. xxiv. 
See Christian Politeness, 
Dp.40— 45, and Story ofIsaac, 
pp. 65—76 ; both by Am. S. S. 
Union.) After she had been 
married twenty years, she be- 
came the mother of Jacob and 
Esau, and at the same time re- 
ceived a remarkable divine 
intimation concerning the fu- 
ture destiny of the infants. 
When they grew up, Jacob 
became the favourite of his 
mother, and this undue par- 
tiality was the source of much 
mischief. (See Jacob.) 

She died before Isaac, and 
was buried in Abraham's tomb. 
rGen.zlix.31.) 

RECHAB, RECHABITES. 
(Jer. xxxv. 16, 18. TheRechab- 
ites were a tribe of Kenites 
or Midianites, (1 Chron. ii. 55,) 
descended from Jonadab, or 
Jehonadab, the son or descend- 
ant of Rechab, (2 Kings x. 15,) 
from which last they derive 
their name. (Comp. Num. x. 



REC 
29—32, with Judg. i. 16, and i> 
11.) Jonadab appears to have 
been zealous for the pure wor- 
ship of God, and was associated 
with Jehu in the destruction of 
the idolatrous house of Ahab. 
He established a nil e for his pos- 
terity, that they should possess 
neither land nor houses, but 
should live in tents ; and should 
drink no wine or strong drink. 
In obedience to this rule, the 
Rechabites continued a sepa- 
rate but peaceable people, liv- 
ing in tents, and removing 
from place to place, as circum- 
stances required. When Ju- 
dea was first invaded by Nebu- 
chadnezzar they fled to Jeru- 
salem for safety, where it 
pleased God, by the prophet 
jeremiah, to exhibit them to 
the wicked inhabitants of Jeru- 
salem, as an example of con- 
stancy in their obedience to 
the mandates of an earthly la- 
ther. (Jer. xxxv. 2—19.) 

Some highly interesting facts 
are known respecting the pre- 
sent condition of the Rechab- 
ites. They still dwell in the 
mountainous tropical country to 
the north-east of Bled ina. They 
are called Beni K/iaibr, sons of 
Heber ; and their land is called 
KJiaibr. They have no inter- 
course with their brethren, the 
Jews, who are dispersed over 
Asia; and are esteemed asfalse 
brethren, because they observe 
not the law. These persons 
cannot accompany a caravan, 
because their religion permits 
them not to travefon the Sab- 
bath ; yet their country is so 
surrounded by deserts, that 
unless in a caravan, it can nei- 
ther be entered or left safely. 

A. late traveller inquired of 
a Jew about them, and whether 
they ever came to Jerusalem ; 
and the Jew proved that they 
came to that city in the time 
of Jeremiah, by reading ch. 
xxxv. of his prophecy. This 
Jew stated that these persons, 
who were unquestionably th<» 
519 




1 NOPH or MEMPHIS 

2 SAIS or SIN 

3 ON or HELIOPOLIS 

4 RAMESES 

5 Succoth 

6 Ethani 

7 Mi^do! 

8 BAAL-ZEPHON 

9 Marah 
10 Eiim 

»1 Douhkah 



12 Alush 

13 Rephidim 

14 Kibroth-hattaavah 

15 Hazeroth 

16 Rithmah 

17 Rimmon-parez 
IS Lilmah 

19 Kadesh-barnea 

20 Rissali 

2i Kehelathah 
22 Shanher 



23 Haraiiah 

24 Make loth 

25 Tahath 

26 Tarah 

27 Mithcah 
2S Hashmonah 

29 Mosercth 

30 Bene-jaakam 

31 Hor-hasridgai 
12 Jotbathab 

520 




33 Ebronah 

34 Eiath 

35 EZION-GEBER 

36 Kadesh 

37 Zalmouah 

38 Punor. 

39 Oboth 

40 Ije-abarim 

41 Aroer 

42 D1BON 

44* 



43 Beer 

44 Almon-diblathaim 

45 Mat:anah 

46 Nahaliel 

47 Bamoth 
4S Pisejah 

49 Nebo 

50 Zarad or BcnUiammal 

51 Joktlieul 
62 HESHBON 



53 Abarim 

54 JERICHO 

55 Bethlehem 
66 HEBRON 

57 Hot 

58 GAZA 

59 ASCALON 

60 ASHDOD 

61 EKRON 

62 JERUSALEM 

521 



RED 

descendants of the Rechabites, 
are now known to drink no 
wine; to have neither vine- 
yards, field, nor seed ; and to 
be wandering nomades, dwell- 
ing like Arabs in tents ; and 
they have never wanted a man 
to stand before the Lord, but 
have maintained strictly and 
constantly the worship of the 
true God. 

RECONCILE, (Eph. ii. 16,) 
RECONCILIATION. (Heb. ii. 
17.) These terms, as used by 
the sacred writers, imply the 
restoration of man to the favour 
and grace of God, through the 
atonement made by Jesus 
Christ. (2 Cor. v. 19.) They 
suppose a previous state of va- 
riance and hostility, such.as 
must necessarily exist between 
oeings so perfectly opposite in 
character as the holy God and 
his fallen, sinful creature, man. 
(Rom. vii. 5—25.) 

RED SEA. (Ex. xiii. 18.) A 
gulf setting up eleven hundred 
and sixty miles from the Ara- 
bian Sea, through the straits of 
Babelmandel, nearly to Cairo 
on the Nile. Its mean breadth is 
about one hundred and twenty 
miles. It derives its name pro- 
bably from the fact that it was 
bordered by the possessions of 
Edom, (which signifies red.) 
The original is supposed to 
mean weedy sea ; but the sig- 
nificancy of this name is still 
more obscure; for a modern 
traveller tells us that the wa- 
te'" of the Red Sea is so very 
elear, that he read on the 
wooden stock of an anchor the 
name of the ship, at the depth 
of twenty-five fathoms, (one 
hundred and fifty feet.) Still, 
the bottom is covered with 
coral reefs; and if examined 
in calm weather, has the ap- 
pearance of verdant meadows 
and submarine forests. Hence 
it is supposed the Jews and 
Arabs have called it the sea of 
green weeds. 
Tbe noithern extremity of 



RED 

the Red ? 3a is divided into two 
gulfs, Akaba and Suez. The 
latter was crossed by the Israel- 
ites in their passage from Egypt 
to Canaan. The precise point 
at which this miraculous event 
happened is not certainly 
known. 

The remembrance of this 
memorable transaction is pre- 
served in the local traditions 
of the inhabitants. The Wellfl 
of Moses (Ayoun Mousa) and 
the Baths of Pharaoh (Ham 
mam Faraoun) are associated 
with the names of the Jewish 
deliverer and the Egyptian 
monarch ; and the superstitious 
Arabs call the gulf the Bahr of 
Kolzoum, or Sea of Destruc- 
tion ; in whose roaring waters 
they still pretend to*hear the 
cries and wailings of the ghosts 
of the drowned Egyptians. 

Diodorus seems distinctly to 
allude to the passage of the 
Israelites : " It has been an an- 
cient report among the Ichlhy- 
ophagi, continued down to them 
from their forefathers, that by 
a mighty reflux of the waters, 
which happened in former 
days, the whole gulf became 
dry land, and appeared green 
all over, the water overflowing 
the opposite shore; and that, 
all the ground being thus left 
bare to the very lowest bottom 
of the gulf, the sea, by an ex- 
traordinary high tide, returned 
again into its ancient chan- 
nel." It is not unimportant to 
find a heathen writer uncon- 
sciously bearing testimony to 
the truth of Scripture history. 

The passage of the Red Sea 
nas been attributed to the pe- 
culiarities of the tides, aided 
by the winds ; but this is no 
less the act of God than an 
immediate or supernatural in 
terposition. It is well known, 
say the skeptical, that in the 
Arabian Gulf, the Persian Gulf, 
the Ganges, and other open 
ings into the great ocean, these 
tides are often overwhelming. 
5*2 



REE 

So that the Hebrews, whose 
knowledge was confined to the 
limits of the tideless sea, were 
strongly impressed by an event 
which caused the destruction 
of their enemies upon ground 
which they had passed dry- 
shod, ki consequence of a re- 
ceding tide, assisted by a 
strong east wind all that 
night. This interpretation, 
however, is entirely gratuitous 
and fanciful. The inspired 
historian declares explicitly 
that the children of Israel 
went through the midst of the 
sea. The waters were a wall 
unto them on the right hand 
and on the left. The whole 
account gives the impression 
of a stupendous miracle. (See 
Life of Moses, ch. xi., and 
Evening Recreations, vol. 
iii. pp. 96—104; both by Am. 
S. S.Union.) 

REDEEM, (Luke i. 63,) RE- 
DEEMER. (Job xix. 25.) To 
redeem a person is to purchase 
his liberty for him. The price 
paid is called the ransom. 
(See Ransom.) Sinners are in 
bondage to sin, and of course 
uhey are in the bondage of 
condemnation. The Lord Jesus 
Christ having given his life 
or his blood a ransom for 
them, he redeems them, and is 
therefore called their Redeem- 
er. (Matt. xx. 28. 1 Pet. i. 18.) 
This ransom, though sufficient 
to redeem all men from capti- 
vity, avails only for the re- 
demption of such as are in 
Christ Jesus, and walk not 
after the flesh, but after the 
Spirit. (See First Lessons, 
pp. 63—73, and Sister Ma- 
ry's Stories, No. vi.; both by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

REED. (Job xl. 21.) A plant 
of the grass family. The bam- 
boo and common cane are 
species of the reed, and so are 
the calamus and flag. Fish- 
poles, canes, and rods (Matt, 
xxvii. 29) are formed of it. 
These plants flour 'sh in marsh- 



REF 

es or in the vicinity of watei 
courses: hence the allusion, 
Job xl. 21—23. It is often used 
by the sacred writers to illus- 
trate weakness and fragility. 
(2 Kinss xviii. 21. Isa. xxxvi. 
6 ; xlii. 3. Ezek. xxix. 6. Matt, 
xii. 20.) 

Reeds were also used as pens 
are now, (see Pen,) and also 
as measuring rods. (Ezek. xl. 
5. See Measures.) From their 
height and slender shape, 
plants of this kind are moved 
by the slightest breath of wind, 
(1 Kings xiv. 15,) and hence 
nothing could be more unim- 
portant in itself than such a 
motion, and nothing more 
strikingly illustrative of fickle- 
ness and instability. (Comp. 
Matt.xi.7. Lukevii.24. Eph. 
iv. 14.) 

Measuring reed. (See 
Measures.) 

REFINER. (Mai. iii. 3.) This 
word is often used figuratively 
by the sacred writers. Its pe- 
culiar force in the passage cited 
will be seen, when it is remem- 
bered that refiners of silver sit 
with their eyes steadily fixed 
on the furnace, that they may 
watch the process; and that 
the process is complete and 
perfected only when the re- 
finer sees his own image in 
the melted mass. When Christ 
sees his image perfectly re- 
flected in the holy life and 
conversation of his people, the 
object of the refining process is 
accomplished. 

REFUGE. (See City.) 

REGENERATION. (Matt, 
xix. 28. Tit. iii. 5.) This term 
occurs in no other passages of 
the Bible. It signifies "being 
born again. As used by Mat- 
thew, the meaning of the word 
will depend on the punctuation 
of the passage, and will either 
refer to the new-birth which 
the followers of Christ had 
undergone, or to the renovation 
or consummation of all things 
at Christ's second advent, when 
523 



REG 

there shall be new heavens and 
a new earth. The last is the 
most natural construction. By 
the washing of regeneration, 
in the latter passage, is to be 
understood what is understood 
by other words conveying pre- 
cisely the same idea, and which 
are of frequent occurrence. Our 
Saviour says to Nicodemus,2&r- 
cept a man be born again, he 
cannot see the kingdom of God. 
(John iii. 3.) Christians are 
described as born of God, (John 
i. 12, 13. Uohn ii. 29; v. 1. 
4.) They are also represented 
as begotten of God, or by the 
word of God. (James i. 18. 
1 Pet. i. 3. 23.) And the same 
thing, in substance, is present- 
ed under the idea of a new cre- 
ation, (2 Cor. v. 17;) a renew- 
ing of the mind, (Rom. xii. 2;) 
a renewing of the Holy Ghost, 
(Titus iii. 5;) a resurrection 
from the dead, (Eph. ii. 6 ;) a 
being quickened, &c. (Eph. ii. 
1,5.) Regeneration, then, may 
oe regarded as the commu- 
nication of spiritual life to a 
soul previously dead in tres- 
passes and sins,by the almighty 
energy of the Holy Spirit, mak- 
ing use of the word of truth as 
the instrument: in consequence 
of which divine operation the 
soul begins to apprehend spi- 
ritual thing3 in a new light; 
to believe them in a new man- 
ner ; to love them with an af- 
fection not before felt ; and to 
act henceforth from new mo- 
tives and to new ends. The 
effects of regeneration cannot 
but be very perceptible, in the 
humble penitence and contri- 
tion for sin which is produced : 
in the ardent breathings after 
the knowledge of God; after 
conformity to his holiness, and 
communion with him through 
Christ Jesus ; and in the kind 
and fraternal feeling3 which 
spontaneously flow from the 
regenerated soul towards all 
men, and especially towards 
the household of faith : for to the 



REH 

brethren of Christ the soul born 
of God cannot but entertain an 
affection of peculiar strength 
and tenderness ; both because 
they belong to Christ, and be- 
cause they possess and mani- 
fest something of the lovely 
image of Him that hath begot- 
ten them anew. 

REHOB. (Num. xiii. 21.) Pro 
bably the same withBeth-rehob, 
(Judg. xviii. 28,) a city of Syria- 
north of Cesarea Philippi, and 
near Dan. It belonged to the 
tribe of Asher. (Josh. xix. 28.) 

REHOBOAM, (1 Kings xiv. 
21,) son and successor of Solo- 
mon, ascended the throne of 
Judah at the age of forty-one, 
and reigned seventeen years- 
At the commencement of his 
career, he had an opportunity 
to conciliate the prejudices and 
discontents which had been ex. 
cited by the closing acts of his 
father's reign; but rejecting 
the wise counsel of the aged, 
and adopting the precipitate 
counsel of the young, he in- 
flamed his subjects by the most 
insolent and tyrannical reply 
to their petitions and repre- 
sentations, (2 Chron. x. 1—14,) 
and hastened a division of the 
kingdom. Ten of the tribes re- 
volted, (see Jeroboam,) leav- 
ing Judah and Benjamin alone 
in their allegiance to Rehobo- 
am. The latter proposed at 
once to employ force for the 
purpose of reducing the rebels, 
but was divinely admonished 
to forbear. (1 Kings xii. 24.) 
Continual wars prevailed, how- 
ever, between the two parties- 
(2 Chron. xii. 15.) In about 
three years after the division 
of the kingdom, the tribes of 
Judah followed the tribes of 
Israel in their idolatrous prac- 
tices ; and for this they suffered 
the invasion of Shishak, king 
of Egypt, who desolated the 
country, and threatened the 
utter destruction of their city ; 
but upon their repentance, the 
scourge was stayed, though 
524 



REM 
they suffered immense loss, 
and were made tributary to 
the invader. (2Chron. xii. 2— 
12.) We are told that a his- 
tory of Rehoboam's reign was 
written by Shemaiah and Jddo, 
(2 Chron. xii. 15,) but it has not 
been preserved. A distinguish- 
ed modern antiquary has fur- 
nished evidence that on the 
remains of edifices believed to 
have been erected by this very 
Shishak, he has discovered se- 
veral effigies of captive kings, 
and among them one of Reho- 
boam, the son and successor 
of Solomon. 

REHOBOTH (Gen. x. 11; 
meaning ample room, Gen. 
xxvi. 22) is supposed to ex- 
press, in the passage cited, 
either the spaciousness of the 
streets or the extent of the city 
of Nineveh. If it was a city, 
we have no knowledge of its 
site. 

Rehoboth by the river, 
(Gen. xxxvi. 37,) the birth- 
place of Saul the Idumean 
king, was probably a town on 
the Euphrates, the site of which 
is supposed to be occupied by 
the modern town of Errachabi. 

Rehoboth is also the name 
of a famous well of Isaac, near 
to Gerar. (Gen. xxvi. 22.) 

REINS. (Job xvi. 13.) This 
word, which properly signifies 
the loins, or region of the kid- 
neys, is used "figuratively by 
the sacred writers, to denote 
the seat of the affections and 
dispositions. 

REMPIIAN. (Acts vii. 43.) 
Probably a name given to some 
planet (perhaps Saturn) which 
was regarded as an object of 
worship. The image of the 
object of their idolatry, being 
enclosed in a small tabernacle 
or portable case, was carried 
about from place to place like 
other baggage. Such were the 
shrines, "Acts xix. 24. (Comp. 
Isa. xlvi. 7.) What the pro- 
phet calls Chiun, (Amos v. 26,) 
the martyr calls Remphan. 



REP 

Probably the words signify the 
same thing in different lan- 
guages. 

REND. (Gen. xxxvii. 29— 
34.) To rend the garments, or 
tare them, (2 Sam. xiii.31,) was 
from the earliest period a sign 
of grief or penitence. Jacob 
and David did it on various 
occasions ; and so did Joshua, 
(Josh. vii. 6,) and Hezekiah. 
(2 Kings xix. 1.) The high- 
priest was forbidden to rend 
his clothes, (Lev. x. 6 ; xxi. 10,) 
probably meaning his sacred 
garments. Perhaps those re- 
ferred to, Matt. xxvi. 65, were 
such as were ordinarily worn* 
or merely judicial and notpon 
tiflcal garments. Sometimes it 
denoted anger or indignation, 
mingled with sorrow. (Isa, 
xxxvi. 22; xxxvii. 1. Acts xiv. 
14.) The phrase to rend the 
face (Jer. iv. 30) alludes to the 
practice of introducing paints 
into the flesh, particularly the 
eyelids. (See Eyelids.) 

RENEW, RENEWING. 
(See Regeneration.) 

REPENT, REPENTANCE, 
(Ezek. xiv. 6. Matt. ix. 13,) is 
a change of mind, accompa- 
nied with regret and sorrow for 
something done, and an earn- 
est wish that it was undone. 
Such was the repentance of 
Judas, (Matt, xxvii. 3;) and so 
it is said that Esau found no 
place of repentance in his fa- 
ther Isaac, although he sought 
it with tears, (Heb. xii. 17;) i.e. 
Isaac would not change what 
he had done, and revoke the 
blessing given to Jacob. (Gen. 
xxvii. 34—40.) 

Repentance unto life is sor- 
row for sin, grief for having 
committed it, and a turning 
away from it with abhorrence- 
actompanied with sincere en- 
deavours, in reliance on God's 
grace and the aid of the Holy 
Spirit, to live in humble and 
holy obedience to the com 
mands and will of God. (Jer. 
iii. 10. Matt. iii. 8. Acts v. 31 
525 



REP 

xi. IS. 23. 2 Cor. vii. 8-10. 
2 Tim. ii. 25.) This is that 
repentance to which is pro- 
mised the free forgiveness of 
Bin through the merits of Jesus 
Christ. 

The expression in Rom. xi. 
29, denotes generally the sta- 
bility and unchangeableness 
of God's commands and pur- 
poses, which will not be chang- 
ed or revoked from any change 
of mind or purpose in him ; 
and particularly in relation to 
the Jews, that God was mind 
ful of his covenant with them, 
and that it was firm and irre- 
vocable. 

When God is said to repent, 
it does not imply any change 
or sorrow, for he is of one mind, 
(1 Sam. xv. 29. Job xxiii. 13. 
Jer. xviii. 7—10 ;) but it denotes 
a course of proceeding which, 
if pursued by men, would be 
indicative of repentance or 
change of purpose. For exam- 
ple, if one attempts to build a 
house, and because he is un- 
successful, or disappointed in 
the appearance or construction 
of it, pulls it down, such a 
course indicates regret and 
sorrow. So when it is said of 
God, that when he saw the 
great wickedness of the world, 
it repented him that he had 
made man on the earth, (Gen. 
vi. 6,) the expression is to 
be regarded in this figurative 
sens e, as denoting an emotion 
which in man is called re- 
pentance, but of which in that 
6ense the divine mind is inca- 
pable. The purpose of God 
comprehends all the apparent 
changes in his dispensations. 

REPETITIONS, vain, 
(Matt. vi. 7,) were short forms 
or particular expressions in 
prayer, which the Jews were 
accustomed to repeat a certain 
number of times. There are 
still those who repeat the Lord's 
prayer, and other prayers, a 
great number of times, and 



REP 

vainly think that the oftener 
the prayer is repeated, the more 
efficacious it is ; i. e. if repeat- 
ed two hundred times, it will 
be twice as good as if repeated 
only one hundred times. It 
was a maxim anions; the Jews 
that he who multiplies prayer 
must be heard ; but as their 
prayers were in words or for 
form merely, they were justly 
liable to the censure which 
thispassase implies. 

REPHAIM, (2 Sam.xxiii. 13,) 
or valley of the giants. (Josh. 
xv. 8; xviii. 16.) A remark- 
ably fertile valley (Isa. xvii. 5) 
between Bethlehem and Jeru- 
salem, formerly inhabited by 
a race of giants, (Gen. xiv. 5,) 
and remarkable for two of Da- 
vid's victories over the Philis- 
tines. (2 Sam. v. 18—22. IChron. 
xi. 14; xiv. 9— 11.) 

REPHIDIM. (Ex. xvii. I.) 
One of the stations of the Is- 
raelites, on the western arm 
of the Red Sea. It is distin- 
guished as the place where 
water was miraculously sup- 
plied to the murmuring people, 
(Ex. xvii. 6;) and, also, for 
Joshua's victory over Amalek. 
(Ex. xvii. 8—10.) Here, too, 
Jethro and his family came to 
visit Moses, and united with 
the elders of Israel in acts of 
worship. (Ex. xviii. 1— -12. 
Comp. Ex. iii. 12.) 

This place is called Meribah 
(strife or contention) from the 
circumstance of the conduct 
of the Israelites above men- 
tioned. Modern travellers 
tell us that the supposed rock 
from which the water was sup- 
plied is a beautiful granite, 
about fifteen feet in height 
and breadth, and quite insu- 
lated in a narrow valley, which 
opens directly into a vast plain; 
that the Arabs reverence it, and 
stuff shrubs into the fissures, 
which become impregnated, as 
they say, with medicinal vir 
tues and of which the camels 
526 



RES 

are made to eat when they are 
sick, for the purpose of restor- 
ing them. 

REPROBATE, (Jer. vi. 30,) 
CAST AWAY, (1 Cor. ix. 27,) 
or REJECTED, (Heb. vi. 8,) 
are nearly synonymous. As 
used, Tit. i. 16, it may mean 
either that the persons de- 
scribed are without knowledge, 
(comp. Jer. iv. 22. Rom. i. 28;) 
or that, so far as any good works 
are concerned, they are reject- 
ed ; or that their supposed good 
works, like base coin, are spu- 
rious and uncurrent. (2 Cor. 
xiii. 5-7.) 

To be reprobate concerning 
the faith, (2 Tim. iii. 8,) is to 
prove corrupt, false, or unsound 
as to the true faith. 

RESURRECTION. (1 Cor. 
xv. 21.) That there shall be 
a resurrection or raising of the 
dead, both of the just and un- 
just, is a fundamental doctrine 
of the Christian faith, and one 
of unspeakable importance. 
For if trie dead rise not, then 
is not Christ raised; and if 
Christ is not raised, then is 
our faith vain ; we are yet in 
our sins. No truth is more 
clearly and iorcibly presented 
in the Scriptures, than the 
resurrection of Jesus Christ. 
(1.) It was prophesied. (Ps. 
xvi. 10, 11. Acts ii. 25—32.) 
(2.) Christ himself repeatedly 
and distinctly foretold it. 
(3.) The precautions of his 
enemies to prevent it; the 
failure of all these precau- 
tions, and the measures taken 
to disprove the event. (4.) The 
abundant, decided, and con- 
sistent testimony of witnesses 
who could not be deceived, 
and who had no inducement 
to deceive others, and all this 
in the face of every danger. 
(5.) 'The change which took 
place in the minds and con- 
duct of the apostles imme- 
diately after and in conse- 
quence of his resurrection ; and 
(6.) The supernatural evidence 



RE U 

arising from the fulfilment of 
the promise that the Holy Spi- 
rit should be poured out on 
them. 

Thus the resurrection of 
Christ from the dead is clearly 
proved; and being proved, it 
ratifies and confirms, in the 
fullest manner, the truth and 
divinity of his character and 
mission; shows the efficacy 
of his atonement; is an evi- 
dence, earnest, and example 
of the resurrection of his peo- 
ple (John xiv. 19,) and im- 
ports that all judgment is 
committed into his hand. (Acts 
xvii. 30, 31.) It is a sufficient 
answer to the cavils of infidels 
on this subject, that there is 
no evidence from reason or the 
analogy of nature against the 
resurrection of the dead, while 
there is much — very much — 
from both these sources in its 
favour. Indeed, so deep-rooted 
is me natural conviction of the 
human mind on this point, that 
no nation, people, or tribe have 
ever yet been found who do 
not, in some form, recognise 
the doctrine of a state of exist- 
ence after the death of the 
body; and this conviction is 
satisfactorily met only by the 
simple and sublime doctrine 
of our holy religion, which. 
brings life and immortality t» 
light. (John v. 28. For a full 
and simple exposition of this 
whole subject, see Susan Ell 
maker, or, an answer to ill* 
question, if a man die, shali. 
he live again 1 by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

REUBEN, (Gen. xxix. 32,) 
signifying behold a son, was 
the eldv??t son of Jacob ana 
Leah. Ha lost the privileger 
of birthright in consequence 
of a grievous sin, (Gen. xxxv. 
22 xlix. 3, 4,) and his poste- 
rity was neither numerous not 
powerful. 

Tribe op, took their portion 
of the promised land east a 
Jordan, between Arnon on th* 
527 



REV 

south, and Jazer on the north, 
and Gilead east, and Jordan 
west. It is the same district 
that is now called Belkah, 
and is still famous for its pas- 
turage. 

REVELATION. (1 Cor. xiv. 
26.) An extraordinary and 
supernatural disclosure made 
by dream, vision, or otherwise. 
(Dan. ii. 19.) The apostle Paul 
was favoured with many spe- 
cial revelations, (2 Cor. xii. 1. 
Gal. i. 12;) but the most full 
and complete communication 
of this character was made to 
the apostle John, when he was 
a prisoner upon the isle of 
Patmos ; and it is hence some- 
times called by way of emi- 
nence 

The Book op the Revela- 
tion. This is the last in the 
order of the books of the Bible, 
and is commonly called the 
Apocalypse, from a Greek word 
which signifies reVL^ion. it 
is supposed to have been writ- 
ten about the years 95—96. 
It is the design of this book 
to present the prophetic his- 
tory of the church, until the 
end of the world; and it is 
called the revelation of St. John 
the divine, because to him was 
more fully revealed the divine 
counsels than to any other 
prophet under the Christian 
dispensation. It has been ob- 
served that hardly any one 
book has received more early, 
more authentic, and more 
lasting attestations to its ge- 
nuineness than this; and the 
gradual accomplishment of its 
mysterious predictions are well 
calculated to afford, in every 
succeeding age, additional tes- 
timony to the divine origin of 
the sacred canon. 

REVENGE, (Jer. xv. 15,) or 
returning evil for evil, is ex- 
pressly forbidden by the divine 
law. (Lev. xix. 17, 18. 1 Pet. 
iii. 9.) When God is spoken 
of as a revenger, it is in the 
same sense in which he is said 



RHO 

to be furious, or to be a jealous 
God, or to repent. He does that 
in infinite justice and holiness, 
which sinful man does from 
anger and malice, or other 
unholy passion or emotion. 
The term is used to denote 
the effect of God's dealings, 
and not the motive. (See 
Avenge.) 
REVENGER. (See A- 

VENGE.) 

REZEPH. (2 Kings xix. 12.) 
Probably it stood where Ar- 
soffit now is, from twenty to 
thirty miles west of the Eu- 
phrates. Rabshakeh mentions 
it among the cities conquered 
by the Assyrians. (Isa. xxxvii. 
12.) 

REZON, (1 Kings xi.23,) son. 
of Eliadah, revolted from Ha- 
dadezer, and having enlisted 
a company of adventurers, and 
after making several incu*. 
sions into the country around 
Damascus, finally succeeded 
in obtaining the crown, and 
became a sore vexation to 
Israel in the days of David 
and Solomon. 

RHEGIUM, (Actsxxviii. 13,) 
now Reggio, is a maritime city 
of Italy, on the south-west point, 
about ten miles from Messina 
in Sicily, where Paul tarried 
a day on his way to Rome, 
In 1782, it was nearly destroyed 
by an earthquake. It is now 
a considerable town, with a 
population of sixteen thousand^ 
and nourishing manufactures. 

RHODES. (Acts xxi. 1.) An 
island in the Levant, off the 
south-west point of Asia Mi 
nor, containing a city of the 
same name, it is forty miles 
long, and fifteen broad, having 
a population of eighteen thou- 
sand, anciently celebrated for 
its schools, and for the floi> 
rishing state of the arts and 
sciences, as well as for a co- 
lossal statue one hundred and 
five feet in height, standing 
astride of the harbour's mouth, 
so that vessels could pass under 
528 



RIG 

h. It rtood fifty-six years, ana 
was then overthrown by an 
earthquake, and the brass of it 
tadeu nine hundred camels, 
nJ weighed sevenhundred and 
twenty thousand pounds. In 
.he fifteenth century it was 
the residence of the knights 
of St. John of Jerusalem. At 
this island Paul touched, on 
his way from Miletus to Jeru- 
salem. It is supposed by some 
that the name Rhodes is de- 
rived from the multitude of 
roses produced on the island. 
The modern town occupies 
about a quarter of the site of 
the ancient city. One of its 
harbours is still called Rhodes, 
•it no traces of the glory of 
jRhodes are discernible. 

RIBLAH. (Num. xxxiv. 11.) 
Probably the Rebla mentioned 
Dy modern travellers on the 
Orontes, thirty miles south of 
.Hamath. This must at least 
have been the neighbourhood, 
as it was on the north-east 
border of the land, and not 
far from Hamath. It was 
doubtless a pleasant place, 
and therefore chosen by the 
kings of Babylon as a resi- 
dence. Pharaoh-necho stopped 
here, on his return from Car- 
chemish, (2 Kings xxiii. 33,) 
and deposed Jehoahaz, put- 
ting Jehoiakim in his place; 
and here Nebuchadnezzar 
abode while Nebuzaradan, his 
dhief commander, laid siege to 
Jerusalem. Hither the prison- 
ers were brought, when Ze- 
dekiah's children and many 
others were put to death, and 
that king himself deprived of 
his eyes and cast into prison. 

RIGHTEOUSNESS (Isa. 
xlv. 23) is an essential attri- 
bute of the divine nature; and 
as it is frequently used, is near- 
ly allied to, if not the same 
wjth, justice, holiness, and 
faithfulness. (Ps. cxix. 142. Isa. 
Xlvi. 13; li.5,6.8; lvi. 1.) It 
is also used to denote the per- 
fect obedience of the Son o f 
45 



RIM 

God. (Rom. v. 18, 19,) The 
righteousness which is of 
faith (Rom. x. 6) is the right- 
eousness which is obtained by 
the grace of God through faith 
in Jesus Christ. (R-om.ni. 21 — 
26; x. 4. 10. 2 Cor. v. 21. Gal. 
ii. 21.) Righteousness is very 
commonly ^used for upright- 
ness and just dealing between 
man and man, as in Isa. lx, 
17; and for holiness of life 
and conversation, as in Dan. 
iv. 27. Luke i. 6. Rom. xiv. 
17. Eph. v. 9. 

RIGHT HAND. (Ps.xxi.8.) 
The right hand is the sym- 
bol of power and strength ; 
whence the effects of the di- 
vine omnipotence are often 
ascribed to the right hand 
of the Most High. (Ex. xv. 6. 
Ps. lxxvii. 10.) The right hand 
commonly denotes the south, 
as the left hand denotes the 
north. (Gen. xiv. 15.) It is 
said to have been the custom 
among the Jews to swear by 
the right hand, and that this 
is implied in Isa. lxii. 8. It 
was certainly common to 
swear by the hand. (Gen. xiv. 
22. Deut. xxxii. 40.) To give 
the right hand was a mark of 
friendship. (Gal. ii. 9.) Hence 
the force of the expression, 
(Ps. cxliv. 8,) their right hand 
is a light hand of falsehood. 
The right hand being a most 
useful ^member of the body, 
especially to labouring men, 
to cut it off implies the greatest 
sacrifice. (Matt. v. 30.) To be 
seated at the right hand is a 
token of peculiar honour, (1 
Kings ii. 19;) and when the 
expression is used respecting 
Christ. (Acts vii.55.) it implies 
his unequalled dignity and ex- 
altation. 

RIMMON, (Josh. xv. 32,) or 
REMMON. (Josh. xix. 7.) 1. A 
city south of Jerusalem, in Ju- 
dah, belonging to Simeon, re- 
built after the captivity. 

2. RIMMON, or R1MMON- 
(VIETHOAR. (Josh. xix. 13. 
529 



RIZ 

1 Chron. vi. 77.) A city of 
Zebulun, belonging to the Le- 
vites. 

3. (Zech. xiv. 10.) A town 
in the southern section of Ju- 
dea, first belonging to Judah, 
and afterwards to Simeon. (1 
Chron. iv. 32.) There were 
other places in Judea of this 
name. 

1 (2 Kings v. 18.) The name 
of an idol worshipped in Da- 
mascus. Naaman, who was 
in the habit of attending the 
king in his idolatrous services 
in the temple of Rimmon, 
seems to have been perplexed 
about a question of duty as to 
continuing this practice. (See 
Naaman.) 

RINGS (Isa. ill- 21) were 
used for ornaments (James ii. 
2) and for seals. (1 Kings xxi. 
8.) That they were sometimes 
used formerly as they are in 
modern times isobvious,(Ezek. 
xvi. 12;) and we are told that 
the servant gave a golden ear- 
ring of half a shekel or a 
quarter of an ounce weight to 
Rebekah. (Gen. xxiv. 22.) 
Rings were doubtless worn as 
ornaments for the hands. (Isa. 
iii. 20, 21. Luke xv. 22. James 
ii. 2.) The ring was also a 
token of authority, and the 
giving a ring the sign of im- 
parting authority. (Gen. xli. 
42. Esth. iii. 10. 12. Dan. vi. 

17. See Clothing.) 
RL\ T G-STREAKED. (Gen. 

xx x . 35.) C ircularly streaked. 
RIVER, the. (Gen. xxxi. 
21 .) The Nile is called by way 
of pre-eminence tke river; but 
the term is often used un- 
connected with any specific 
name, (Ex. iv. 9;) in which 
cases the particular river in- 
tended is to be determined by 
reference to the place and sub- 
ject-matter of narration. It is 
used figuratively to denote 
great abundance. (Isa. xlviii. 

18. See Egypt, river of.) 
RIZPAH. (2 Sam. iii. 7.) A 

concubirv 1 , *f Saul. A vejry 



B O M 

affecting evidence of the 
strength of maternal feeling 
was given by her, when she 
watched day and night, for 
many months, (probably from 
March to October,) over the 
bodies of her two sons, who 
had been put to a violent deaih 
by the Gibeonites. (2 Sam. xxi.) 
ROBE. (See Clothes.) 
ROD, (Gen. xxx. 37,) or staff. 
This word has various sign;?- 
cations in the sacred writings. 
It means a shoot or branch ~v\ 
a tree, and, in this sense, is 
applied figuratively to Christ, 
(Isa. xi. 1,) and to the tribes 
of Israel as springing from one 
root, <Ps. lxxiv. 2^. Jer. x. 16;) 
for that which supports and 
strengthens, (Ps. xxiii. 4 Isa. 
iii. 1. Ezek. xxix. 6 ;) for power 
and authority, (Ps. ii. 9; ex. 2; 
exxv. 3. Jer. xlviii. 17, Ezek. 
xix. 14. 1 Cor. iv. 21. Rev. ii 
27;) and afflictions with which 
God disciplines his people. 
(Job ix. 34. Com p. Heb. xii. 6, 
7.) 

Passing under the rod. 
(Ezek. xx. 37.) It was the 
custom of the Jews to select 
the tenth of their sheep (Lev. 
xxvii. 32) after this manner. 
The lambs were separated 
from the dams, and enclosed 
in a sheepcote, with only one 
narrow way out : the dams 
were at the entrance. On open- 
ing the gate, the lambs has- 
tened to join their dams, and 
a man placed at the entrance 
with a rod dipped in ochre 
touched every tenth lamb, and 
so marked it with his rod, sa> 
ing, Let this be holy in the 
name of the tenth. 
Aaron's rod. (See Aaron."* 
ROE. (See Hart.) 
ROGEL. (See Enrogel.) 
ROLL. (Soft Books.) 
ROLLS, house of. (See 
House.) 

ROMANS, epistle of Pau& 
to, is the sixth in order of the 
books of the New Testament- 
It was written at Corinth, a. l 
530 



ROM 

57—59, just as he was leaving 
that city for Jerusalem. (Rom. 
xv. 25. Comp. Acts xx. 2, 3. 16. 
Rom. xvi. 11. 23. 1 Cor. i. 14. 
2 Tim. iv. 20.) The Roman 
church was composed partly 
of converted heathens and 
partly of Jewish Christians. 
The Gentile converts claimed 
the same Christian privileges 
with the Christian Jews ; but 
refused to submit to those cere- 
monies which the members of 
the Jewish church were per- 
mitted to retain,— such as cir- 
cumcision, abstinence from 
J articular meats, &c. &c. The 
ews also had very false no- 
tions of the doctrine of justifi- 
cation through faith. They 
supposed that their former co- 
venant relation to God, their 
knowledge of the Levitical law, 
and their obedience to the 
rites and ceremonies it im- 
posed, constituted some part of 
the ground of their acceptance 
with God. 

This epistle is designed to 
correct these misapprehen- 
sions, and to show that the 
whole system of Jewish rites 
and ceremonies is done away 
by the gospel dispensation, and 
that the way of salvation 
through Christ is opened alike 
to Jews and Gentiles, and that 
whosoever will may take of 
the water of life freely. 

ROME. (Acts xxviii. 16.) 
The capital of the Roman em- 
pire, and once the metropolis 
of the world, is situated on the 
river Tiber, in Italy. It was 
built by Romulus seven hun- 
dred and fifty years before 
Christ, and though at first it 
occupied a single hill of less 
than a mile in extent, it in- 
cluded in the clays of its glory 
seven (some say fifteen) hills, 
and covered a territory twenty 
miles in circumference, and 
had a population of two or three 
millions. It had one hundred 
and fifty thousand houses, be- 
sides the mansions of the no- 



ROM 

bility ; and it had four hupdred 
and twenty temples crowded 
with pagan deities. The city 
was given up to the grossest 
idolatry and Superstition, while 
in arts and arms she was de- 
cidedly the mistress of the 
world. This was the state 
of Rome at the birth of Christ. 
Judea formed a part of her im- 
mense empire, and many Jews 
were resident in the city. At 
what time the Christian reli- 
gion was introduced is uncer 
tain ; probably soon after the 
day of Pentecost. (Acts ii. 10.<j 
We know that as early as 
a. d. 64, eight or ten years 
after a church was established 
there and addressed by Paul, 
(Rom. i. 8 ; xvi. 19,) the em- 
peror Nero commenced afurious 
persecution against its mem- 
bers, which the emperor Do- 
mitian renewed a. d. 81, and 
the emperor Trajan carried 
out with implacable malice. 
(a. d. 97—117.) Seasons of 
suffering and repose succeeded 
each other alternately until 
the reign of Constantine, (a.d. 
325,) when Christianity was 
established as the religion of 
the empire. 

The modern city is cele- 
Drated not only for its own 
magnificence and splendour, 
but for the- ruins of its former 
greatness. It is called the 
great 3chool of painters, sta- 
tuaries, and architects; and 
the lovers of the arts from all 
quarters of the globe are found 
at all times within her walls 
or on a pilgrimage thither. Id 
1830, Rome contained nearl 
150,000 inhabitants, among 
whom were 35 bishops and 
archbishops, 1490 priests, 1983 
monks, 2390 nuns, and 10,000 
Jews, who occupy a particular 
section of the city. The ma- 
jestic ruins; the grandeur of 
the churches and palaces; 
the religious customs; the 
boundless treasures of anti 
quity and art, and the recol- 
531 



RUB 

lections of what Rome once 
was, may well produce the 
highest degree of excitement 
in the mind of the traveller 
to that renowned city. 
ROOF. (See Dwellings.) 
ROOM. (See Dwellings.) 
ROPES, (IKincsxx. 31,) and 
CORDS. (Josh.'ii. 15.) The 
putting ropes upon the necks 
was significant of great earn- 
estness and distress. So when 
the city of Calais was besieged 
in the time of Edward III. of 
England, six of the noblest and 
wealthiest citizens, with ropes 
around their necks, presented 
themselves to the king, and 
offered their lives as a ransom 
for their fellow citizens. The 
cords of sin (Prov. v. 22) proba- 
bly denote the power of sinful 
habits. And in Isa. xxxiii. 20, 
and Jer. x. 20, allusion is made 
to the construction of a tent. 
The silver coi'd (Eccl. xii. 6) 
is generally supposed to refer 
to tiie spinal marrow, to which, 
as to its form and colour, it may 
be not inaptly compared. 

ROSE. (Sol. Sons: ii. 1.) In 
the east the pride of flowers for 
fragrance and elegance. It 
was used among the ancients 
m crowns and chaplets, at fes- 
tive meetings, and at religious 
sacrifices. A traveller in Per- 
sia describes two rose-trees, full 
fourteen feet high, ladeL with 
thousands of flowers, in every 
degree of expansion, and of a 
bloom and delicacy of scent 
that imbued the whole atmo- 
sphere with the most exquisite 
perfume. (Isa.xxxv. 1,2.) The 
vale of Sharon, from its soil 
and position, was fitted to pro- 
duce the rose in great perfec- 
tion. Hence the allusion in 
the passage above cited. 

RUBY. (Prov. iii. 15; viii. 
11.) A precious stone of a 
rose-red colour, and of great 
Deauty and value. (Job xxviii. 
18. Prov. xxxi. 10.) It is se- 
cond only to the diamond in 
hardness, an I is usually found 



RUT 

no larger than the finest shot. 
(See Pearls.) 

RUDIMENTS. (Col. ii. 8.) 
The elements, or first and low- 
est principles of a science or 
literature. With religion (says 
one) it fareth as with other 
sciences ; the first delivery of 
the elements or rudiments 
thereof must be framed accord- 
ing to the weak and slender 
capacity of young beginners. 
The phrase rudiments of the 
world signifies the rites and 
observances of the Jewish re- 
ligion, which are to the full 
knowledge imparted in the 
gospel what the alphabet is to 
a language, or what the ele- 
mentary principles are to the 
science of astronomy or che- 
mistry. The word is translated 
rudiments or elements without 
distinction, as both mean the 
same thing. (Gal. iv. 3. 9. Col. 
ii. 20 See Elements.) 

RUE. (Luke xi. 42.) A small 
garden herb, possessing medi- 
cinal properties, and among 
the things which the hypocri- 
tical and inconsistent Pharisees 
tithed, though uncommanded, 
while they neglected to obey 
the important and positive pre- 
cepts of the law. 

RUMAH. (See Arumah.) 

RUSH. (Isa. xix. 15.) A well 
known plant, found in wet 
and miry ground, (Job viii. 11,) 
and used for mats, baskets, 
chair-bottoms, &c. The pith 
is used for wicks to burn in 
lamps, (rush-light.) In the 
passage first cifed, it probably 
means the least important 
class of people; for notwith- 
standing the many uses of the 
rush, it is proveriyally without 
value. 

RUTH. (Ruth i. 4.) AMo 
abitish woman, who married 
the son of Naomi, and showed 
her strong attachment to her 
mother-in-law by leaving her 
own country, and following her 
mother-in-law into Judea. Hei 
kindness was abundantly r« 
532 



a u t 

warded, as she soon found fa- 
vour in the eyes of a kinsman, 
whom she afterwards married, 
by which event she became the 
ancestor of the royal family of 
David. 

The Book of Ruth is the 
eighth in order of the books of 
the Old Testament, and is re- 
garded as a kind of supplement 
to the book of Judges. It con- 
tains a biography of the indi- 
vidual above named, and her 
family. It has only four chap- 
ters, and though there are at its 
close some highly important 
genealogical facts, its promi- 
nent design is to show the 



RYE 

watchful care of God's provi- 
dence over such as fear and 
trust Him. (The Affectionate 
Daughter-in-law, published 
by the Am. S. 8. Union, is the 
history of fluth, connected with 
the manners and customs of 
the asie in which she lived.) 

EYE, (Ex. ix. 32.) A well 
known species of grain used 
for bread, and for provender 
for animals. The word signi- 
fies bearded; but barley and 
some kinds of wheat are beard- 
ed also. The word occurs Isa. 
xxviii. 25. In Ezek. iv. 9, the 
same word is rendered fitches 
in bur English Bibles. 



SAB 

SABACTHAXI. (Matt, xxvii. 
4G.) This is part of the 
exclamation of our divine Re- 
deemer in the extremity of his 
sufferings upon the cross. It is 
the first clause of the twenty- 
second psalm in the Syro-Chal- 
daic tongue, and answers to 
the vior(Tforsaken. 

SABAOTH. (Rom. ix. 29.) 
A Hebrew word, signifying 
hosts, or military bodies, pre- 
pared for war ; and when used 
in relation to Jehovah, indi- 
cates his power and majesty. 

The Lord of Sabaoth or 
Hosts. The term hosts may 
refer to angels, to the heavenly 
bodies, or to the people of God— 
or all of them. 

SABBATH. (Ex. xvi. 23.) 
This was the title given to the 
Jewish day of rest. It is from 
a Hebrew word signifying rest. 
Since the Christian era, the day 
of rest is (and, as many think, 
most properly) called the Lord's- 
day, because it is now comme- 
morative of Christ's resurrec- 
tion from the dead ; and there 
is thus connected with it an 
affectionate remembrance of 
the whole character and offices 
of Him to whose service and 
glory it is to \e devoted Sun- 
45* 



SAB 

day was a name given by the 
heathens to the first day of the 
week, because it was the day 
on which they worshipped the 
sun; and this name, together 
with those of the other days 
of the week, has been con- 
tinued to our times. There is 
reason to believe that as soon 
as man was created, and en- 
dowed with capacities to love 
and worship God, he was re- 
quired to consecrate at least 
one-seventh of his time to the 
special and exclusive service 
of his Maker. The sanctifi ca- 
tion of this portion of time is 
regarded throughout the whole 
of the Old Tesfament as a fun- 
damental principle of duty ; 
and no sin, except perhaps 
idolatry, is threatened with 
heavier penalties than Sab- 
bath-breaking. 

The commandment which 
stands fourth in the order of 
the decalogue, (Ex. xx. 8,) lie- 
member the Sabbath- ..ay to 
keep it holy, is founded on the 
fact that the seventh day was 
blessed and hallowed by God 
himself, and that he requires 
his creatures to keep it holy to 
him. This commandment is of 
universal and perpetual oblig* 
533 



SAB 

tion. The object to be accom- 
plished by the institution is 
general, and applies to all 
people everywhere with like 
force. Wherever there is a 
human being capable of con- 
templating the character of the 
Supreme Being— of studying 
his revealed will, and of con- 
sidering his own immortal des- 
tiny — this commandment re- 
quires him to consecrate at 
least one-seventh part of his 
time to these holy purposes. 
The terms of the command- 
ment do not fix the precise day 
in order, except that it is to be 
every seventh day ; in other 
words, it simply requires that 
after six days of labour, one 
day is to be given to rest. 

There is abundant evidence 
from history that the seventh 
day of ihe week has been ob- 
served from the earliest times 
as a day of rest; and the change 
from the seventh to the first 
day does not in any degree 
change or impair the obligation 
to sanctify a seventh part of 
our time. So far from it, the 
sacrednessand glory of the day 
are much increased by its as- 
sociation with that great event 
on which our hope of liff and 
immortality entirely depends. 

It seems to be admitted by 
intelligent men of every class 
and profession, that the obser- 
vance of a weekly day of rest 
is as essential to our intellec- 
tual and physical as to our 
moral and spiritual nature. 

The simple rule as to the 
mode of observing the day 
seems to be this,— that there 
should be a cheerful resting, all 
the day, from such worldly em- 
ployments and recreations as 
may be lawful on other days, 
and the spending of the whole 
time in the public or private 
worship of God, except so much 
as may be occupied by works 
of necessity or mercy. To test 
the propriety of any act or pur- 
suit on that day, it is only 



SAB 
needful to inquire whether the 
doing of it will tend to advance 
us in holy exercises and affec- 
tions, and in preparation for the 
heavenly rest; or whether it is 
an act of necessity which can- 
not be postponed without seri- 
ous injury. (See Feasts. See 
also Omar, pp. 211—213, and 
Biblical Antiqjjities, vol. ii. 
ch. vi. § 11, both by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

The following are among the 
leading authorities of the Bible 
respecting the Sabbath and its 
proper observance. 

The profanation of the Sab- 
bath the cause of national judg- 
ments. (Neh. xiii. 15—18. 
Ezek. xx. 15, 16 ; xxiii. 38. 47.) 

The divine institution of the 
Jewish Sabbath. (Gen. ii. 2,3. 
Ex. xx. 8—11. Deut. v. 12. 15. 
Ezek. xx. 12; xliv. 24.) 

Servile labour forbidden. 
(Ex. xvi. 23. 29: xx. 10, 11; 
xxiii. 12 ; xxxiv. 21 ; xxxv. 2, 3. 
Deut. v. 14. 15. Jer. xvii. 21, 
22. Mark xv. 42; xvi. 1, 2. 
John xix. 14. 31. 42.) 

The Jewish Sabbath re-es- 
tablished under the gospel dis- 
pensation. (Matt. v. 17; xii. 12. 
Mark ii. 27.) 

The change of the Sabbath 
from the seventh to the first 
day of the week. (Gen. ii. 2. 
Ex. xx. 11. Luke xxiii. 56. 
John xx. 19. Acts xx. 7. 1 Cor. 
xvi. 2. Rev. i. 10.) 

The duties of the Sabbath 
enjoined. (Lev. xix. 30; xxvi. 
2. Ezek. xlvi. 3. Mark vi. 2. 
Luke iv. 16, 31. Acts xiii. 14— 
16.27.42.44; xvii. 2, 3.) 

Works of necessity aad mer 
cy to be done on this day 
(Matt. xii. 1—3. 5. 7. 12, 13. 
Mark ii. 23.27; iii. 2. 4. Lukt 
vi. 9; xiii. 15, 16* xiv. 3. 5 
John v. 8— 10. IS; vii. 22; ix. 
14.) 

Blessings promised to those 
who keep the Sabbath. (Isa. 
lvi. 2. 4,5-7; lviii. 13, 14.) 

Threatenings dgainst Sab- 
bath breakers. (Ex. xxxi. 14. 
534 



SAC 

15; xxxv. 2. Num. xv. 32— 
36 Jer. xvii. 27. Ezek. xx. 13, 
16. 23, 24 ; xxii. 8. 14. 26. 31 ; 
xxiii. 38. 46.) 

Sabbath privileges taken 
away. (Isa. i. 13. Lam. i. 7; 
li. 6. Hos. ii. 11. Amos viii. 11.) 

Sabbath-day's journey. 
'See Measures.) 

SABEANS. (See Sheba.) 

SACKBUT. (Dan. iii. 5.) A 
musical instrument. It is some- 
times described as a stringed 
Instrument; and it is said that 
it had -four strings, and was 
played with the fingers, and 
had a very penetrating sound. 
In process of time the strings 
were increased to twenty. It 
was of a triangular form. 

It is mentioned in a modern 
work on this subject, that one 
of these instruments was dis- 
covered in Herculaneum, 
where it had been for nearly 
two thousand years under 
ashes ; the lower part of it was 
made with bronze, and the 
upper with the mouthpiece 
of gold. It was presented by 
the king of Naples to George 
III. of England, and from the 
model, the modern trombone, 
used in military bands with so 
much effect, was fashioned. 
According to this account, it 
was a wind instrument. 

SACKCLOTH. (Gen.xxxvii. 
34.) This was a coarse fabric, 
made of black goats' hair and 
other materials, and worn 
either as a sign of repentance, 
(Matt. xi. 21,) or as a token of 
mourning. (2 Sam. iii. 31. 
Esth. iv. 1, 2. Job xvi. 15. Ps. 
xxx. 11. Isa. xx. 2. Rev. vi. 12.) 
Hence the frequent occurrence 
in Scripture of figurative lan- 
guage, connecting sackcloth 
witH mourning and darkness. 
(Isa. 1. 3. Ezek. vii. 18; xxvii. 
31. Amos viii. 10.) 

SACRIFICE (Gen. xxxi. 
54.) In addition to the dis- 
tinction pointed out under the 
word offering. (seeOrFERiNGS,^ 
it may be observed that sacred 



SAC 

gifts were in use from the 
earliest periods of the world. 
(Gen. iv. 3, 4.) The Jewish 
religion, however, contained a 
complete system of sacrificial 
rites, and required their scru- 
pulous observance. According 
to the law of Moses, sacrifices 
could not be offered upon the 
altar, except by the priests; 
nor at any other place than in 
the court of God's sanctuary. 
(Deut. xii. 5—28.) 

Animal sacrifices were ol 
four general kinds ; viz. burnt-- 
offerings, sin-offerings, tres- 
pass-offerings, and peace-offer 
ings. We have a particular 
account of these in the first 
seven chapters of Leviticus 
The three kinds first mention- 
ed had an expiatory virtue*, 
that is, they made atonement 
for those that offered them. 
The peace-offerings were more 
particularly sacrifices express- 
ive of gratitude and praise for 
mercies received, or of suppli- 
cation for mercies desired. 
Burnt-offerings, however, were 
not exclusively expiatory in 
their character, but had inthera 
also a meaning of thankful and 
adoring worship presented to 
the Most High ; and in them 
all some regard was had to the 
guilt of sin. Blood poured out, 
in sacrifice of any sort, could 
have no meaning other than 
that of atonement. It was so- 
lemnly consecrated by the 
Lord to be an expiation for the 
soul, and accordingly never 
flowed about the altar without 
a design of calling to remem- 
brance the existence of sin, 
and symbolically washing 
away its evil. (Lev. xvi. 10 — 14. 
Heb. x.) 

The word is sometimes used 
figuratively, (Rom. xii. I. Heb. 
xiii. 15. 16. 1 Pet. ii. 5;) and 
the use of it implies that the 
duties enjoined under the figure 
are to be performed with a view 
to God's glory, and not without 
the alienation of something 
535 



SAD 

from ourselves, which is dedi- 
cated to the Lord,— as time, 
property, ease, &c. (Ps. li. 17.) 
Meat-offerings and drink-offer- 
ings were bloodless sacrifices, 
always connected with each 
other, however, and generally 
connected with bloody sacri- 
fices. (See Offerings, Al- 
tar, High-priest. And for a 
particular and interesting dis- 
cussion of the whole subject, 
ee Biblical Antiquities, 
vol. ii. ch. v., and Selumiel, 
ch. iv., both by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

SACRILEGE. (Rom. il. 22.) 
The crime of violating or pro- 
faning sacred things. The 
Jews at some periods were 
eminently guilty in this parti- 
cular, inasmuch as they with- 
held the tithes and offerings 
which God required of them, 
(Mai. iii. 8—10,) and converted 
his holy temple into a market. 
(Matt. xxi. 12, 13,) 

SADDUCEES. (Matt. iii. 7.) 
A Jewish sect often mentioned 
in the New Testament. Its 
founder was Tzadoc, a disciple 
of Antigonus, who was presi- 
dent of "the Jewish sanhedrim, 
and lived about two hundred 
and sixty years before Christ. 
He taught that there were no 
future rewards or punishments 
appointed unto men ; and, con- 
sequently, no world of retribu- 
tion, and no angels or spirits. 
(Matt. xxii. 23. Acts xxiii. 8.) 
The doctrine of the Sadducees 
was received by few; though 
such as did embrace it were 
commonly persons of wealth 
and dignity. As a sect, how- 
ever, they had no influence 
jver the people. 

The Sadducees, as well as 
the Pharisees, were bitterly 
jpposed to Christ, and often 
contended with him on the 
points which were peculiar to 
their sect; but they seem to 
have mustered their strength, 
and to have come forth with 
all their power, against the 



SAL 

apostles, when they preached 
the resurrection of Jesus from 
the dead ; which single fact 
was a death-blow to their sys- 
tem. The sect of the Saddu- 
cees made some figure in the 
third century, and again in the 
eighth ; but for a long time past 
they have been extinct. 

SAFFRON. (Sol. Song iv. 
14.) A well known flower of 
the crocus family, used for me- 
dicinal purposes, and also for 
colouring. There may be a 
species of it with aromatic pro- 
perties. 

SAINTS. (Heb. vi. 10.) The > 
title given by the sacred writ- 
ers to believers in Christ, or 
the people of God. (Ps. xvi. 3. 
Rom. i. 7 ; viii. 27.) The literal 
import of the term is holy one ; 
and in Deut. xxxiii. 2, and Jude 
14, it probably means angels, 
When it is applied to men, U 
is to such as lead holy lives ; 
and give evidence of being re- 
newed and sanctified. As there 
can be no absolute certainty, 
however, respecting their real 
character in the sight of God, 
all human decisions as to who 
are to be regarded or treated as 
saints must be fallacious. 

SAL AMIS (Acts xiii. 5) was 
the principal city and seaport 
of the island of Cyprus, and 
received the gospel from Paul 
and Barnabas, a. d. 44. (See 
Cyprus.) The ruins of Salamis 
were visited in 1835 by two 
American missionaries. Very 
little of the ancient town is 
standing ; but on the outside of 
the city they found the remains 
of a building two hundred feet 
in length, and six or eight 
high ; also a stone church, and 
portions of an aqueduct, by 
which water was brought to 
the city from a distance of 
thirty miles. 

SALCAH, (Deut. iii. 10,) now 
known as Salchat, lies on the 
south-east corner of the terri 
tory of Manasseh, east of Jor 
dan. 

536 



SAL 

SALEM (Gen. xiv. 18) has 
been generally supposed to be 
the piace which was afterwards 
called Jerusalem. (Comp. Ps. 
lxxvi. 2.) But some think that 
the place of which Melchizedec 
was king, was the Shalem of 
Gen. xxxiii. 18, or the Salirn of 
the New Testament, (see Sa- 
lim;) and that the Salem of 
the psalmist is a contraction of 
Jerusalem. 

SALIM, (John iii. 23,) or 
SHALEM, (Gen. xxxiii. 18,) or 
SHALIM, (1 Sam. ix. 4,) was 
south of Bethshean, and west 
of Enon. Some suppose it was 
the same with Shalem or Sy- 
chem, but that is not placed 
near Enon by any geographers. 
Probably Mechizedec was king 
of one of these places, and not 
of Jerusalem, as some have 
maintained. 

SALMON, (Ps. lxviii. 14,) 
or ZALMON, (Judg. ix. 48.) 
was one of the high hills which 
environed the ancient She- 
chem, and afforded pasturage 
for Jacob's flocks. (See Zalmon.) 

SALMONE. (See Crete.) 

SALOME, (Mark xv. 40,) the 
wife of Zebedee, and the mo- 
ther of James the elder and 
John the Evangelist, was one 
of the followers of Christ, 
(Matt, xxvii. 56. Mark xv. 
40 ; xvi. 1 ;) though she seems, 
like many others, to have mis- 
taken the true nature of his 
kingdom. (Matt. xx. 21.) 

SALT (Lev. ii. 13) is abun- 
dant in Palestine. From the 
water of the Dead Sea an ex- 
cellent table salt is obtained. 
On the eastern shore it is found 
in lumps often more than a 
foot thick, in places which the 
lake had overflowed in the 
rainy season. The stones on 
the shore are covered with an 
incrustation of lime or gypsum. 
Branches and twigs, which 
fall into the water from the 
bushes, become encased in 
Bait ; and if a piece of wood is 
thrown in, it soon acquires a 



SAL 

bark or rind of salt. From this 
fact,some have attempted to ex- 
plain thetransformationof Lot's 
wife into a pillar of salt, (Gen, 
xix. 26 ;) while others suppose 
that the expression is figura- 
tive, denoting that she was 
made an everlasting monu- 
ment of divine displeasure; 
(salt being an emblem of per- 
petuity ;) and others still think 
that she was miraculouslj 
transformed into a solid co 
lumn of salt. 

At the south-western extre- 
mity of the Dead Sea, there is 
a plain of considerable extent, 
the soil of which is entirely 
covered with salt, without the 
slightest trace of vegetation. 
This is probably the valley (or 
plain) of salt, where David's 
army vanquished the Edom- 
ites. (2 Sam. tiii. 13. 1 Chron. 
xviii. 12. 2 Chron. xxv. 11.) 

By the salt-pits (Zeph. ii. 9) 
we are not to understand 
quarries from which rock-salt 
is extracted, but such pits as 
the Arabs, even at this day, 
make upon the shore of the 
Dead Sea, in order that they 
may be filled when the spring 
freshets raise the waters of the 
lake. When the water eva- 
porates, it leaves in the pits a 
salt crust about an inch thick, 
which furnishes the salt used 
throughout the country. Pits 
of this sort seem to be alluded 
to in Ezek. xlvii. 11. In Josh, 
xv. 62, a city of salt is men- 
tioned, in the' neighbourhood 
of the Dead Sea. 

The uses of salt are sum* 
ciently known. Most food 
would without it be insipid. 
(Job vi. 6.) Salt being thus 
essential to the enjoyment of 
food, the word was used to de- 
note the subsistence which a 
person obtained in the service 
of another. Thus in Ezra iv. 
14, the words translated tc-e 
have our maintenance from 
the king's palace, are in the 
original, we salt (or are salted. 
537 



SAL 

with the salt of the palace. 
And even now among the Per- 
sians and East Indians, to eat 
the salt of any one is to be in 
his employment. Salt was also 
used in sacrifices. (Lev. ii. 13. 
Mark ix. 49.) In the last pas- 
sage reference is had to the 
perpetuity of suffering. 

New-born children were 
ubbed with salt. (Ezek. xvi. 4.) 

As salt is a preservative from 
corruption and dissolution, it 
was customary at the ratifica- 
tion of solemn treaties to pre- 
sent a vessel of it, from which 
either party ate a few 
grains. Hence an indissoluble 
and perpetual covenant is 
called a covenant of salt. 
(Num. xviii. 19. 2Chron. xiii. 
5. See Bedouin Arabs, pp. 
78, 79, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

No plants can germinate in 
a soil covered with salt. Hence 
a salt land is an unfruitful, 
desert land. (Jer. xvii. 6.) 
Salt was also used as a visible 
emblem of sterility. When 
Abimelech took Shechem, 
(Judg. ix. 45,) he beat doicn 
the city and sowed it with salt, 
as a token that it should con- 
Jnue desolate. In like man- 
ner the Emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa, when he destroyed 
Milan, in the year 1162, caused 
the ground to be ploughed and 
strewed with salt. 

On the other hand, as salt 
renders food savoury, it is em- 
ployed as an emblem of holy 
life and conversation, (Mark 
ix.50. Col. iv. 6 ;) and in Matt, 
v. 13, Christ calls his disciples 
the salt of the earth, i.e. of 
mankind, because the latter 
were to be enlightened and 
improved by theirholy instruc- 
tion and example. 

Salt, valley of. (See 
Salt.) 

Salt, pillar op. (See 
Salt.) 

Salt, covenant of. (See 
Salt.) 

Salt Sea. (Num. xxxiv. 



SAL 

12.) The *ea into which the 
Jordan empties, and which oc- 
cupies the ground where once 
stood the cities of the plain, in 
the vale of Siddim. (Gen. xiv. 
3.) It is also called the sea of 
the plain, (Deut. iii. 17;) and 
from its geographical location, 
the East Sea. (Joel ii. 20.) The 
Greeks called it Asphaltites, 
from the bitumen which it 
yields ; and the Arabs the Sea 
of Lot. Its usual appellation 
now is the Dead Sea, from the 
destructive influence of its ex- 
halations, on both animal and 
vegetable life. As the Jordan, 
before the destruction of the 
plain, discharged itself in the 
same place that it now does, 
the conclusion is a necessary 
one, that the lake which then 
existed was subterranean. It 
was covered with a crust of 
earth, sustained by the asphal- 
tum, a pitchy substance which 
rose up from the bottom of the 
lake, and collected during a 
long course of years in large 
masses. An American mis- 
sionary who visited the spot 
says, "The water looks re- 
markably clear and pure ; but 
on taking it into my mouth, 1 
found it nauseous, and bitter, 
I think, beyond any thing I 
ever tasted. My clothes were 
wet by the waves, and as they 
dried, I found them covered 
with salt. It has been said 
that birds cannot fly over this 
sea ; but we saw a great num- 
ber on its shores, and observed 
three at a time flying over the 
water." Another traveller 
says, "I went till up to the 
knee into the sea, and took 
some water into my mouth.- 
It was impossible to keep it 
there. Its saltness is even 
greater than that of the ocean, 
and it produces a sensation on 
the lips similar to that from a 
strong solution of alum. My 
boots were scarcely dry, when 
they were already covered 
with salt: our clothes, hats, 
5'38 



SAL 

hands, faces, were impreg- 
nated by this mineral in less 
than two hours." It is agreed 
by all that its water is strongly 
impregnated with saline sub- 
stances, having lime, magne- 
sia, and soda, neutralized with 
hydrochloric and sulphuric 
acids. It yields about one- 
fourth of its weicht of salt by 
evaporation. The lake is 
enclosed, except on the north- 
west, by ranges of broken and 
barren hills, and is about 
seventy miles in length, and 
twenty in its greatest width, 
and nearly two hundred in 
circumference. Every travel-, 
ier on its shores has searched 
for the famous apjtle of Sodom. 
The missionary above cited 
found two species of fruit, 
either of which, he says, may 
pass for it; the one, on being 
opened, presenting a dry pith 
like that of the corn-stalk, with 
one or two seeds; the other, 
very inviting in appearance, 
but'very bitter to the taste. 

The Dead Sea has, appa- 
rently, no outlet; and though 
it is computed that the Jordan 
discharges into it upwards of 
six millions of tons daily, it is 
said there is never any per- 
ceptible variation in the height 
of its waters. The opinion of 
the Arabs is, that it loses its 
waters by evaporation ; but it 
is more probable that it has 
one or more subterraneous out-' 
lets. (See Evening Recrea- 
tions, vol. ii. pp. 23, 24, by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

SALUTE. (Matt. x. 12,) 
SALUTATION. (Luke i. 41.) 
The salutations of the Jews 
were usually of a religious 
character, at least in form, 
and were attended with much 
ceremony. Sometimes there 
was nothing but the simple 
exclamation, "God be with 
>ou," or "Peace be with you." 
*To this last and most common 
form, striking allusion is made 
by our Saviour. (John xiv. 27.) 



SAM 
The time occupied in Ihe cere- 
monies of salutation, repeat- 
edly bowing, kissing the b-ard, 
&c, was often very consider- 
able, (Gen. xxxiii. 3, 4;) and 
hence the caution, 2 Kings iv. 
29. Luke x. 4. The prohibi- 
tion in this last passage is 
probably designed to secure 
the close and undivided atten- 
tion of the apostles to the work 
before them, and to prevent 
the loss of time or the waste 
of thought on mere matters 
of form and ceremony. 

SALVATION, (Ex. xiv. 13> 
or deliverance, supposes evil 
or danger. (Comp. Ps. cvi. 8— 
10, with Isa. lxiii. 8, 9.) But 
in its ordinary use, in the New 
Testament especially, the term 
denotes the deliverance of sin 
ners from eternal perdition, 
through faith in Christ. The 
day of salvation, (2 Cor. vi. 2,) 
the gospel qf salvation, (Epfc. i. 
13,) and other like phrases, are 
employed in this sense. They 
all suppose mankind to be 
lost and ruined by sin, and 
hence to be in a state of guilt, 
danger, and deplorable misery, 
and exposed to the just and 
dreadful penalty of the divine 
law. The salvation which the 
gospel offers includes in it the 
pardon of sin, and deliverance 
from its power, pollution, and 
consequences; and also sanc- 
tification of the soul, and the 
joys of the eternal v/orld. (Matt. 
1.21. Gal.iii.13. 1 Thess. i. 10. 
Heb. v. 9.) Hence it is justly 
called a great salvation 
(Heb. ii. 3.) 

SAMARIA. 1. (1 Kings xiii. 
32.) The central province or 
section of the land of Canaan. 
having Galilee on the nonh 
and Judea on the south, was 
called, in the time of Christ, 
Samaria. It included the pos- 
sessions of Ephraim and Ma- 
nasseh, and comprehends the 
modern districts of Areta and 
Nablouse; in the former of 
which are the sites of Cesarea 
539 



SAM 
and Carmel, and, in the lat- 
ter, Shpchem and the city oi 
Samaria. 

2. The city of Samaria, 
(1 Kings xvi. 24,) from which 
the above province had its 
name, was situated about forty 
miles north of Jerusalem, and 
a short distance north-west 
of Nablouse, (Shechem.) It 
was founded by Omri, king of 
Israel, as the capital of Israel, 
or the ten tribes. (1 Kings xvi. 
29. 2Kingsiii. 1.) The terri- 
tory was purchased of Shemer, 
(hence Samaria,) and fortified. 
(2 Kings x. 2.) It withstood 
two unsuccessful sieges by 
Benhadad king of Syria, and 
his powerful allies, (1 Kings 
sex,) and was finally subdued 
oy Shalmanezer, in the reign 
of Hoshea : but not till after a 
siege of three years. (2 Kings 
xvii. 1—6.) Previous to its fall, 
it was given up to every spe- 
cies of sensuality, oppression, 
and idolatry. It recovered its 
prosperity, however, and reach- 
ed the height of its glory in 
the time of Herod the Great, 
who enlarged and adorned it. 
The ruins attest its former 
magnificence, though it is now 
Dut an insignificant village. 
A modern traveller says,— 
*' The situation is extremely 
oeautiful and strong by nature : 
more so than Jerusalem. It 
stands on a fine large insulated 
hill, compassed all round by 
a broad deep valley ; and when 
fortified, must have been, ac- 
cording to the ancient mode 
of warfare, impregnable. The 
valley is surrounded by four 
hills, which are cultivated in 
terraces to the top, and sown 
with grain, and planted with 
fig trees and olive trees; as is 
also the valley. The hill of 
Samaria itself rises in ter- 
races to a height equal to any 
of those in its vicinity. The 
present village is small and 
poor, and the ascent to it very 
steep; but viewed from our 



SAM 

tents was extremely interest, 
ing, from its natural situation 
and the ruins of an ancient 
convent, which are very pic- 
turesque." An American mis- 
sionary, who visited the ruins 
in the autumn of 1823, says, 
" it must have been a mighty 
city." The site of it is now 
overgrown with orchards. 

SAMARITANS. (2 Kings 
xvii. 29.) The inhabitants of 
Samaria ; but in the New Tes- 
tament it is applied to the peo- 
ple that were planted in Sa- 
maria, in the place of the ex 
iled Israelites, by the Assyrian 
king. (2 Kings xvii. 24.) Thi? 
defiled origin, (Ezra iv. 1 ;) thf 
course pursued by the Samari 
tans before the Persian kings 
(Neh. iv. 1 ;) connected with 
their construction of the Mosaic 
law, (Deut. xxvii. 11—13,) and 
their separation from the Jews 
in their place of worship, (Luke 
ix. 52, 53. John iv. 20, 21,) ren- 
dered the animosity between 
them very bitter, (Matt. x. 5. 
John iv. 9;) and hence the 
very name Samaritan was, 
with the Jew, a term of re- 
proach and contempt. (John 
viii. 48.) The Samaritans e». 
pected a Messiah, (John iv. 25,) 
and many of them followed 
Christ. (Acts viii. 1 ; ix. 31 ; 
xv. 3. See Shechem. See also 
Elisama, pp. 186—189, by Am, 
S.S.Union.) 

SAMOS. (Acts xx. 15.) An 
island in. the Egean Sea, or 
Grecian Archipelago, at which 
Paul touched on his passage 
from Greece to Jerusalem. I 
is situated a few miles from 
the coast of Natolia in Asia 
Minor, and is about seventy 
miles in circumference, con- 
taining not more than twelve 
thousand inhabitants. The 
soil is very fertile, producing 
oil, wine, oranges, and silk, 
and is capable of fine cultiva- 
tion. Marble is at present 
found in the island ; and once 
it contained a temple of Juno, 
540 



SAM 
whose remains are yet visible. 
It was the birthplace of Pytha- 
goras, and the burial-place of 
Lycurgus. 

SAMOTHRACIA, (Actsxvi. 
11,) or Sa?nos of Thrace. An 
island in the Archipelago, 
seventeen miles in circum- 
ference, lying off the province 
of Romania, and not far from 
Thrace. It was passed by 
Paul in his passage from Troas 
to Philippi. It was once called 
Samos; and the word Thracia 
was annexed ^p distinguish it 
from the Samos above men- 
tioned. The name is appro- 
priate; for it was inhabited 
chiefly by emigrants from 
Samos and Thrace. Once 
celebrated for its mysteries, 
it is now inhabited principally 
dv fishermen, and in many- 
parts covered with forests. Its 
modern name is Samodraki. 

SAMSON. (Judg. xiii. 24.) 
Son of Manoah,and for twenty 
years a judge of Israel. The 
circumstances attending the 
annunciation of his birth are 
remarkable, (Judg. xiii. 3—23, 
see Manoah ;) and he was 
distinguished for his gigantic 
strength. Contrary to the 
wishes of his parents, who 
were observers of the law, 
(Ex. xxxiv. 16. Deut. vii. 3,) 
he married a woman of Tim- 
oath, a Philistine city. On 
his way to that city, he slew a 
lion, (Judg. xiv. 5—9;) and 
afterwards" found in the car- 
cass of the beast a swarm of 
bees; and he ate of the honey 
himself, and took some to his 
parents'. This gave rise to an 
enigma, which he propounded 
at his marriage feast, promis- 
ing a valuaMe present to any 
ctoe who would solve it within 
eeven days; provided they 
would make a like present 
to him if they failed. Unable 
to solve the riddle themselves, 
they resorted to Samson's wife, 
who, by the most urgent en- 
treaties, had obtained from him 
46 



SAM 

a solution of it. By cruel threat* 
they extorted from her the 
secret, and told it to him, 
But he knew their treachery, 
and though he kept his word, 
and made them the present, 
it was at the expense of the 
lives of thirty of their coun 
trymen. He also forsook his 
wife, who had been thus false 
to his interest. 

On returning to Timnath, 
with a view to a reconciliation 
with his wife, he found she 
had married again, and he wa 
not permitted to see her. H 
immediately caught three hun- 
dred foxes.and fastening a fire- 
brand to every pair of them, 
let them loose upon the fields 
and vineyards of the Philis- 
tines, and spread fire and deso- 
lation over the country. Tfte 
Philistines, to be avenged, set 
fire to the house where Sam- 
son's wife lived ; and she and 
her father were burnt in it. 
This wanton barbarity drew 
upon them again the ven- 
geance of Samson, who came 
upon them, and routed them 
with immense slaughter. 
(Judg. xv. 1-8.) 

He then took up his abode 
on the rock Etam, in the ter- 
ritory of Judah, whither the 
Philistines came to revenge 
themselves, laying waste tne 
country on every side. Three 
thousand of the men of Judah 
remonstrated with Samson for 
thus exciting the resentment 
of the Philistines ; and he co^j- 
sented that they should bind 
him, and deliver him into thei 
hands. This they did ; ut fa 
the midst of their exultations, 
he burst his bands, and fell 
upon his enemies, putting a 
thousand of them to death, ana 
the residue to flight. (Judg 
xv. 9—19.) It was on this oc- 
casion that he was miraculous 
ly supplied with water from a 
fountain opened on the spot 
not in the jawbone with which 
he had slain the Philistines 
541 



SAM 
but in the place where the ; 
bone was found and used. 

After th'13, Samson went to ' 
Gaza, where he attached him- | 
self to Delilah, a mercenary ' 
woman.- by whom, after a va- 
riety of arts and stratagems, 
the secret of his great strength 
was discovered to lie in the 
preservation of his hair, for he 
was a Nazarite. (Judg. xvi. 
17.) The Philistines came 
upon him while he was asleep ; 
removed his hair; bound him 
with fetters of brass; put out 
his eyes ; carried him to Gaza, 
and threw him into prison. 
Having thus secured their 
formidable foe, the Philistine 
nobles assembled for a feast 
of joy, and to add to their mer- 
jrimeiit, they proposed to have 
Samson brought. So a lad led 
him in, and sat him down be- 
tween the two main pillars 
of the house, where the nobles 
and a multitude of people, both 
men and women, were assem- 
bled; besides three thousand 
persons upon the roofs of the 
cloisters around, beholding the 
cruel sport. Samson requested 
of the lad that had charge of 
him, to rest himself against the 

Sillars on either side of him. 
'his being granted, he prayed 
for strength, and, laying hold 
of the pillars, he bowed with 
all his might, carrying the pil- 
lars and the whole structure 
with him, and burying him- 
self and the vast multitude 
within and around the courts 
in one common destruction. 
Samson is ranked with the 
company of the faithful. (Heb. 
xi. 32, 33. See Dwellings. 
See also Story op Samson, by 
A.n. S. S.Union.) 

SAMUEL, (1 Sam. i. 20,) the 
son of Elkanah and Hannah, 
was a celebrated Hebrew pro- 
phet, and the last of their 
ludges. While he was a child, ' 
he officiated in some form in 
the temple, and was favoured 
-with remarkable revelations 



SAN 
of the divine will respecting 
the family of Eli the high- 
priest, under whose care and 
training his mother had placed 
him. (1 Sam. iii. 4—14. See 
Eli.) 

After the death of Eli, Sa- 
muel was acknowledged as a 
prophet, and soon commenced 
a work of reformation. Idol- 
atry was banished ; the wor- 
ship of the true God was re- 
stored, and Samuel was pub- 
licly recognised as a judge in 
Israel. Residing on his patri- 
monial estate^in Ramah, he 
made annual circuits through 
the country to administer jus- 
tice, until his infirmities were 
too many to permit it, and then 
he deputed his sons to execute 
this duty. They proved them- 
selves unworthy of the trust; 
and so general was the dis- 
satisfaction of the people, that 
they determined on a change 
of government. To this end 
they applied to Samuel, who, 
under the divine direction, 
anointed Saul to be their king; 
and Samuel resigned his au- 
thority to him. (ISam. xii.) 
After Saul was rejected for his 
disobedience in the matter of 
Agag, Samuel was instructed 
ttTarioint David as king, after 
which he returned to Kamah, 
where he died. (1 Sam. xxv. 1. 
See Saul.) 

First and second books 
of, the tenth and eleventh in 
order of the books of the Old 
Testament, are called also the 
first and second books of King3. 
They bear Samuel's name, 
because that prophet wrott 
twenty-four chapters of the first 
book. Nathan and Gad are sup- 
posed to have completed them. 
(IChron. xxix.M) They con 
stitute an important part of 
the annals of the Jewish na- 
tion. The first book embraces 
a period of eighty years, from 
the birth of "Samuel to the 
death of Saul; and relates to 
El; and Samuel, the l?et twe 
542 



SAN 
of the judges, and Saul and 
David, the first two of their 
kings. The second book em- 
braces a period o^ibout forty 
years ; and contams the na- 
tional records during the long 
reign of David, as well as the 
events of his personal history. 
(Union Questions, vol. vi., by 
Am. S. S. Union, embraces 
these two books.) 

SANCTIFY (Ex. xiii. 2) is 
to prepare or set apart persons 
or things to a holy use. The 
term sanctification, when ap- 
plied to men, denotes that 
effect of God's Spirit upon the 
soul, by which it is made meet 
forthe inheritance of the saints 
in light. It comprehends all 
the graces of knowledge, faith, 
love,repentance,humility, &c, 
and the exercise of them to- 
wards God and man. (2Thess. 
ii. 13. 1 Pet. i. 2.) It is a pro- 
cess by which the soul is 
cleansed from the pollution 
and delivered from the power 
of sin, and, at the same time, 
endued with those spiritual 
graces above named, without 
which there could be no taste 
or fitness for the joys or em- 
ployments of the heavenly 
world. (Heb. xii. 14.) Sanc- 
tification is the fruit of union 
to Christ by faith; and it is in 
the knowledge and belief of 
the truth as it is in Jesus that 
the soul becomes the subject 
of the sanctifying influences 
of the Spirit. (John xvii. 17.) 
From this inward sanctifica- 
tion proceeds every good word 
and work. (Tit. ii. 11—14.) 
When Christ speaks of sanc- 
tifying himself, (John xvii. 19,) 
it is in allusion to the vow 
which required the sacrifice 
to be set apart to a holy use. 
He separates or dedicates him- 
self as a sacrifice to God for 
them. 

SANCTUARY. (Ps. xx. 2.) 
A holy or sanctified place. 
By this name that part of the 
temple of Jerusalem was call- 



SAfi 
ed which was the most secret 
and most retired ; in which 
was the ark of the covenant; 
and where none but the high 
priest might enter, and he only 
once a year, on the day of 
solemn expiation. (Lev. iv. 6.) 
It is also applied to the furni- 
ture of this holy place, (Num. 
x. 21 :) the apartment where 
the golden candlestick, table 
of shew-bread, altar of incense, 
&c. stood, (2Chron. xxvi. 18;) 
and to the whole tabernacle or 
temple. (Josh. xxiv. 26. 2Chron. 
xx. 8.) It is called the sanc- 
tuary of strength, because it 
was a strong place, and easily 
fortified ; and it belonged to 
God, the strength of Israel, 
(Dan. xi. 31 ;) a worldly sanc- 
tuary, as it was of a carnal and 
earthly typical nature. (Heb. 
ix. 1.) It is also applied to any 
place appointed for the public 
worship of God, (Ps. Ixxiii. 17;) 
to heaven, where God and his 
holy angels and saints for ever 
dwell, (Ps. cii. 19;) and in al- 
lusion to the Jewish sanctuary, 
whose brazen altar protected 
petty criminals, a place of 
refuge and shelter is called a 
sanctuary. (Isa. viii. 14. Ezek. 
xi. 16.) 

SANBALLAT, (Neh. ii. 10.) 
the governor of the Samaritans, 
was" a native of Horon, or Ho- 
ronanor, and is hence called 
the Horonite. He was very 
inimical to the Jews; and en- 
deavoured, by every means 
of force and fraud, to hinder 
Nehemiah in the work of re- 
building the temple. (Neh. 
vi. 1—9.) 
SANDALS. (See Clothing/* 
SAPPHIRA. (See Ananias.) 
SAPPHIRE. (Ex. xxviii. 18.) 
! A precious stone, obtained 
chiefly from the East Indies, 
i and surpassed in beauty, lustre, 
j and hardness only by the dia- 
' mond. Its colour is various, 
from a deep azure like the 
sky, (whence, perhaps, the al 
lus'ion, Ex. xxiv. 10. Ezek. i 
543 



SAR 

*6; x. 1,) to the highest tint, 
and ever to pure white. The 
sapphire was the second stone 
in the high-priest's breast- 
plate. 

SARAH, or SARAI. (Gen. xi. 
31.) The sister-in-law and wife 
of Abraham. In addition to 
the notice of her in the article 
Abraham, it may be proper to 
say that she was the subject of 
special promises, as well as 
Abraham. (Gen. xvii. 16.) Her 
conduct in Egypt, (Gen. xii. 15,) 
and towards Hagar, (Gen. xvi. 
6; xxi. 10,) and also when Isaac 
was promised, (Gen. xviii. 15,) 
evinced great weakness; but 
her exemplary faith is com- 
mended by the apostles. (Heb. 
xi. 11. lPet.iii.6.) She lived 
to one hundred and twenty- 
seven years of age, or upwards 
of thirty-six years after the 
birth of Isaac ; and was buried 
in a field of Machpelah, which 
Abraham bought for the pur- 
pose. 

SARDINE. (See Sardius.) 

SARDIS. (Rev. i. 11.) A city 
of ancient Lydia, and the site 
of one of the seven churches 
of Asia. Its modern name is 
Sart, and it lies about thirty 
miles south-east of Thyatira. 
It is, however, but a miserable 
village, inhabited chiefly by 
shepherds, though it is one 
of the stopping-places of the 
Persian caravans. The ori- 
ginal city was plundered by 
Cyrus, and afterwards deso- 
lated by an earthquake, the 
ruins of it being still visible a 
little distance to the south of 
the present town. 

Messrs. Fisk and Parsons, 
American missionaries, visited 
Sardis in the autumn of 1820. 
They speak of " the ruins of 
this once splendid city, with 
nothing now to be seen but a 
few mud huts, inhabited by 
ignorant, stupid, filthy Turks, 
and the only men who bear 
the Christian name, at work 
all day in their mill. Every 



SAR 
thing seems as if God hai 
cursed the place, and left, it 
to the dominion of Satan." A 
modern traveller says, " I sat 
beneath the sky of Asia, to 
gaze upon the ruins of Sardis, 
from the banks of the golden- 
sanded Pactolus. Beside me 
were the cliffs of that Acropo- 
lis, which, centuries before, 
the hardy Median scaled while 
leading on the conquering 
Persians, whose tents had co- 
vered the very spot on which 
I was reclining. Before me 
were the vestiges of what had 
been the palace of the gorgeous 
Crcesus : within its walls were 
once congregated the wisest 
of mankind," Thales, Cleobu- 
lus, and Solon. Far in the 
distance were the gigantic 
tumuli of the Lydian" mo- 
narchs ; and around them 
spread those very plains once 
trodden by the countless hosts 
of Xerxes, when hurrying on 
to find a sepulchre at Mara- 
thon. But all, all had passed 
away ! There were before me 
the fanes of a dead religion, 
the tombs of forgotten mo- 
narchs, and the palm tree that 
waved in the banquet-hall of 
kines.'' 

SARDIUS, (Ex. xxviii. 17,) 
or SARDINE, (Rev. iv. 3.) com- 
monly called cornelian, is a 
precious stone susceptible of a 
beautiful polish, highly valueo 
for seals and ornaments. The 
finest specimens are from Ju- 
dea. (See Sardonyx.) 

SARDONYX. (Rev. xxi. 20.) 
A precious stone, combining 
the appearances of the sardius 
and onyx, (whence its name.1 
Both the above are species of 
the chalcedony, and are found 
in greatest perfection in Judea, 
though specimens of both are 
found on lake Superior, near 
Portage river, in Missouri, and 
at Deerfield in Massachusetts. 

SAREPTA, (Luke iv. 26,) or 
ZAREPHATH. (1 Kings xvii. 
9-) A Gentile town, lying on 
544 



SA J 
the shores of the Mediterra- 
nean, between Tyre and Si- 
don, and belonging to the lat- 
ter. Its modern name is Zar- 
pha, or Zarphant. Though 
there were many widows in 
Israel, distressed with the pre- 
vailing famine, Elijah was not 
sent to them, but to a Zidonian 
widow in Sarepta. Messrs. 
Fisk and King passed the 
place in the summer of 1823. 
SARGON. (See Esarhad- 

DON.) 

SARON. (See Sharon.) 

SATAN. (IChron. xxi. 1.) 
A Hebrew word signifying an 
enemy; and in Scripture it is 
commonly applied to the devil, 
who is the enemy of God, and 
the great tempter and destroy- 
er of the souls of men. Its use 
in Matt. xvi. 23, denotes the 
influence under which Peter 
acted. (See Devil.) 

SATYR.. (Isa. xiii. 21 ; xxxiv. 
14.) A fabled creature of Greek 
mythology, compounded of a 
man and a goat, and supposed 
to be the deity of forests and 
rural places. The expression 
satyrs shall dance there, &c. 
denotes that the place shall 
become as a rude, wild, uncul- 
tivated waste. 

SAUL, (ISam. ix. 2,) the 
first king of Israel, was the 
son of Kish, of the tribe of Ben- 
jamin. His personal appear- 
ance was so remarkably fine 
and noble, as to be particularly 
mentioned by the sacred his- 
torian. 

It happened that some asses 
of his father's had strayed 
away, and he took one of the 
servants and went in search 
of them. In the course of their 
wanderings, they came, on the 
third day, to a place where 
Samuel the seer (or prophet) 
resided; and the servant pro- 
posed that they should apply to 
nim for information. This they 
did. Samuel, having been di- 
vinely admonished of the ap- 
roach of Saul, and instructed 
46* 



SAU 

J what to do, invited him to hi9 
hous-?, and treated him with 
marked distinction. The next 
day Samuel madeknowntohim 
privately that he was to l>ave 
the rule over Israel ; and while 
they were in the. way, he took 
a vial of oil, and, pouring it on 
his head, anointed him for the 
regal office. To convince Saul 
that this thing was of the Lord, 
Samuel told nim particularly 
what should befall him on his 
way home; and they were 
such events as Samuel could 
not have known but by reve- 
lation from God. (1 Sam. x. 
2—6.) In a few days after 
this, Samuel went to Mizpeh. 
and summoned the people of 
Israel to meet him there, 
When they were assembled, 
he announced to them the 
appointment of Saul to be 
their king. 

Very early in his reign, Saul 
acquired considerable popu- 
larity by a splendid victory 
over the Philistine army, at 
the siege of Jabesh-gilead: 
and immediately afterwards 
the people met at Gilgal, and 
celebrated his accession to the 
throne with sacrifices and fes- 
tivities. After a series of mili- 
tary successes, Saul was com- 
missioned by divine authority 
to execute the vengeance long 
before denounced upon the 
Amalekites for their conduct 
towards the children of Israel ; 
but he disobeyed the explicit 
directions he had received, and 
for this sin was ultimately de- 
prived of his crown. From 
this period onward he is ex- 
hibited as the slave of jealousy, 
duplicity, and malice. His 
conduct towards David was 
detestable in the extreme, and 
shows him to have lost every 
manly and generous feeling. 
A little before his death, the 
Philistines mustered an army 
so formidable as to intimidate 
the king of Israel ; and, in 
the midst of his perplexity, 



SAU 

he found himself abandoned 
of God, whose direction he 
sought in vain. In this emer- 
gency, he took two of his ser- 
vants, and went by night to 
Endor, a distance of about ten 
miles from his camp, to con- 
sult a sorceress, desiring her 
to cause the spirit of Samuel 
to appear, that he might ask 
of him the counsel which he 
so much needed. Though the 
sorceress had no power over 
spirits, God was pleased to 
make use of the opportunity 
thus afforded to rebuke the 
wicked king, and to make 
known to him the fearful 
retribution that was at hand. 
Samuel was permitted to re- 
turn to the earth, and to hold 
conversation with Saul, as 
man with man. After hearing 
his complaint against God, 
.Samuel charged him with his 
disobedience to the divine com- 
mand in the matter of Ama- 
lek; assured him that all his 
efforts to obtain aid elsewhere 
were vain, if God had become 
his enemy; and admonished 
him that defeat and ruin were 
at. hand, and that he and his 
sons should be the next day 
inhabitants of the world of 
spirits. This intelligence, thus 
supernaturally communicated, 
overwhelmed the wicked 
king; and the very next day 
the Israelites were routed with 
dreadful slaughter. Among 
the killed were Saul's three 
sons. Saul, finding himself 
wounded and likely to fall 
into the hands of the enemy, 
threw himself upon the point 
of his own sword. When the 
Philistines found the body of 
Saul, they severed the head 
from it, and fastened the body 
on the city wall ; from which 
it was afterwards taken, in the 
night, by some of his friends 
from a distance, and carried 
to Jabesh-gilead, and buried. 
(I Sam. xxviii.— xxxi.) 



SCE 

Saul of Tarsus. (See 
Paul.) 
SAVIOUR. (See Christ.) 
SCAPE-GOAT. (See Goat.) 
SCARLET. (2Sam.i.24.) A 
brilliant dye, valued, like the 
purple and crimson, for rich 
apparel (Ex. xxviii. 15) and 
tapestry. (Ex. xxv. 4.) Hence 
it was an emblem of luxury 
and licentiousness. (Rev. xvii. 
3, 4.) It was also an emblem of 
honour and prosperity. (Prov, 
xxxi. 21.) Sometimes the scar- 
let and purple are confounded. 
(Dan. v. 7. 29. Comp. Matt, 
xxvii. 28. Mark xv. 17. John 
xix. 2.) The depth and strength 
of this colour gives force to the 
figure, Isa. i. 18. (See Purple.) 
SCEPTRE. (Esth.viii.4.) A 
wooden staff or wand, five or 
six feet long, usually overlaid 
with gold or ornamented with 
golden rings, with an orna- 
mented point. It was borne in 
the handsof kings and others in 
authority, as a token of power. 
(Gen. xlix. 10. Num. xxiv. 17.) 
It probably had its origin in 
the shepherd's staff, as the pa- 
triarchal chiefs were shepherds 
as well as princes. When this 
sceptre was held out to be 
touched by an individual ap- 
proaching the throne, it was a 
sign of the royal acceptance 
and favour. 

SCEVA. (Acts xix. 14.) A 
Jew residing at Ephesus. He 
is called chief of the priests, 
which probably means that he 
was of the sacerdotal order, 
holding an office of distinction, 
perhaps, in the national coun- 
cil. He had seven sons, who, 
with other Jewish vagabonds, 
practised exorcism ; and it was 
their custom, after they had 
seen the miracles wrought by 
Paul, to adjure the evil spirits 
by Jesus whom Paul preached. 
Sceva's sons attempted to do 
so, and the possessed man 
fell upon them with prodigious 
power, stripped and wounded 
546 



SCH 

uicv!) cwu vuliged them m uiai 

state to flee from the house, 
The failure of the imposture 
vvas overruled to the further- 
ance of the truth; for many- 
conversions took place, and 
those who had practised the 
foolish arts of magic and sor- 
cery brought together their 
books on Those subjects, and 
burned them; thus showing 
their detestation of such prac- 
tices, and their determination 
to renounce them. 

SCHISM (ICor. xii. 25) 
means a rupture or separation ; 
out it is supposed to denote in 
this passage any such aliena- 
tion of feeling among Chris- 
tians as violates the spiritual 
union which ought to exist 
among them, though there be 
no doctrinal error "or separate 
communions. 

SCHOOL, (Acts xix. 9,) 
SCHOLAR, (1 Chron. xxv. 8,) 
SCHOOLMASTER. (Gal. iii. 
24.) Schools existed among the 
Jews from a very early period. 
They were established under 
the supervision of the prophets 
to train young men to become 
expounders of the law, and so 
fit them for the priestly and 
prophetical offices. (1 Sam. 
xix. 18—24. 2 Kings ii. 3. 5. 7. 
12. 15.) The children were 
taught to read in common 
schools; and in higher semi- 
naries were instructed by doc- 
tors in the law and traditions. 
It is supposed that Gamaliel 
was at the head of such an 
institution, and much distin- 
guished, (Acts xxii. 3 ;) and it 
is said that the tutor's chair 
was raised so much above the 
floor on which the pupils sat 
that his feet were even with 
their heads. It is much more 
probable, however, that this is 
a figurative expression, denot- 
ing his (Gamaliel's) eminent 
qualifications as a teacher. In 
these institutions public dis- 
cussions were often held. (I uke 
ii. 46. Acts xix. 8— 10J 



SCO 

The schoolmaster among the 
ancients, as at the present day, 
was a person to whom they 
committed the care of their 
children, to lead them, to ob- 
serve them, and to instruct 
them in their first rudiments. 
Thus the office nearly an- 
swered to that of a governor 
or tutor, (Gal.'iv. 2, 3,) who 
constantly attends his pupil, 
teaches him, and forms his 
manners. It is said, Gal. iii. 

•4, 25, the law was our school- 
master to bring us to Christ. 
It pointed out Christ in the 
Scriptures, especially in the 
figures and the prophecies of 
the Old Testament; but since 
we are supposed to be advanced 
to superior learning, and are 
committed to the tuition of the 
faith which we have embraced, 
we have no longer need of a 
schoolmaster ; as such are of 
no further use to young per- 
sons when advanced to^years 
of maturity. 

SCORNER. (Prov. xiii. 1.) 
One who is disposed to laugh 
at persons and things of im- 
portance; who mocks at sin, 
and the judgments of God on 
account of it; and scoff's at re- 
ligion and the professors and 
and teachers of it ; and derides 
and hates wholesome reproof 
and advice. (Ps. i. 1. Prov. ix. 
8.) 

SCORPION. (Luke xi. 12.) 
A venomous insect allied to 
the spider, but resembling the 
lobster so much, that the fatter 
is called the sea-scorpion by 
the Arabs. Its shape and gene- 
ral appearance are seen in the 
cut. Its usual length is one or 
two inches, but in tropical cli- 
mates it is sometimes found 
six or eight inches (and some 
say even a foot) in length ; and 
its sting is attended with ex- 
cruciating pain, (Rev. ix. 3— 
6,) terminating often in violent 
convulsions and death. The 
malignity of their venom is ac- 

| cording to the size and com- 
547 



SCO 



SCR 




plexion of the different species. 
The insect conceals itself in 
creviceg and under stones, and 
when coiled up, (especially the 
white or yellow species,) re- 
sembles an egg) whence the 
allusion, Luke xi. 12. 

An instrument resembling a 
whip, but so formed with knots 
or small stones as that each 
blow should inflict a sharp 
stinging pain, is probably al- 
luded to in 1 Kings xii. 11. 
(See Scourge.) 

Mount Akrabbim (Josji. xv. 
3. Judg. i. 36) i3, literally. :he 
mount' of scorpions, and de- 
rives its name from trie multi- 
tude of scorpionswhich infest it. 

SCOURGE. (John ii. 15.) 
The scourge was usually form- 
ed of three lashes or thongs 
made of leather or small cords ; 
thirteen strokes of which were 
equal to thirty-nine lashes ; 
and not more than forty could 
be given by law. (Deut. xxv. 
1—3. 2 Cor. xi. 24.) The suf- 
ferer was tied by his arms to a 
low pillar, his back laid bare, 
and his body bent forward, and 
the blows applied so severely 
that life was often terminated. 
Sometimes sharp iron points 
or sharp-cornered pieces of me- 
tal were fastened to the end of 
the thongs, to render the suffer- 
ing still more extreme. Among 
the Romans the number of 
blows was unlimited. Hence 
our blessed Redeemer suffered 
in this form all that his mur- 



derers thought he could bear. 
So degrading was this punish- 
ment in its nature and effects, 
that no citizen of the Roman 
empire could be subjected to it, 
(Acts xxii. 25, 26.) Many were 
known to die under the cruel 
infliction. Sometimes it took 
place on the way to execution, 
and sometimes it was itself the 
only punishment. The holy 
body of the innocent Redeemer 
was torn and lacerated by this 
cruel and shameful outrage ; 
and with those stripes we are 
healed. (Isa. liii. 5.) The pu- 
nishment with rods or twigs 
seems to have been a separate 
infliction. (2 Cor. xi. 25.) 

SCRIBE. (2 Sam. viii. 17.) 
This name was first given to 
the king's secretary or messen 
ger, (2 Sam. xx. 25,) and to such 
as excelled in the use of the- 
pen, (Judg. v. 14. Jer. lii.25;) 
but, in time, it came to mean 
simply a learned man. (1 Cor. 
i. 20.) 

It was the peculiar office of 
the priests andLe vites not only 
to study the book of the law 
with great diligence, (Ezra 
vii. 6—10. Matt. ii. 4; xii, 
35; xv. 1, 2; xvii. 10; xxiii, 
2,) and to read and explain 
it to the congregation, but 
to transcribe it, and multiply 
copies among the nation at 
large. The scribesby profession 
were usually priests or Le 
vites, and carried with them, 
as oriental scribes do at this 
548 



SCR 
day, the implements of their 
art- «.n ink-horn thrust into 
the girdle; attached to this, a 
knife to sharpen the reed or 
pen ; a pumice-stone to smooth 
the paper or ski n ; and a sponge 
to correct mistakes. (Ezek. ix. 
2.) The scribes and doctors of 
the law are terms often applied 
to the same class of people. 
(Comp. Matt. xxii. 35. Mark 
xii. 28. Luke v. 17. 21.) 

SCRIP. (1 Sam. xvii. 40.) A 
sort of knapsack of various 
sizes, made of skin or coarse 
cloth, hung round the neck, 
and used to carry provisions 
for a journey. (Matt. x. 10.) 

SCRIPTURE, SCRIP- 
TURES. (2 Tim. iii. 15, 1G.) 
These terms are applied to 
the inspired writings contain- 
ed in the Old and New Testa- 
ments. They are also called 
The Bible, or The Book, 
in distinction from all other 
books, from the Greek word 
biblos, signifying book. The 
word scripture is also applied 
to a single passage, (Mark xv. 
28,) and sometimes figuratively 
to the Holy Ghost. (Gal. iii. 8.) 
These books are divided into 
the Old and New Testaments, 
(2 Cor. iii. 14,) because they 
contain the history of God's 
revelations to mankind, and 
his dealings with them under 
two dispensations. Hence they 
are sometimes called the old 
and new covenants. (See 
Testament.) The former, or 
Id Testament, was written 
ostly in Hebrew, and was 
he Bible of the ancient Jew- 
sh church. It was divided 
nto three parts— the Law, the 
Prophets, and the Psalms. 
(Luke xxiv. 44.) The latter, 
or New Testament, was written 
mostly, if not wholly, in Greek, 
and fully unfolds the history 
and doctrines of our divine Re- 
deemer, and of the way of sal- 
vation through him. They are 
united in one book, and called 
The Scriptures, because they 



SCR 

form a connected history, and 
are necessary to illustrate, ex 
plain, and confirm each other. 
Versions of the Bible. The 
Old Testament was translated 
from Hebrew into Greek about 
three hundred years before 
Christ. This translation is call- 
ed the Septuagint, from a La- 
tin word signifying seventy, 
either because a company of 
seventy or seventy-two elders 
were employed in the work, or 
^because it was approved by the 
Jewish council or sanhedrim, 
which consisted of seventy or 
seventy-two persons. 

Soon after the apostolic writ- 
ings were published, the Bible 
was translated into Latin, for 
the use of Christians using that 
language. This is called the 
Vulgate, because the Latin 
language was the vulgar or. 
common tongue of the Ro- 
mans. The "first edition of 
this, and the first entire Bible 
in print in any language, bear- 
ing any date, name of printer, 
or place of publication, was 
the Latin Vulgate, published 
at Mentz in Germany. It is 
commonly called the Mazarin 
Bible, a copy having been 
found about the middle of the 
last century in cardinal Maza- 
rin's library at Paris. It is re- 
markable that its existence 
was unknown before; for it 
can hardly be called a book 
of very great scarcity, nearly 
twenty copies being in differ- 
ent libraries, half of them in 
those of private persons in 
England. No date appears in 
this Bible, and some have re- 
ferred its publication to 1452, 
or even to 1450. In a copy 
belonging to the royal library 
at Paris, an entry is made, im- 
porting that it was completed 
in binding and illuminating at 
Mentz, on the feast of the As- 
sumption, (Aug. 15,) 1456. As 
the binding and illuminating 
of the above-mentioned copy is 
likely to have followed the pub- 
549 



SCR 

♦icatioji at no great distance 
•>f time, we may not err in 
placing its appearance in the 
year 1455, which will secure 
its hitherto unimpeached pri- 
ority in the records of biblio- 
graphy. It is a very striking 
circumstance, that the high- 
minded inventors of this great 
art tried at the very outset so 
bold a flight as the printing of 
an entire Bible, and executed 
it with astonishing success. If 
was far within the first twenty- 
five years of the first invention 
of the art in its rudest form, 
that this stupendous labour 
was undertaken. The Maza- 
rin Bible is printed, some 
copies on vellum, some on 
paper of choice quality, with 
strong, black, and tolerably 
handsome characters, but with 
a want of uniformity, which 
has led, perhaps unreasonably, 
to doubt whether they were 
cast in a matrix. We may see, 
in imagination, this venerable 
and splendid volume leading 
up the crowded myriads of its 
followers, and imploring, as it 
were, a blessing on the new 
art, by dedicating its first- 
fruits to the service of hea- 
ven. This Bible is sometimes 
called Guttenberg's Latin Bi- 
ble, as it was printed by 
the joint labour of Guttenberg, 
Faustus, and Schoffer; and it 
is called the forty-two line 
Bible, because each full co- 
lumn contained forty-two lines. 
The first complete impressions 
of this Bible bearing a date on 
the title-cage were printed in 
14(52, and carried by Faustus 
to Paris for sale. The monks 
were so astonished at this sur- 
prising multiplication of co- 
pies, that they ascribed it to 
demoniacal influence. 

English versions and edi- 
tions' The Bible, entire and in 
parts, was translated into Sax- 
on by several different hands, 
between a. d. 706 and 995. For 
several centuries after this, the 



SCR 

Scriptures appear to have been 
buried in oblivion. 

In the reisn of Edward I. of 
England, (1250,) the price of a 
fairly written Bible was thirty 
seven pounds, or one hundred 
and sixty-four dollars. At the 
same time the hire of a labourer 
was three half-pence, or three 
cents a day. So that it would 
take the labour of fifteen years 
and a quarter, exclusive of Sun- 
days, to purchase a single copy. 
A copy of the New Testament, 
in clear good type, and well and 
strongly" bound, can be had in 
this country now at nine cents, 
and the whole Scriptures for 
thirty-seven and a half cents. 

The first English transla- 
tion of the Bible known to be 
extant, is supposed to bear 
date as early as 1290. Three 
MS. copies "of it are in exist- 
ence now. The next transla- 
tion of the whole Bible into 
English was by WicklirTe, 
about 1380. Manuscript copies 
of this work are also in exist- 
ence in many public libraries ; 
but only the New Testament 
was ever printed. In the year 
1429, a copy of Wickliffe's 
New Testament in manuscript 
brought nearly two hundred 
dollars. 

The first printed English 
Bible was translated by Wil- 
liam Tyndale. His transla- 
tion of the New Testament 
was published at Antwerp in 
1526. In 1529 this edition was 
bought up and burnt: which af- 
forded him the means of going 
on. In 1530 he published the 
Pentateuch, and the next year 
Jonah. ThPse,withNehemiah, 
made Tyndale's Bible. In 1535 
it was published by Coverdale, 
one of Tyndale's assistants ; 
and Tyndale himself was 
strangled and burnt in 1536. 
In the reign of Henry VI3I. 
the possession of a copy of 
Tyndale's translation of the 
New Testament was sufficient 
to convict the indi vidua of 
550 



SCR 

heresy, and subject him to the 
flames. Still, "the desire to 
possess it was so strong that 
some gave a load of hay for a 
few chapters of James or PauFs 
epistles in English. "It was 
wonderful," says a writer, " to 
see with what joy this book of 
God was received, not only 
among the learned sort, and 
those who were noted for lovers 
of the reformation, but gene- 
rally all England over, among 
all the vulgar and common 
people ; and with what greedi- 
ness God's word was read, 
and what resort to places where 
the reading of it was. Every- 
body that could, bought the 
book, or busily read it, or got 
others to read it to them,' if 
they could not themselves ; 
ana divers more elderly peo- 
ple learned to read on purpose, 
and even little boys flocked 
among the rest to hear por- 
tions of the Holy Scriptures 
read." In 1537, a revised edi- 
tion of Tyndale's Bible was 
published on the continent; 
and two years afterwards it 
was also published in England. 
In 1540 a copy of this "Bible 
was required by law to be 
placed in every parish church ; 
but in two years more the 
papist power succeeded in 
suppressing it. It was soon re- 
stored again, and before 1570, 
was quite common. 

In 1603, Dr. John Reynolds 
of Oxford proposed a new trans- 
lation, and the king (James I.) 
favoured the susgestion, and 
appointed fifty-four learned 
men to do the service. Only 
forty-seven engaged in the la- 
bour. They divided themselves 
into six companies, and assign- 
ed a portion to each. Each In- 
dividual of each company was 
directed to take the same por- 
tion, and having translated or 
amended it by himself as 
he thought, good, all were to 
meet togethe'r and report what 
they had done, and decide 



SCR 

what should stand. When 9 
book was finished by one com 
pany, it was to be sent to the 
rest "to be considered and exa 
mined. If a book thus sen! 
was disapproved in any part 
it was to be returned to tlW 
company, with the objections 
and proposed alterations noted 
and the reasons assigned. If 
the force of the objections was 
not perceived, the matter was 
to be adjusted at the general 
meeting of all the translators. 
In cases of special obscurity, 
letters were to be directed, by 
authority, to any learned men 
in the land, for their judgment 
upon the passages, tetters 
were directed by the bishops 
to such of their clergy as had 
the reputation of being skilful 
in the languages, to send their 
observations to the translators. 
In addition to this provision, 
the vice-chancellors of the uni- 
versities of Cambridge and Ox- 
ford chose each, at the com- 
mand of the king, several of 
the most eminent divines, as 
general assistants and over- 
seers of the translation. 

Great praise has been justly 
awarded to James for the ex- 
cellent selection he made for 
the discharge of a trust so mo- 
mentous. It was universally al- 
lowed that the persons chosen 
were, for the most part, recom- 
mended equally by their skill 
in the oriental languages, and 
by a character for judicious dis- 
crimination. Among these, Dr. 
Reynolds held the "first rank; 
and, indeed, he appears to have 
been so eminently and vari- 
ously gifted, that he would 
have found few equals in any 
age. His memory was almost 
miraculous, not only for its 
comprehensiveness, ml for th9 
astonishing minuteness of its 
power, which enabled him to 
refer not only to pages and 
paragraphs, but even to the 
lines of the books he had occa- 
sion to Quote. He was pro 
551 



SCR 

foundly skilled in the learning 
and languages of the east; and 
from Jiis knowledge of the dia- 
lects spoken. in Judea in the 
days of our Saviour, was admi- 
rably qualified to furnish cor- 
rect and. natural versions of 
expressions otherwise obscure. 
To these great endowments 
he added sincere and ardent 
piety, and the most exemplary 
humility. 

The regulations under which 
the work was to be prosecuted 
were very strictly observed ; 
the Bible then used in the 
church being the standard, and 
not to be altered, even in a 
letter, unless the sense of the 
original could be more accu- 
rately conveyed. 

For three years the transla- 
tors were closely engaged ; but 
of the incidents of their labour 
little can be gathered from con- 
temporaneous history, and little 
was probably known beyond 
the circle of the translators. A 
passing remark of Selden fur- 
nishes nearly all that can now 
be known of what may be 
termed the private history of 
our English Bible: "When 
they met together, one read 
the translation, the rest hold- 
ing in their hands some Bible, 
either of Greek, or Hebrew, or 
French. Italian, or Spanish. 
If they found any fault, they 
spoke ; and if not, he read on." 
Three copies of the transla- 
tion being prepared, they were 
committed to six persons, se- 
lected from the translators, who 
were to review the whole, and 
select one copy for the press. 
This service occupied them 
daily for nine months. The 
copy thus revised was again 
examined entirely by two of 
the most eminent of the trans- 
lators, viz. the bishop of Win- 
chester and Dr. Smith, the lat- 
ter of whom wrote the learned 
and devout preface which is 
found in many of our common 
Bibles. 



SCR 

In 1611, the Bible was a 
length published, after having 
been long impatiently expect 
ed by the people, whose inte- 
rest in the undertaking can 
hardly be conceived. Ana with 
all proper allowance for the 
limited extent of general and 
especially biblical science in 
that day, it will probably neve? 
cease to be regarded as a very 
honourable monument of the 
labour, learning, and faithful j 
ness of the translators. 

The title-page of the 01 
Testament was engraved on 
copper, and that of the New 
Testament on wood. The first 
edition was printed in black 
letter, folio size ; but a quarto 
edition, in Roman type, was 
published as early as 1612. 

This is the common English 
translation of the present clay. 
It is called king James's ver- 
sion ; and it may be proper to 
state that among other testi- 
monials from learned divines 
of different communions, of its 
general correctness, are those 
of Selden, Lowth, Horsley, 
Walton, Middleton, Geddes, 
Doddridge, Beattie, Scott, 
Clarke, and a host of others. 

Bibles in the United States. 
The first Bible printed on the 
continent of America was In 
native Indian—the New Testa- 
ment in 1661, and the Old in 
1663. both by Rev. John Eliot. 
They were published at Cam- 
bridge, Mass. The second 
was In German, a quarto edi- 
tion, published at German- 
town, near Philadelphia, by 
Christopher Sower, in 1676. 

The first American edition 
of the Bible in English was 
printed by Kneeland and 
Green, at Boston, in 1752, in 
small quarto, 700 or 800 copies. 
It was published by Hench- 
man, a bookseller, but to avoid 
a prosecution by those who had 
a patent from "the king, they 
reprinted the whole title-page 
of* the English copv, including 
552 



SCR 
the London imprint. The next 
edition was by Robert Aitken, 
of Philadelphia, in 1761—2. He 
sent a memorial to congress 
praying for their patronage. 
His memorial was referred to 
a committee, who obtained the 
opinion of the chaplains of 
congress, as to its general typo- 
graphical accuracy, and there- 
upon a resolution was passed 
(Sept. 12, 1782) recommending 
this edition of the Bible to the 
people of the United States. 

The Bible is regarded by all 
Protestant Christians as the 
only infallible rule of faith and 
practice. Having been origin- 
ally composed by holy men 
of God, who spake as they 
were moved by the Holy Ghost, 
(2 Pet. i. 21,) and bearing in its 
own history and character con- 
clusive testimony that it is so 
given by inspiration of God, 
and is not only profitable for 
doctrine, for reproof, for correc- 
tion, for instruction in right- 
eousness, but able also to make 
men wise unto salvation, 
through faith that is in Christ 
Jesus, (2 Tim. iii. 15, 16;) the 
distribution of it all over the 
world, in the various tongues 
Bpoken by the inhabitants, be- 
comes an imperative duty. 
The Christian church general- 
ly regard it as a true and just 
translation from the languages 
in which these sacred books 
were at first written, and of 
course receive them as having 
like authority with the ori- 
ginals. 

As to the evidences of the 
truth of the Bible, the inquirer 
is referred to Alexander's 
Evidences, The Biele is 
True, The Infidel Class, [ 
ERid Family Conversations, 
2fil published by the Am. S. S. 
Union. It has been well said 
of the sacred writings, that the 
divine authority, majesty, wis- 
dom, holiness, and goodness 
discovered therein ; the depth, 
sublimity, purity, and benevo- 
47 



SCR 

lence of their matter; the^r 
scope, to render all to the glory 
of God, and crush the corrupt 
inclinations of man ; the tran- 
scendant loftiness of their style, 
even when suited to the capa- 
city of the weak ; the obvious 
candour of the writers, in re- 
lating the weaknesses and 
faults of themselves and their 
nation ; their amazing har- 
mony, though of very different 
stations and ages, and pub- 
lishing things contrary to the 
natural inclinations of men; 
the attestation of these writ 
ings by vast numbers of im- 
portant, public, and incontest- 
able miracles ; the joyful su£ 
ferings of millions for their 
steadfast adherence thereto ; 
the marvellous preservation 
of them, and the signal strokes 
of divine vengeance on such 
as attempted to destroy them ; 
their amazing success, pre- 
vailing over the lusts of men, 
and furious opposition of world 
ly poWer, to the civilizing of 
nations, and to convince, con- 
vert, and comfort the hearts of 
millions, the most obstinate; 
the exact fulfilment of the nu- 
merous, the particular and cif- 
cumstantial predictions there- 
of, — arft infallible proofs that 
they only are the word of God, 
able to make us wise unto sal- 
vation. 

Much interest has been fell 
in the efforts in modern times 
to translate and circulate the 
Scriptures in the various lan- 
guages of the earth. The num- 
ber of these languages is esti- 
mated at 3000, only SO of which 
are supposed to be strictly ori- 
ginal languages, the rest being 
dialects. "Of these 1200 ara 
spoken in America, 278 in Af- 
rica, 545 in Europe, and 1Q00 
in Asia and its islands. The 
Scriptures are already trans- 
lated into nearly 175. Among 
these are the English, which 
is spoken by nearly 50,000,000, 
and partially spoken Uy 
553 



SCR 

150.000,000; Chinese, which is 
spoken by 350,000,000; Bur- 
mese, which is spoken by 15 
or 20,000,000; and various 
others. So that probably more 
than one-hal f of the inhabitants 
of the world might now read 
the Bible in their own lan- 
guage if they could be furnish- 
ed with it; and it is ready to be 
sent. 

The idea of the formation of 
the British and Foreign Bible 
Society, which was organized 

n 1804, was first suggested by 
Rev. Thomas Charles, of Bala. 
He was labouring in connexion 
with the Welch Methodists, 
and being on a visit to London 
in 1802, and feeling very great- 
ly the need of Bibles to supply 
Sunday-schools, proposed an 
association for the purpose. 
Such an association was form- 
ed under the name of the 
British and Foreign Bible So- 
ciety. It was called the Bible 
Society because its object was 
to distribute the simple Bible 
without note or comment; 
B?'itish, because its first atten- 
tion was directed to the supply 
of Great Britain ; and Foreign, 
because it proposed, as far as 
its means would allow, to send 
the Bible in all languages to 
all parts of the world. And 
there are now (1837) more than 
5000 kindred institutions, of 
which 3000 are in Great Bri- 
tain and Ireland. The society 
has printed the Scriptures in 
121 languages and dialects, in 
72 of which they had never 
before be^n published. It is 
now engaged in 56 other trans- 
lations. Since its establish 
ment it has circulated nearly 
10,000,000 of copies of the sa- 
dred Scriptures, and has ex- 
pended nearly 810,000,000. 
The issues from its depository 
during the years 1835— 6, were 
at the rate of one copy every 
minute, and its expenditures 
exceeded half a million of dol- 
lars. And yet upwards cf 



SCR 

500,000,000 of immortal beings 
are without the knowledge of 
even the existence of this bless- 
ed volume. 

The first Bible society in 
America is said to have been 
established in 1804, by a few 
Baptists in New York. A Bi- 
ble was stolen from a pew in 
a church, and this started the 
inquiry whether a person might 
not desire to possess the volume 
for the sake of reading it, who 
would not wait to get it ho 
nestly ; and at any rate, whe 
ther there might not be a great 
destitution of the sacred vo 
lume. A society was formed t<? 
purchase and loan Bibles for a 
month at a time. Many of the 
public institutions were sup 
plied on this plan. The Phila- 
delphia Bible Society was in- 
stituted May 8, 1808, and for 
many years was the only source 
of supply for gratuitous distri- 
bution. It had auxiliaries in 
several states, and acted as the 
centre of Bible distribution in 
this country, till the American 
Bible Society was formed in 
1S16, which has issued (1837) 
upwards of two millions of Bi- 
bles and Testaments, or parts 
of them, and in eleven differ 
ent languages. 

Canon of Scripture. The 
Scriptures, or sacred writings, 
were published in separate 
books, and at different periods, 
through a space of fifteen hun 
dred years. They were col 
lected in a volume for conve 
nience.^ In determining theii 
genuineness, each part or book 
must be examined by itself. 
In other words, what writings 
properly constitute the sacred 
Scriptures 1 The word canon 
literally signifies a rule, and 
was early used by the Chris- 
tian fathers to denote the 
Scriptures, because they form 
a perfect rule o* standard of 
faith and duty, which Chris- 
tians regard as authoritative 
oi perhaps because they were 
554 



SCR 

registered in the ecclesiastical 
canons as genuine. It is gene- 
rally admitted that the canon 
of the Old Testament was set- 
tled soon after the return of the 
Jews from Babylon, or about 
five hundred years before 
Christ. . 

The following are the ca- 
nonical books of the Bible, ar- 



SCR 

I ranged in the order in whick 
they are published, with the 
number of chapters in each, 
and the chronological order 
according to many^ critics. It 
is not pretended, however, that 
this arrangement is chronolo- 
gically accurate, nor indeed is 
it always adopted under th*? 
distinct articles in this volume. 



IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



No 


. of Chapters. 


Date. 




No. of Chapters. 


Date. 


Genesis . 


56 . . B. C. 1491 


Proverbs 


31 . I?. C. 1000 


Exodus . 


40 . 


. 1491 


Ecclesiastes . 12 . 


975 


Leviticus . 


. 27 . 


. 1490 


Song of Solomon 8 . 


1013 


Numbers . 


. 36 . 


. 1451 


Isaiah . 


. 66 . 


698 


Deuteronomy 


34 . 


. 1451 


Jeremiah 


52 . 


588 


Joshua . 


24 . 


. 1427 


Lamentations 5 . 


588 


Judges 


. 21 . 


. 1406 


Ezekiel 


48 . 


574 


Ruth 


4 . 


, 1312 


Daniel . 


12 . 


534 


1 Samuel . 


. 31 . 


. 1055 


Hosea . 


14 . 


*40 


2 Samuel . 


24 . . 


. 1018 


Joel . 


3 . 


800 


1 Kings . 


22 i.— xi. 


. 1002 


Amos . 


9 . . 


787 




xii. &c. 


. 897 


Obadiah 


. 1 . 


587 


2 Kings . 


25 . 


. 590 


Jonah . 


4 . 


862 


1 Chronicles 


. 29 . . 


. 1015 


Micah . 


7 . 


750 


2 Chronicles 


36 i.— ix. 


. 1004 


Nahum 


3 . 


713 




x. &c. 


. 623 


Habbakuk 


3 . 


628 


Ezra 


10 . 


. 457 


Zephaniah 


3 . 


630 


Nehemiah 


13 . 


. 434 


Haggai . 


2 . 


520 


Esther . 


10 . 


. 509 


Zechariah 


14 . 


520 


Job. 


42 , , Uncertain. 


Malachi 


4 . 


397 


Psalms ; 


150 . 


do. 










IN THE NEW 


TESTAMENT. 




Matthew . 


. 28 . 


A. D. 38 


1 Timothy 


. . 6 . A 


D. 64 


Mark . 


16 . 


. 65 


2 Timothy 


4 . 


. 65 


Luke 


24 . 


. 63 


Titus. 


. 3 . . 


. 64 


John . 


21 . 


. 97 


Philemon 


1 . 


. 62 


Acts 


28 . 


. . 64 


Hebrews 


. 13 . . 


. 63 


Romans . 




. 58 


James 


5 . 


. 61 


1 Corinthians 


16 . 


. 56 


1 Peter 


. 5 . . 


. 64 


2 Corinthians 


13 . 


. 57 


2 Peter 


3 . 


. 65 


Galatians . 


6 . 


. 52 


1 John 


5 . 


. 69 


Ephesians 




. 61 


2 John 


1 . 


. 69 


Philippians 


4 . 


. 62 


3 John 


1 . 


. 69 


Colossians 


4 . 


. 62 


Jude . 


1 . 


. 70 


I Thessalonians 


5 . 


. 52 


Revelation 


. 22 . 


96 


2 Thessalonians 


3 . 


. . 52 









Divisions of the Bible. The 
dividing of the Old Testament 
into chapters, as they still 
stand in our translation, is at- 
tributed to Cardinal Hugo, who 
lived about the middle of the 
thirteenth century, and who 
did it for convenience of refer- 
ence in a Latin concordance 
he was preparing. To refer 
more easily to a particular sen- 
tence, he placed the first seven 



letters of the alphabet along 
the margin of each page. Rab- 
bi Nathan, a Jew, for the same 
convenience of reference to 
his Hebrew concordance, 
adopted, in 1433, Hugo's chap- 
ters, and marked every fifth 
verse with a figure. In 1G61, 
Athias, a Jew of Amsterdam, 
in his edition of the Hebrew 
Old Testament, divided the 
sections of Hugo into verses, as 
556 



SCR 

we now have them. Robert | 
Stephens, a French printer, 
had previously (1551) divided 
the New Testament into verses 
as they now stand in the va- 
rious versions. 

This division into verses, 
though very convenient, is not 
to govern the sense ; and there 
are several instances in which 
Ihe sense is injured, if not de- 
stroyed, by an improper divi- 
sion. Very often the chapter 
breaks off in the midst of a nar- 
rative, and if the reader stops 
because the chapter ends, he 
loses the connexion. (Matt. x. 
42; xii. 1. Luke xix. 41—48; 
xx. 1 — 8. Actsxxi.; xxii.; xxiii. 
Gal. i. 23; ii. 1.) Sometimesthe 
break is altogether inthe wrong 
place, and separates two sen- 
tences which must be taken 
together in order to be under- 
stood. (1 Cor. xii. 31 ; xiii. 1. 
2Cor.vi.18; vii.l. Eph.iv.31, 
32; v. .1,2. Phil. iii. 21; iv. 1.) 
Again, the verses often divide 
a sentence into two different 
paragraphs, when there ought 
scarcely to be a comma be- 
tween them. (Luke iii. 21, 22. 
2 Cor. vi. 6, 7, &c. 1 Pet. i. 3, 
4, &c.) And sometimes a frag- 
ment of a subject is separated 
from its proper place, and put 
where it is without any con- 
nexion. (Col. iii. 25; iv. 1.) The 
punctuation of the Bible was 
probably introduced as lately 
as the ninth century 

Contents of the Bible. The 
numberof books in the OldTes- 
tament is 39, and in the New 
27— total, 66 books. 

The Old Testament has 929 chapters. 
New " « 260 " 



Total 



1189 



Old Testament, 23,214 verses. 
New " 7959 « 



Total 



31,173 



Old Testamen, 592,439 words. 
New " 181,253 " 



Total 



773,692 



SCR 

Old Testament, 2,728,100 letters. 
New " 838,380 " 



Total 



3,566,4<«0 



The word Jehovah, or Lord. 
occurs in the Old Testament 
6855 times. 

The nrddle chapter of the 
Bible, and the shortest, is Ps. 
cxvii. ; the middle verse is 
Ps. cxviii. 8. The middle book 
of the Old Testament is Pro- 
verbs ; the middle chapter, Job 
xxix. ; middle verse, 2 Chron. 
xx. 17 ; least verse, 1 Chron. i. 
25. Middle book of the New 
Testament is 2 Thess. ; middle 
verse, Acts xvii. 17; least verse, 
John xi. 35. Ezra vii. 21, has 
all the letters of the alphabet. 

To read the Bible 'through 
in a year, we have only to read 
three chapters every week- 
day, and five every Lord's-day ; 
and if we read two chapters in 
the Old and one in the New 
every week-day, and six in the 
Old and four in the New every 
Sabbath, we shall read the Old 
Testament once and the New 
twice in the year. 

The Apocrypha, which is 
sometimes bound up with the 
Bible, is a collection of books 
which were declared to be 
sanctioned by divine authority 
as lately as 1550, at a council 
held at Trent, under the influ- 
ence of pope Pius IV. • The 
evidence by which their au- 
thority is supported is so dif- 
ferent from that on which the 
received books rest, that they 
are generally rejected as spu- 
rious, whatever may be the 
intrinsic value of their con- 
tents. 

Jewish traditionary Scrip- 
tures. About the year a. p. 180. 
Jehuda, a Jewish Rabbi, wrote 
out the received traditions of the 
fathers. This was nearly 1700 
years after the giving of the 
law; and itshoiud be remarked 
that no force or authority is 
given to these traditions' in the 
intervening period, during 
556 



SEA 

which Joshua, Samuel, Ezra, 
and the prophets lived. This 
work of Jehuda is called the 
Mishna; the commentary up- 
on it is called the Gemara ; 
and these together constitute 
the Talmud, which is more 
highly reverenced by the Jews 
than even the Old Testament. 
That traditions are not to be 
received as of divine authority, 
is sufficiently clear from our 
Saviour's language in Mark vii. 
1-13. 

SCROLL. (See Book.) 

SCURVY. (Lev. xxi. 20, and 
xxii. 22.) The disease known 
by this name, in modern times, 
is usually caused' by long con- 
finement in cold and damp 
climates, without fresh pro- 
visions. In the progress of it, 
the skin becomes dry and 
scaly, and livid spots appear. 
Probably, this appearance of 
the skin is all that is denoted 
by the use of the word scurvy 
in the passages cited, 

SCYTHIANS. (Col. Hi. 11.) 
A name used indefinitely by 
ancient writers, sometimes to 
denote all the nomadic tribes 
that roamed over the countries 
north of the Black and Cas- 
pian seas, and sometimes to a 
particular people remarkable 
for their rude and barbarous 
condition. 

SEA. (Isa. xi. 15.) This term 
is applied, by }he sacred writ- 
ers, to lakes, rivers, and any 
large collection of water, as 
well as to seas properly so 
called. (Isa. xxi. 1. Jer. li. 36.) 
In the passage from Isaiah 
first above cited, it is used for 
the Nile at that point which 
is called the Delta. The sea 
and the west denoted the same 
thing to the Hebrews, on ac- 
count of their position in re- 
gard to the Mediterranean. 
'(See Salt Sea.) 

Great Sea, (Num. xxxiv. 
6,) or Sea of the Philistines, 
(Ex. xxiii. 31.) is the Mediter- 
ranean or Western Sea, a large 
47* 



SEA 

body of water between the 
continents of Europe, Asia, 
and Africa, (whence its name, 
which signifies Mid-land.) On 
its northern shore are several 
gulfs or seas, as the Adriatic, 
the Ionian, the Egean, &c. Its 
length from east to west is 
about two thousand miles : and 
its breadth varies from four to 
eight hundred miles. About 
midway, on its eastern shore, 
was the land of Canaan. 

Sea of the plain, or Salt 
sea, called also the East Sea, 
and Sea of Sodom. (See Salt 
Sea.) 

Sea of Merom. (See Me- 

ROM.) 

Sea, brazen. (See Laver.) 
SEAL. (1 Kings xxi. 8.) This 
was usually employed to au- 
thenticate public or private 
papers. (Jer. xxxii. 10.) If a 
door or box was to be sealed, 
it was first fastened with some 
ligament, upon which clay or 
wax was spread, and then im- 
pressed with a seal or signet. 
Frequently a ring with some 
inscription on it was used as 
a seal, by the delivery or trans- 
fer of which the highest offices 
of the kingdom were bestowed. 
(Gen. xli. 42. Esth. iii. 10.) 
In sealing the sepulchre, 
(Matt, xxvii. 66.) it is probable 
that the fastening of the stone 
which secured the entrance 
was covered with clay, or 
wax, and so impressed with 
a public or private seal, that 
any violation of it could be 
discovered at once. (See Let- 
ters.) 

Modern travellers describe 
the seals used in the east, at 
the present day, as made of 
cornelian, or agate, with the 
name or title of the writer, or 
some verse of the Koran, o* 
other motto, engraved upon it. 
(2 Tim. ii. 19.) It is fastened 
into a ring, and worn on the 
hand. (Sol. Song viii. 6.) When 
used, it is eithe^ applied to the 
wax, or is covered with some 
557 



SEA 

Substance, which, being Stamp- 
ed on the paper, leaves the 
desired impression. The fol- 
lowing is a cut of an eastern 
signet, or seal-ring. 




The word seal is used figu- 
ratively in the Bible, to denote 
an act, or token, or process of 
confirmation. (Rom. iv. 11. 
Eph. iv. 30.) 

SEARED. U Tim. iv. 2.) To 
sear flesh is to cauterize or 
burn it, and thus deprive it 
of the power of sensation. As 
used in the passage cited, it 
denotes the effect of habitual 
sin, by which the conscience 
becomes so hardened and stu- 
pified, as to be insensible to 
the most enormous guilt and 
the most fearful threatenings 
of punishment. 

SEASONS. (Gen. i. 14.) The 
year is very conveniently di- 
vided by Hebrew writers into 
six seasons, which are all men- 
tioned in the promise made to 
Noah : seed-time, harvest, cold, 
heat, summer, winter. (Gen. 
viii. 22.) There is the same 
division among the Arabs at 
this day. 

The first season, or harvest, 
is from the middle of April 
until near the middle of June. 
During this period the sky is 
cltiar^the air warm, and even 
hot in the valleys and on the 
coast, very much like the be- 
ginning of summer with us. 
As it proceeds, the heat in the 
plains is severe. 

The second season, or the 
heat, is from the middle of 
June to the middle of August. 
The Arabs call this the vernal \ 
summer. The heal now in- ' 
creases, and the nights are so 
warm that the people sleep in ' 



SEA 

[ the open air upon the roofs 
j of their houses. 

The third season, or sum- 
mer, (season of fruits,) is from 
the middle of August to the 
middle of November. The 
intensity of the heat is greater, 
almost intolerable. Towards 
the end of summer the nights 
begin to be cool. 

During these three periods, 
up to the beginning or middle 
of September, there are no 
showers, rain being as scarce 
in summer as snow. (1 Sam. 
xii. 17.) Hence the proverb, 
Prov. xxvi. 1. From the end 
of April until September no* 
a cloud is to be seen upon the 
face of the heavens. ' During 
all this time the earth is moist- 
ened by the dew, which is, 
therefore, a frequent emblem 
of Divine grace and goodness. 
Sometimes a cloud appears in 
the morning; but it disappears 
with the dew as soon as the 
sun exerts its power. (Hos. vi. 
4.) The dry grass of the fields 
sometimes takes fire, and pro- 
duces desolating conflagration ; 
and the parched earth is cleft 
and broken into chasms. This 
is more particularly the case 
when the east wind blows. 
(Gen. xli. 6. Hos. xiii. 15.) 
Between the middle of Sep- 
tember and the middle of Oc- 
tober there are two or three 
days of rain, which suffices to 
refresh all nature, so that the 
whole land is clad in verdure. 
This prepares the earth for 

The fourth season, or seed- 
time,\\\\\ch includes from early 
in October until early in De- 
cember. This begins with the 
former or early rain, which is 
so needful for the sower. In 
the early part of this period it 
is still quite hot, so that all jour 
neys are made by night, as the 
temperature is then agreeable, 
and the sky is clear. As the 
year advances, however, there 
are alternations of heat and 
cold, as with us in autumn. The 
658 



SEA 
weather becomes unsettled, 
and there are fogs and clouds, 
even when there is no rain. 
[n the mountains, snow some- 
times falls towards the middle 
of December. The streams 
are still small, and many of 
their channels altogether dry. 
In the latter part orNovember 
the trees lose their foliage, and 
fires are made towards the last 
days of seed-time. 

The fifth season, or voinier, 
includes from the middle of 
December until the middle of 
February. Snow falls, but sel- 
dom lies upon the ground a 
day, except in the mountains. 
(Ps. cxlvii. 17.) In shady 
places the ice will occasion- 
ally bear a man's weight, but 
thaws as soon as the sun rises 
upon it. The roads are very 
bad. (Matt. xxiv. 20.) The 
severe cold lasts about forty 
days, from the 12th of Decem- 
ber to the 20th of January. 
The north wind is now exceed- 
ingly penetrating. (Gen.xxxi. 
407) Yet, in the level coun- 
try, when the sun shines, it is 
quite warm. Josephus says 
that in his day it was as warm 
at Cesarea, on the coast, in 
winter, as at other places in 
summer. In this season hail 
and thunder storms are com- 
mon ; the brooks rise, and all 
the streams fill their chan- 
nels. Towards the end of 
January the fields become 
green, and there is every 
appearance of approaching 
snring. In the early part of 
February the trees are in leaf; | 
and before the middle of the j 
month some fruit trees are in \ 
blossom, first the almond, then I 
the apricot, peach, and plum. 
Other trees blossom in March. [ 

The sixth and last season, ; 
or the cold, includes from the | 
middle of February until the j 
middle of April. It is still 
cold, but less so, and the spring j 
may he said to have arrived. | 
Tire heats of noon are greater ' 



SEA 

and greater, especially in the 
flat country. The rains con- 
tinue, but in smaller and 
smaller quantities. Thunder 
and hail are more frequent. 
Towards the close of this pe- 
riod the rains cease, and the 
last fails in the early part of 
April, and is called the latter 
rain, which seems to give 
strength to the filling grain. 

The crops of grain are as 
much advanced in February 
as' with us in May and June. 
The wheat and barley have 
at this time nearly attained 
their height. 

The grain has fully ripened 
in the southern part of Pales- 
tine by the middle of April, 
and in the northern and moun- 
tainous parts three weeks 
later; and sometimes when 
the sowing has been in Janu- 
ary, the grain does not. come 
to maturity before July or 
August. 

Upon the sixteenth day after 
the first new moon in "April, 
there was a solemn presenta- 
tion made to the Lord of the 
first sheaf of ripe barley. The 
grain, however, as we may 
readily suppose, was mature, 
sometimes earlier and some- 
times later. It was common 
to reckon four months from 
seed-time to harvest. The 
cutting and securing the grain 
was carried on for about seven 
weeks, that is, from the Pass- 
over until Pentecost, which 
last is therefore called the 
feast of u-eeks. This was a 
season of very great enjoyment 
and festivity, when the harvest 
had been plentiful. The reap- 
ers, that is to say, the children, 
slaves, and other domestics, 
indulged in mirth', joined in 
songs suitable to the occasion, 
and in congratulations to the 
master of "the harvest. (Ps. 
exxvi. Isa. ix. 3.) The grain 
was then gathered and bound 
into sheaves, as with us. (See 
Bielical Antiquities, vol. i. 
559' 



SEA 

ch. i. § 3, and Evening Recre- 
ations, vol.i. pp. 78— 82, both 
by Am. S. S. Union.) 

SEATS. (Matt.xxi. 12.) The 
nations of the east seat them- 
selves upon the mats or car- 
pets with which their floors 
are covered. In the houses 
of the rich there are spread 
pillows, or cushions, stuffed 
with cotton; or in some cases, 

broad, but very low, sofa or 
divan, with arms, stuffed 
cushions, and costly orna- 
ments. Upon these divans, as 
well as upon the floor orground, 
they sit with the legs bent 
under, and crossed, in a half- 
kneeling posture. (See p. 561.) 

The ancient Hebrews used 
the posture which has just been 
described. After the captivity, 
however, the rich and noble 
adopted the Persian method of 
lying down at tableupon couch- 
es, (Amos vi. 4,) which was like- 
wise practised by the Greeks 
and Romans. In the passage of 
Amos, it is said of the luxurious 
sinners who lived nearly eight 
hundred years before Christ, 
they lie upon beds qffaory, and 
stretch themselves vpon their 
couches. These beds of ivory 
were probably divms, such as 
those above mentioned, but 
richly decorated with ivory. 
They used at '.able very low 
and broad divans, and the 
guests stretched themselves at 
full length. Each divan held 
three persons. The back was 
supported by a cushion, and 
the face so turned towards the 
table, thai the head was held 
up with the left hand upon 
another cushion. The right 
hand was thus free to reach 
the food. The second person 
lay with the back part of his 
head towards the breast of the 
former; and the third, in like 
manner, with the back part 
of his head to wards the second. 
Thus they lay, so to speak, in 
*he bosoms of their neighbours. 
(Luke xvi. 23. John xiii. 23.) 



SEA 

This was the ordinary posture 
at meals, and the feet of the 
guests were distant from the 
table. Hence we. can readily 
form an idea of the scene in 
Luke vii. 38. 
The following cut shows 




the reclining position ; and 
those on the next page show 
the present Turkish method of 
sitting at meat and in conver- 
sation. 

In the eating room there 
were commonly three such 
divans: the middle place of 
the middle divan was account- 
ed most honourable. This was 
the seat which the Pharisees 
so much affected at feasts. 
(1 Sam. ix. 22. Matt, xxiii. 6. 
Luke xiv. 8, 9.) At the pre- 
sent day, the corner of the 
bed-divan is the seat of dig- 
nity, and so it was in ancient, 
times among the Hebrews, at 
least upon ordinary occasions. 
(Amos iii. 12.) This manner 
of reclining at meals, it is 
believed, was not imitated by 
the women, though some doubt 
upon this pointT is suggested 
by Esth. vii. 8. It is to be re- 
membered in this connexion, 
that the Hebrew women, like 
those of Greece, ate in a sepa- 
rate apartment. (Esth. i. 9.) 

Moses' seat (Matt, xxiii. 2) 
is a figurative expression, de- 
noting the assumption of tar 
same authority or office as bd- 
lonzed to Moses. 

560 



SEB 



SEB 




SEBA. (lsa. xliii. 3.) A pe- 
ninsular district of African 
Ethiopia, deriving its name 
from the eldest son of Cush, 
(Gen. x. 7,) who is supposed to 
have been the progenitor of the 
Ethiopians. It is called Seba 
by the Hebrews, and by the 



Romans. Merue. Its wealth \s 
alluded to by tne sacred writ- 
ers, (Ps. lxx'ii. 10;) and this 
circumstance, as well as the 
remarkable stature of the peo- 
ple, (lsa. xlv. 14,) is confirmed 
by profane history. (See Shs- 

BA.) 

561 



SEI 

SEBAT, or SHEBAT. (See 
Month.) 

SECT, (Acts v. 17,) or party, 
not necessarily implying any 
fundamental error of doctrine. 
Christianity was originally con- 
sidered as a new sect of Juda- 
ism; hence Tertullus, accusing 
Paul before Felix, says that he 
was chief of the seditious sect 
ot the Nazarenes, (Actsxxiv. 
5 ;) and the Jews of Rome said 
- to the apostle, when he arrived 
m that city, that as to this sect, 
it was everywhere spoken 
against. (Acts xxviii. 22.) The 
word heresy in Acts xxiv. 14, 
is the same in the original with 
the word sect in Acts xxiv. 5; 
so that the apostle replies di- 
rectly to the argument of Ter- 
tullus, and admits that, after 
the manner of a sect, produc- 
ing division and schism, as my 
persecutors say, so worship I 
the God of my fathers. 

SEED, mingled. (Lev. xix. 
19.) Travellers tell us that wo- 
men are employed in Aleppo 
and elsewhere in cleansing the 
mingled seed from all admix- 
ture, to prepare it for sowing. 
SEED-TlME.(SeeSEAsoNs.) 
SEIR, mount. 1. (Gen. xiv. 
6.) A most rugged and desolate 
chain of mountains, stretching 
from the southern shore of the 
Dead Sea to the eastern gulf of 
the Red Sea. Mount Hor was 
one of its summits; and the 
Hivites are mentioned among 
its inhabitants, and one of this 
people was named Seir. (See 
Edom, Hor.) 

2. (Josh. xv. 10.) Another 
mount Seir was situated near 
Kirjath-jearim. 
SELA, or SELAH. (See Jok- 

THEEL.) 

SELAH. (Hab. iii. 3. 9. 13.) 
This word, which occurs no 
less than seventy-four times in 
the Hebrew text of the Psalms, 
is generally construed to be a 
note of admiration, demanding 
a solemn pause. It is usual- 
ly placed at some remarkable 



SEP 

passage, and seems designed 
to excite and quicken the at- 
tention and observation. If, as 
is very probable,the tunes were 
expressly composed for the 
words, such pauses and chang- 
es of voice would be observed 
as were most adapted to give 
them proper emphasis; and the 
most impressive and important 
passages would naturally be 
repeated. 

SELEUCIA. (Acts xiii. 4) 
A city of Syria, on the shores 
of the Mediterranean, west of 
Antioch, and near the mouth 
of the Orontes. 

SENATE. (Acts v. 21.) An 
assembly of aged and experi- 
enced men, not members of the 
general council, but called in 
on a particular emergency. 
They may have been the same 
class with those called elders 
of Israel, (Acts i v. 8,) and elders 
of the Jews. (Acts xxv. 15.) 
Such persons are called sena- 
tors, Ps. cv. 22. 

SENNACHERIB (2 Kings 
xviii. 13) was king of Assyria 
when Hezekiah reigned in Ju- 
dah. He was the son and suc- 
cessor of Shalmaneser; and 
having invaded and laid waste 
much of the kingdom of Judah, 
was contemplating an attack 
on the capital. Hezekiah, in 
this extremity, proposed to ca- 
pitulate on certain terms ; but 
Sennacherib treated his em- 
bassy with the utmost inso- 
lence. Hezekiah made sup- 
plication to God for deliver- 
ance, and his prayer was an- 
swered, (2 Kings xix. 20;) for 
the Assyrian army was mira- 
culously cut off, Sennacherib 
hastily retreated to Nineveh, 
and was finally assassinated 
by his own sons while he was 
engaged in idolatrous worship. 
(2 Kings xix. 37.) 

SEPHARVAIM. (2 Kings 
xvii. 24.) A province of Meso- 
potamia, whence colonies emi- 
grated to Canaan after the Is 
raelites were carried beyond 
562 



SER 

the Euphrates by Shalmane- 
ser. The Sepharvaim of the 
Bible is supposed to be the 
same with the Siphara of pro- 
fane history. 

SEPULCHRE. (See Burl 
al.) 

SERAPHIM. (Isa. vi. 2. 6.) 
This is the name given by the 
prophet to the spirits which 
waited by the throne of the 
Lord, as they appeared in his 
sublime and wonderful vision. 
The number of them is not 
tated ; but the description, 
their appearance, their song 
of praise, the effect produced 
upon and within the temple 
by the voice of one of them, 
the office which another exe- 
cuted towards the prophet him- 
self, and, indeed, the whole 
scene, justifies the opinion that 
they were from the most ex- 
alted order of the angelic host. 
(Heb. i. 7.) 

SERGEANTS. (Acts xvi. 35. 
38.) This was a class of public 
officers under the Roman go- 
vernment. They were appoint- 
ed to carry the fasces, or bun- 
dle of rods, before the supreme 
magistrates, and to inflict the 
punishment of scourging and 
beheading upon criminals. 

SERGIUS PAULUS (Acts 
xiii.7) was proconsul or deputy- 
governor of the island of Cy- 
prus, a province of the Roman 
empire. Pie was a man of in- 
telligence and candour, (for 
this the word prudent imports,) 
and sought to hear the gospel 
from the apostles who w'ere at 
tiie island— probably from curi- 
osity, or from a laudable desire 
to obtain information of the 
new religion from its advocates 
and professors. An impostor of 
considerable influence, named 
Ely mas, finding his own occu- 
pation in danger, attempted to 
controvert the doctrines of the 
apostles, and to divert or pre- 
judice the mind of the govern- 
or. For his sin in this respect, 
he was severely rebuked and 



SEE 

punished by the immediate in- 
terposition of Providence, (see 
Ba.rjesus;) and such was the 
effect of the whole scene upon 
the mind of the governor, that 
he embraced the faith of the 
eospel. 

~ SERPENT. (Gen. iii. 1.) An 
animal distinguished for its 
subtlety, (Matt. x. 16,) as well 
as for the instinctive dread 
which it inspires in man and 
in most animals. Three hun- 
dred species are known, the 
largest of which are indeed 
terrific in their power and 
venom. About one-sixth of al* 
the species known are venom- 
ous. 

The devil is called the ser- 
pent, and the old serpent, (Rev. 
xii. 9. 14, 15,) probably in allu- 
sion to his subtlety and malice, 
and also to the fact that in 
tempting our first parents to 
disobey God, he employed a 
serpent, or assumed the form 
of one. (2 Cor. xi. 3.) 

The serpent is used by the 
sacred writers as an emblem 
of wickedness, (Matt, xxiii.33,) 
cruelty, (Ps. lviii. 4. Prov. xxiii. 
32. Eccl. x. 11,) and treachery. 
(Gen. xlix. 17.) 

Serpent, brazen, (Num. 
xx i. 9,) was erected by Moses 
in the camp of Israel, at the 
express command of Jehovah. 
As a punishment for their mur- 
muring and rebellion, God sent 
into the midst of the camp a 
venomous serpent, called fiery 
probably from the effect of its 
bite. Modern travellers who 
have passed through the valley 
where this judgment was suf 
fered by the Israelites, assure 
us from the Arabs and from 
their own observation, that a 
vast number of serpents infest 
it. The destruction of life was 
I fearful, and the people sought 
| to Moses to intercede for their 
i deliverance. To test the sin- 
! cerity of their penitence, M- ■ 
| ses was commanded to make 
I a serpent of brass, resembling 
563 






SER 

IWe serpents which were among 
them, and put it upon a pole, 
that it might be seen from all 
parts of the camp; and then 
whoever was bitten should be 
healed by simply looking at 
the brazen figure : and it was 
accordingly done, and all the 
promised effects followed. This 
passage of history is alluded to 
by our Saviour in the most in- 
teresting and instructive man- 
ner. (John iii. 14, 15. For a 
foil illustration of this subject, 
see The Brazen Serpent, by 
Am, S. S. Union.) 

In Egypt and other eastern 
countries, the serpent was the 
common symbol of power. 
Hence if was embroidered on 
the robes of kings. It was also 
an object of religious worship; 
and is often seen on ancient 
medals and relics, as symboli- 
cal of power. Rites were de- 
vised and temples built to its 
honour ; and priests were ap- 
pointed to conduct the ceremo- 
nies. These miserable idola- 
ters appeared before the altars 
of their contemptible deity in 
gorgeous vestments, their heads 
adorned with serpents, or with 
the figures of serpents embroi- 
dered on their tiaras, when the 
creatures themselves were not 
to be had; and in their frantic 
exclamations cried out ; in evi- 
dent allusion to the triumph 
which the old serpent obtained 
over our first mother, Eva,Eva. 
So completely was Satan per- 
mitted to insult our fallen race, 
that the serpent, his chosen 
agent in accomplishing our 
ruin, was actually raised to 
the first place among the dei- 
ties of the heathen world, and 
reverenced by the most solemn 
acts of worship. The figure of 
the serpent adorned the portals 
of the proudest temples in the 
east. Serpent-worship in its 
origin was probably depreca- 
tory ; suggested by traditionary 
fears, which regarded the ser- 
pent as the personification of 



SER 

all evil They worshipped his 
image to avert the evil he 
might do them. 

The following cuts and that 
under the article Pitcher ex- 
emplify the forms in which 
the image of the serpent was 
anciently preserved in the 
east. 



§ 




The cut on the following 
page is copied from the altar 
of "an idol god found in the 
564 



SER 



SER 




ruins of Herculaneum. The 
serpent is represented as glid- 
ing round the altar, and con- 
suming the figs or other fruits 
that are offered in sacrifice. 

SERVANT. (Gen. ix. 26.) 
The Hebrews had several 
Jdnds of servants: (1.) Bond- 
men and bondwomen, pro- 
cured from the heathen. (Lev. 
xxv. 44—46.) The Gibeonites 
were cursed with a perpetual 
bondage to a particular service, 
(Josh. ix. 23,) as a punish- 
ment for the deception which 
<Hey practised on Joshua and 
Uie elders of Israel. It seems 
reasonable to suppose that 
every proselyted and circum- 
cised servant obtained his 
liberty on the same conditions 
as a Hebrew servant. The 
43 



Mosaic law provided that ser- 
vants and prisoners, of all de- 
scriptions, went out free at 
the jubilee; and the punish- 
ment of one who should steal 
a fellow being? to sell him for 
a slave, was death. (Ex. xxi. 16. 
See art. Feasts, f[ Jubilee.) 

(2.) The second class of ser- 
vants among the Hebrews were 
bondmen and bondmaidens of 
their brethren. The term of 
service for these could, in no 
event, be longer than six years*; 
unless in the case of the se> 
vant, who expressed an utter 
unwillingness to leave his mas* 
ter. (See~Ex. xxi. 5, 6.) 

(3.) The third class of Hebrew 

servants were hirelings, whose 

ordinary time of service seems 

to have been three years, as is 

565 



SER 

inferred from its being said that 
the bondman of six years was 
worth a double hired servant. 
(Deut. xv. 18.) But this seems 
to be a slender foundation for 
such an opinion. It might, 
indeed, have been customary 
to hire for three years; but of 
this there is no intimation 
besides in the whole Bible. 
Hired servants, therefore, were 
probably employed, as was 
customary in the time of 
Christ, by the day, by the 
month ; by the year, or for any 
term of years that might be 
agreed upon. 

It can scarcely be denied 
that there were persons held 
in involuntary servitude by 
the Hebrews, from the earli- 
est times. The government 
of the master was strictly 
patriarchal, and secured the 
Safety and comfort of his nu- 
merous retinue. Great care 
was taken to secure for them 
civil and religious privileges. 
CEx. xx. 10. Ex. xxi. 20. 26, 27. 
//eut.xii. 18; xvi. 11.) Involun- 
tary servitude originated, pro- 
bably, in one or more of the 
following ways: 

1. By being taken captive 
in war, which is by many sup- 
posed to have been the earliest 
kind of servitude. (Deut. xx. 
14; xxi. 10.) 

2. By becoming insolvent 
debtors. (2 Kings iv. 1. Isa. 1. 
1. Matt, xviii. «5.) 

3. By the crime of theft, 
when the offender's property 
did not amount to the lawful 
equivalent. (Ex. xxii. 3. Neh. 
v. 4, 5.) 

4. By man-stealing, as when 
free men, by deceit or violence, 
were made slaves. In Ex. xxi. 
16, death is fixed as the punish- 
ment of this crime ; but the pe- 
nalty is more fully expounded 
in Deut. xxi v. 7, and restricted 
to the case where the thief, by 
offering the slave for sale, or 
keeping him confined, evinces 



SEV 

his determination not to libe- 
rate him. 

5. By being descended from 
a married slave. Such slaves 
were called home-born, born in 
the house, son of the bondwo 
man, or son of the house. Abra 
ham had noless than three hun- 
dred and eighteen. (Gen. xiv. 
14; xv. 3; xvii. 23; xxi. 10.) 

6. By sale, as when a free 
man, who could not get a live- 
lihood, sold himself as a slave. 
A Hebrew might thus sell him- 
self, not only to a rich man of 
his own nation, but also to a 
foreigner residing in Palestine, 
though not for a longer term 
than six years, as already in 
timated. The condition of 
such a one was plainly dis- 
tinguished from that of other 
slaves. (Lev. xxv. 39.) Even 
captives in war seem to have 
been sold, and those who had 
a right to the booty received 
only the price. (Num. xxxi. 
12. 26-28.) 

In the east, during a meal, 
the servants stand with great 
silence and respectful demean- 
our before the master of the 
house, receiving his tokens 
and obeying his orders. By 
eastern custom the commands 
of the master are communi- 
cated chiefly by signs, and 
these are regarded with singu- 
lar earnestness and attention 
by domestics. This illustrates 
the words of the psalmist. 
(Ps. cxxiii. 2.) Hence also the 
expressiveness of the phrase 
to stand before the Lord, that 
is to serve him. 

SERVITOR. (2 Kings i v. 43.) 
A servant. 

SETH, (Gen. v. 3,) son of 
Adam and Eve, was born when 
Adam was one hundred and 
thirty years old, and lived nine 
hundred and twelve years. 
Tradition ascribes to Seth the 
invention of letters. 

SEVEN. (Gen. xli. 2.) As 
from the beginning this was 
566 



SHA 

..ne number of days in the 
week, so it has ever in Scrip- 
ture a sort of emphasis attached 
to it, and is very often and 
generally used as a round 
number, or, as some would 
say. a. perfect number. Clean 
beasts were taken into the 
ark by sevens. (Gen. vii. 2.) 
The years of plenty and famine 
in Egypt were marked by 
sevens. (Gen. xli. 2, 3.) With 
the Jews, not only was there a 
seventh day sabbath, but every 
seventh year was a sabbath, 
and every seven times seventh 
year was a jubilee. Their great 
feasts of unleavened bread and 
of tabernacles were observed 
for seven days; the number 
of animals in many of their 
sacrifices was limited to seven. 
The golden candlestick had 
seven branches. Seven priests 
with seven trumpets went 
around the walls of Jericho 
seven days ; and seven times 
on the seventh day. In the 
Apocalypse we find seven 
churches addressed, seven can- 
dlesticks, seven spirits, seven 
stars, seven seals, seven trum- 
pets, seven thunders, seven 
vials, seven plagues, and seven 
angels to pour them out. 

Seven is often put for any 
round or whole number, just 
as we use ten, or a dozen ; so 
in 1 Sam. ii. 5. Job v. 19. Prov. 
xxvi. 16. 25. Isa. iv. 1. Jer. xv. 
9. Matt. xii. 45. In like man- 
ner seven times, or seven-fold, 
means often, abundantly, com- 
pletely. (Gen. iv. 15. 24. Lev. 
xxvi. 24. Ps. xii. 6 ; lxxix. 12. 
Matt, xviii. 21.) And seventy 
times seven is still a higher 
superlative. (Matt, xviii. 21, 22.) 

SHAARAIM. 1. (1 Chron. iv. 
31.) A city of Simeon, and 
probably the same with Sha- 
raim, which at first belonged 
to Judah. (Josh. xv. 36.) 

2. (1 Chron. viii. 8.) A de- 
scendant of Benjamin, and 
the ancestor of a numerous 



SHA 

and powerful people. (1 Chron. 
viii. 8-28.) 

SHADOW. (Heb.x.l.) Sha- 
dows or types signify thosa 
events or institutions by which 
some other future event or 
institution is represented to 
us. The thing thus represent- 
ed to us is called the anti-type 
Tor example— the slaying of 
the paschal lamb for the~sins 
of the Jewish worshippers was 
a broad and striking repre- 
sentation of the sacrifice of th 
Lamb of God for the sins of th 
world. In determining wha 
is typical, there is no safe 
rule but the declaration of the 
inspired writers themselves. 
When they authorize a typical 
construction, it may be safely 
applied, but not otherwise. 
(See Types.) 

SHADRACH. (See Aeed- 

NEGO.) 

SHALLUM. (2Kingsxv.lO.) 
The murderer of Zachariah 
king of Judah, and the usurper 
of his crown. At the end of 
the first month of his reign, he 
was himself murdered by Men- 
ahem. 

SHALMAN. (See Shal- 

MANESER.) 

SHALMANESER, (2 Kings 
xvii. 3,) king of Assyria, was 
probably the son of Tiglath- 
pileser. He commenced his 
reign b. c. 724, and reisned 
fourteen years. He found the 
countries of Israel and Judah 
entirely open to invasion. He 
had compelled Hoshea, king 
of Israel, to pay him an annual 
tribute: but. at last, being 
weary of this exaction, Hoshea 
combined secretly with the 
kintr of Egypt to resist it. 
Shalmaneser brought an army 
against him, ravaged Samaria, 
besieged Hoshea^in his capi- 
tal, and notwithstanding his 
loner resistance cf three years, 
(2 Kings xvii.— xviii. 9—12,) ho 
1 took the city, put Hoshea into 
I bonds, and carried away the 
567 



SHA 

people beyond the Euphrates. 
He thus ruined the city and 
* kingdom of Samaria, which 
had subsisted two hundred and 
fifty-four vears, (2 Kings xviii. 
9, 10,) from b. c. 970 to 717. 
He was succeeded by his son 
Sennacherib. Some suppose 
that Shalman (Hos. x. 14) is 
the same with Shalmaneser. 

SHAMBLES. (1 Cor. x. 25.) 
A meat market. 

SHARON. CIChron. xxvii. 
29.) An exceedingly beauti- 
ful and fertile plain stretching 
along the Mediterraneanshore, 
south of mount Carmel, from 
Cesarea to Joppa. Its fertility 
and beauty are often alluded 
to by the sacred writers. 
(IChron. v. 16; xxvii. 29. SoL. 
Song ii. 1. Isa. xxxiii. 9; xxxv. 
2.) 

In the spring of 1834, Mr. 
Thompson, an American mis- 
sionary, passed over this plain. 
The view of it from a high 
tower in Ramla is thus de- 
scribed : 

" The whole valley of Sha- 
ron, from the mountains of 
Jerusalem to the sea, and from 
the foot of Carmel to the hills 
of Gaza, is spread before you 
like a painted map, and is ex- 
tremely beautiful, especially 
at evening, when the last rays 
of the setting sun gild the dis- 
tant mountain tops, the weary 
husbandman returns from his 
labour, and the bleating flocks 
come frisking and joyful to 
their fold: At such a time I 
saw it. and lingered long in 
pensive meditation until" the 
stars looked out from the sky, 
and the cool breezes of eve- 
ning began to shed soft dews 
on the feverish land. What a 
paradise was here when Solo- 
mon reigned in Jerusalem, and 
gang of the roses of Sharon ! 
And what a heaven upon earth 
will be here again, when He 
that is greater" than Solomon 
ehall sit on the throne of David 
*is father ; for in his days shall 



SHE 

the righteous flourish, and 
abundance of peace so long as 
the moon endnreth." 

SHAVE. (Num. vi. 9.) The- 
custom of shaving the head as 
a token of deep affliction is 
very ancient. (Job i. 20.) It 
seems, however, to have been 
generally significant of repent- 
ance and humiliation for sin, 
or of bondage and reproach! 
(Jer. xlviii. 37.) 

SHEAR. (See Sheep.) 

SHEBA, (1 Kings x. 1,) or 
the Saba of profane history 
A province in the northern 
part of Arabia, between the 
Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. 
It was probably settled by 
Sheba, a descendant of Shem, 
and the inhabitants are called 
Sabeans. (Job i. 15.) The queen 
of Sheba may well be supposed 
to have some traditional know- 
ledge of true religion; and, in 
the commercial intercourse of 
her country with that of the 
Hebrews, might have heard 
much of the wisdom and piety 
of Solomon, the wisest man 
and one of the greatest kings 
that ever lived on the earth. 
To see and converse with him, 
she undertook a journey from 
what was then regarded as the 
uttermost parts of the earth, 
(Matt. xii. 42.) Of this jour- 
ney the present Ethiopians or 
Abyssines, who are Christians 
of the Greek church, have very 
ancient traditions. Among the 
princely presents she made 
to Solomon, were gold, ivory, 
and spices; and the Sabeans 
were celebrated, on account 
of their important commerce 
in these very products, among 
the Greeks also. (Ps. lxxii. 10. 
15. Isa. lx. 6. Jer. vi. 20. Ezek. 
xxvii. 22. Joel ili. 8.) 

SHECHEM, 1. a place, 
(Gen. xxxiii. 18,) orSYCHEM, 
(Acts vii. 16,) or SYCHAR, 
(John iv. 5,) was one of the 
most ancient cities of Canaan. 
The change to Si/ char (aSyriac 
word signifying drunkenness 
563 



SHE 

and falsehood) was made by 
the Jews to stigmatize the vices 
of the place, which were drunk- 
enness, lying, and idolatry. 
Its more modern name is Ne- 
apolis, and it is at present 
known as Nahlouse, or Nap- 
louse. It is situated from thirty- 
five to forty miles northerly 
from Jerusalem, and was made 
the capital of the kingdom of 
Israel in the reign of Jeroboam. 

Shechem is associated with 
some of the most interesting 
events of patriarchal times, 
(Gen. xlix. 29—32; 1. 13. Josh, 
xxiv. 1. 32. Judg. ix. 46-49 ;) 
and also for one of the most 
interesting of our Lord's dis- 
courses, (John iv. 4—42,) the 
result of which was the con- 
version of several of the Sa- 
maritans to the true faith. 
(Johniv. 39. 41.) 

Shechem is situated between 
mount Ebal on the north and 
Gerizim on the south. The 
modern town has two long 
streets running parallel with 
the valley. Nothing can be 
finer, travellers assure us, than 
the view of the city from the 
heights around it. As it is ap- 
proached from the hills, it ap- 
pears luxuriantly embosomed 
in the most delightful and 
fragrant bowers, half concealed 
by rich gardens and by stately 
trees, collected into groves, all 
around the bold and beautiful 
valley in which it stands. It 
contains six mosques, a church 
of the Greek Christians, pub- 
lic baths, and a variety of manu- 
factories of soap, clothes, &c. 
The population is estimated at 
eight or ten thousand, gene- 
rally Mohammedans. A dozen 
or fifteen Jews are found there ; 
fifty to one hundred Greek 
Christians, and, perhaps, forty 
Samaritans. These last have 
a synagogue, where they have 
service every Saturday. They 
have also a school, where their I 
language is taught. They de- j 
fend their worship on Geri- 
48* 



SHE 

zim by Deut. xxvii. 4, where, 
for the word Ebal, they put 
Gerizim, alleging that the 
Jews fraudulently inserted 
Ebal in their Scriptures, out 
of contempt and prejudice 
towards their nation. 

The Samaritans, notwith- 
standing their enmity against 
the Jews, joined them in their 
revolt against the Romans, 
and, in the issue, eleven thou- 
sand of them were put to the 
sword by the Romans on 
mount Gerizim, where they 
had posted themselves, trust- 
ing, like the Jews, to the pro- 
tection of their temple. I ) nder 
the emperor Justinian, another 
revolt took place, in the course 
of which one hundred thou- 
sand of them were slain, or 
sold as slaves, converting their 
once fertile province into a 
wilderness. A remnant, how- 
ever, rallied on mount Geri- 
zim, and are still found there. 

In 1811, it was estimated that 
not more than two hundred 
Samaritans were known at 
the then present day ; and that 
these reside partly at Shechem 
and partly at Joppa. It is said 
they have synagogues in Da- 
mascus, Cairo, &c. ; but it is 
not on authentic evidence. In 
their manners, rites, and reli- 
gious ceremonies, they adhere 
strictly to the Mosaic law. 
Instead of the temple at Jeru- 
salem, they worship on mount 
Gerizim, where, in more pros- 
perous times, they celebrated 
their festivals, and offered sa- 
crifices. The worship of one 
God, circumcision, the purifi- 
cations, and feasts, (except the 
Purim and the feast of the 
dedication,) they have in com- 
mon with the Jews. They be- 
lieve in the existence of an- 
gels, in a resurrection and 
future retribution, and expect 
the coming of a Messiah, in 
whom they look only for a pro- 
phet. Their priests are cf the 
tribe of Levi, and are treated 
569 



SHE 

as superiors. On account of 
their poverty, their only sacri- 
fice is a lamb on the feast of 
Pentecost. In the synagogue, 
the Samaritan dialect is used ; 
but they generally speak Ara- 
bic, and they are distinguished 
by a white turban. They sup- 
port themselves by mechanical 
labour, and b,y money deal- 
ings. They avoid any con- 
nexions with other sects, and 
marry only among their own 
nation. Each man is allowed 
two wives on his first mar- 
riage ; but on the death of one 
of them, he cannot marry 
again. In case both of them 
die. he is suffered to have one 
wife. (See Ebal, Samaritans.) 

The Samaritans at Shechem 
were visited by Mr. Fisk, an 
American missionary, in the 
autumn of 1823. He says, 

" We went to visit the Sa- 
maritans, having first sent to 
the kohen, or priest, to know 
if a visit would be agreeable. 
He received us in a neat apart- 
ment, and we immediately en- 
tered into conversation. Ten 
or twel ve other members of the 
sect soon came in. Our con- 
versation was in Arabic. They 
represent the number of their 
houses to be twenty or thirty. 
They all speak Arabic, but 
their books and public prayers 
are in Samaritan. They call 
their language Hebrew, and 
that which we call Hebrew 
they call Jewish ; for they say 
their language is the true He- 
brew in which the law was 
given. The difference con- 
sists in the use of a different 
alphabet and different pro- 
nunciation. They go three 
times a year to mount Gerizim 
to worship; but do not offer 
sacrifices there now, as they 
did formerly, lest they should 
be molested by the Turks. 
But they offer their sacrifices, 
>n a more private way, in the 
city. On the former occasions 
they meet before sunrise^ and 



SHE 

continue reading the law until 
noon. We understood them 
to say, that they have no daily 
sacrifice. We visited their 
synagogue. It is a small, dark, 
but neat room, with an altar, 
but without seats. We were 
obliged, before entering, to pull 
off not only our over-shoes, but 
also our slippers, which are not 

?rohibited even in mosques, 
"hey expect a Messiah, who 
is to be a prophet and king, 
but a mere man, to live one 
hundred and twenty years, as 
Moses did, and to reign at 
Naplouse over all the world. 
Those who do not receive him 
are to be destroyed with the 
sword. The promise concern- 
ing the woman's seed does not, 
they believe, refer to the Mes- 
siah; but that concerning a 
prophet like unto Moses does 
refer to him, as does also that 
concerning Shiloh. (Gen. xlix. 
10.) They admit the sense 
of this passage as given in our 
translation, and try to show 
that there is still a sceptre 
somewhere in the hands of 
.Judah. The Messiah will 
come when Israel repent. 
They say the story of the 
separation between Israel and 
Judah, under Jeroboam and 
Rehoboam, is a lie of the Jews. 
The city of Luz or Bethel, 
they say, was on mount Ge- 
rizim. (<jen. xxviii. 19.) Je- 
bus, they say, was also on this 
mount, and that Judg. xix. 10, 
as it stands in our copies, is 
not true. We had requested 
to see their ancient copy o( 
the law. The kohen objected, 
but after much persuading, 
and indirectly presenting the 
motive which generally pre- 
vails in this country, i. e. the 
offer of money, he at last con- 
sented to show it to us this 
morning. In orde" to do it, 
he said he must first bathe, 
and then put on a particular 
dress for the occasion. On our 
arrival at *rhe synagogue, we 
57V 



SHE 

waited a short time, ana he 
appeared, entered the syna- 
gogue, approached the altar, 
kneeled and put his face to 
Jie floor, then opened the little 
closet which contained the 
holy book, kneeled and put 
his face to the floor again, then 
Drought out the brass case 
which contained the roll, and 
opened it so as to show us the 
manuscript, but we were not 
allowed to touch it. It is in 
the Samaritan character, and 
the kohen says it was written 
oy Abishua, the grandson of 
Aaron, thirteen years after ihe 
death of Moses, and three 
thousand two hundred and 
sixiy years ago. (1 Chron. vi. 
4.) Another brass case stood 
near this, containing an exact 
copy of the original manu- 
script, said to have been made 
eight hundred years ago. On 
a shelf, in the synagogue, were 
a considerable number of co- 
pies of the Samaritan Penta- 
teuch. The Bible of the Sa- 
maritans contains only the 
five books of Moses. They 
have, however, Joshua and 
Judges, but in separate books. 
They say that since Joshua 
there has been no prophet. 
He was the disciple of Moses, 
and inferior to him. David 
was king in Jerusalem, but 
not a prophet. We inquired 
whether the Samaritans held 
it lawful to read the books of 
Christians. They said there 
was no law against it, and we 
left with them one Testament 
in Arabic, and another in He- 
brew." (See Evening Recre- 
ations, vol. ii. pp. 27—30, by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 
2. A person. (See Dinah.) 
SKEEP, (Gen. iv.2,) SHEP- 
HERD. (Gen. xlvi. 32,) SHEEP- 
MASTER, (2 Kimrs iii. 4,) 
SHEEPCOTE, (lSkm. xxiv. 
3,) SHEEPFOLD, &c. (John 
x. 1.) As these terms are inti- 
»natp]y blended in the sacred 
writings, they are treated of 



SHE 

under one head. Sheep often 
constituted the chief wealth 
of a man in patriarchal times; 
and hence with the Jews the 
care of sheep was among the 
earliest and most respectable 
employments, (Gen. iv. 2. Ex. 
iii. 1. 1 Sam. xvi. 11.) though 
it was odious to the Egyptians. 
(Gen. xlvi. 34.) The" passage 
1 Sam. xvii. 20, is the only in- 
stance in which the hired ser- 
vant is distinguished from the 
master, or one of his family, as 
a shepherd. Doeg had charge 
of the whole pastoral establish- 
ment of Saul. (1 Sam. xxi. 7.) 
The office of chief herdman 
was abolished, and the duties 
divided. (1 Chron. xxvii. 29.) 
The office of chief shepherd 
(Heb. xiii. 20, and IPet. v. 4) 
is often mentioned by heathen 
writers. It was an" office of 
great trust and responsibility, 
as well as of distinguished 
honour. (2 Kings iii. 4.)^ Char- 
din saw a clan of Turcoman 
shepherds, whose flocks con- 
sisted of four hundred thousand 
beasts of carriage, such as 
camels, horses, oxen, cows, 
and asses, and three million 
of sheep and goats. Dr. Shaw 
confirms his statement. 

The shepherd or sheep-mas- 
ter was constantly with his 
flocks by night and by day, 
to number, gather, feed, con- 
duct, and guard them, (Gen. 
xxxi. 39. Luke ii. 8 ;) and was 
often attended with a dog. (Job 
xxx. 1.) His care of the sheep 
was constant and tender, and 
his power over them very great 
(Isa. xl. 11. John x. 1—16.) Rev. 
John Hartley, a missionary in 
Greece, tells us that he was 
once passing by a flock of 
sheep, and, having heard it 
said that they would obey the 
shepherd's voice, he asked 
him to call one of his sheep, 
which instantly left its pas- 
turage, and approached the 
hand of the shepherd with a 
prompt obedience which he 
571 



SHE 

never saw in any other animal. 
It is also universally true in 
that country that a stranger 
they will not follow. They 
flee" from him ; for they know 
not the voice of a stranger. 

It is said that the shepherds 
of Judea gave each lamb a 
distinct name, and that they 
promptly obeyed the voice of 
the shepherd, coming and 
going daily at his call. An 
ancient Jewish writer, born 
and bred in Egypt, states that 
the sheep, in "the season of 
shearing, would run to the 
shepherd at his call, and, 
stooping a little, put them- 
selves into his hands to be 
shorn, and stand quietly until 
he had done. 

The docility, timidity, and 
liability to wander, all which 
are among the characteristics 
of this animal, are often figu- 
ratively employed by the sa- 
cred writers, as 2Chron. xviii. 
16. Ps. cxix. 176. Isa.xi.6; liii. 
6, 7. Mic. v. 8. Matt. ix. 36.) 

In the Old Testament, the 
word shepherd is used figu- 
ratively for Jehovah, (Ps. Ixxx. 
1. Jer. xxxi. 10,) and for kings, 
(Ezek. xxxiv. 10;) but in the 
New Testament it denotes 
Christ, (John x. 11, &c. Heb. 
xiii. 20. 1 Pet. v. 4,) and also 
those teachers who presided 
in the synagogues. This use 
of the word gave rise to the ap- 
plication of the word shepherd 
or pastor, in modern times, to 
ministers of the gospel, and 
those under their spiritual care 
are called the fold or Jlock. 

It was the business of the 
shepherd to count the sheep 
daily, perhaps oftener, and he 
was accountable for any that 
were missing. (Gen. xxxi. 38, 
39. Ex. xxii.12, 13. Lev. xxvii. 
32. Jer. xxxiii. 13. See Rod.) 

The ram, on the call of the 
shepherd, came forth, and pre- 
ceded the flock in their march 
as leader or principal. (Jer. 1. 



SHE 

8.) Hence the expressions in 
Ps. Ixxx. 1. Jer. xxv. 34,35. 

Sometimes a lamb was taken 
into the tent, and brought up 
like a dog. (2 Sam. xii. 3.) B- 
is common in Armenia to see 
shepherds carrying in their 
bosoms the lambs of the flocks 
they were tending. They 
were too feeble to roam with 
their dams; and nothing 
evinces more tenderness and, 
care than gently leading such 
as have young lambs to which 
they give suck. (Isa. xl. 11.) 
Messrs. Smith and Dwight,; 
American missionaries, tell usv 
that while travelling in Ar- 
menia, they passed several 
shepherds, probably from the 
neighbouring villages, carry- 
ing in their bosoms the lambs 
of the flocks they tended. The 
same scene had already fre- 
quently interested them, by 
presenting the source of the 
beautiful imagery of the pro- 
phet. It is exhibited only at 
one season of the year ; when 
lambs are frequently brought 
forth during the day at a dis- 
tance from the fold. The new- 
comers, being too weak to fol- 
low the flock in its rovings 
after grass, are carried in the 
bosom of the shepherd, and 
not unfrequently they multiply 
so as to fill his arms before 
night. They are then taken 
to the fold, and guarded there 
until sufficiently strong to ram- 
ble with their dams. One of 
these enclosures, when the 
sheep return anxiously bleat- 
ing in the evening from their 
day's pasture, and scores of 
hungry young ones are con- 
ducted by shepherd's boy? 
each to its own mother, pre- 
sents an amusing scene. 

The time of shearing was a 
season of great festivity. (1 
Sam. xxv. 8. 11. 2 Sam. xiii. 23.) 
The flock was collected in an 
uncovered enclosure called a 
sheep/old or sheepcote. (Num. 
572 



SHE 
xxxii. 16. 2 Sam. vii. S. Jer 
xxiii. 3. Zeph. ii. 6. John x. 
16.) Here their legs were tied j 
together; and the shearing- ; 
house (2 Kings x. 12. 14) lite- , 
rally means the tie-house. \ 
They were never housed at 
any season of the year. 

A watch-house was often 
erected in the vicinity of the 
flocks, from which the ap- 
proach of danger could be 
easily descried. This ia called 
the tower of the flock. (Mic. 
iv. 8.) The wool of the sheep 
was probably made into cloth 
(Lev. xiii. 47. Deut. xxii. 11) 
by women. (Prov. xxxi. 13.) It 
formed part of the tribute paid 
by the Moabites to Israel, 
(2 Kings iii. 4,) and was a com- 
mon article of merchandise. 
(Ezek. xxvii. 13.) 

SHEETS, (Judg. xiv. 12, 13,) 
or shirts, as it is in the margin ; 
or spoils, or apparel, as in 
verse 19 and margin ; or fine 
linen, as it is rendered in Prov. 
xxxi. 24, and Isa. iii. 23; all 
which are from the same He- 
brew word. The word which 
corresponds with this in Greek 
is translated linen cloth in 
Matt, xxvii. 59 ; fine linen, 
(Mark xv. 46.) and linen. (Luke 
xxiii. 53.) The word doubtless 
means a bed-covering, as well 
as a garment, (see Clothes,) 
and corresponds with the hyke 
of the Arabs. These hykes, or 
blankets, as we should call 
them, are of different sizes, 
and of different qualities and 
fineness. The usual size of 
them is six yards 'long, and 
rive or six feet broad, serving 
the Kabyle or Arab as a com- 
plete dress in the day; and, 
as they sleep in their raiment, 
as the Israelites did of old, 
(Deut. xxiv. 13£) it served like- 
wise for his bed and covering 
by night. The plaid of the 
Highlander of Scotland is the 
verv same. 

S'HEKEL. (See Measures.) 

SHEM. (Gen. vi. 10.) Second 



SHI 

son of Noah, from whom de- 
scended the Jews, and through 
them the Messiah. He had 
five sons, who peopled the 
finest provinces of the east. 
The languages of these nations 
are still called the She?nitish 
languages, including the He- 
brew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, 
Ethiopic, &c. 
SHEMINITH. (See Harp.) 
SHENIR. (See Her.mon.) 
SHEPHERD. (See Sheep.) 
SHESHACH. (See Baby 

LON.) 

SHEW-BREAD. (See 
Bread.) 

SHIBBOLETH. (Judg. xii. 
6.) In the course of a war 
between the Ephraimites and 
the Gileadites, the former were 
routed, and fled towards the 
Jordan. The Gileadites had 
taken care to post a party at 
the fords, and when an Ephra- 
imite wiio had escaped came 
to the river side, and desired 
to pass over, they asked him 
if he were not an Ephraimite. 
If he said, No, they bade him 
pronounce shibboleth, (signi- 
fying a stream;) and if he pro- 
nounced it sibboleth, accord- 
ing to the dialect of the Ephra- 
imites, they killed him. Thus 
fell forty-two thousand Ephra- 
imites in a single day. (Comp. 
Matt. xxvi. 73.) 

SHIELD. (See Armour.) 

SHIGGAION. (Ps. vii. title.) 
The plural of this word occurs 
in Hab. iii. 1. We find various 
conjectures as to the import of 
it, but they are all very unsatis- 
factory, nor is the knowledge 
of it important. It probably 
means a song or ode of praise. 

SHIHOR. (See Egypt, ri- 
ver OF.) 

SHILOAH. (SeeSiLOAM.) 
SHILOH, 1. (Josh, xviii. 1,) 
where Samuel began to prophe- 
sy, (ISam. iii. 21,) and where 
Abijah lived, (1 Kings xiv. 2,) 
was a city of Ephraim, between 
Lebanon and Bethel, ten miles 
south of Shecher.i, and twenty 
573 



SHI 

five north of Jerusalem. Here 
Joshua erected the tabernacle, 
and divided the land of pro- 
mise, by lot, among the tribes. 
The tabernacle remained at 
Shiloh upwards of three hun- 
dred years, and was then re- 
moved thence during the ad- 
ministration of Eli, and taken 
by the Philistines. Its ruinous 
condition was proverbial in 
after times. (Jer. vii. 13— 15; 
xxvi. G— 9.) 

2. (Gen. xlix. 10.) A title 
of Messiah the king; but 
whether it signifies one who 
is sent, or one whose right it is 
to reign, or the peace-maker, 
or him in whom the kingdom 
of Judah should have an end, 
is not agreed. All these in- 
terpretations have been given 
t,o it by different writers, and 
ail of them are significant and 
appropriate. That the Mes- 
siah is intended is evident from 
the literal fulfilment of the 
prophecy. Within a single 
generation after the death^of 
Christ, the temple and the city 
of Jerusalem were destroyed, 
their whole civil and ecclesi- 
astical government subverted, 
and the people themselves 
scattered abroad over the earth, 
a poor, weak, despised, and 
oppressed remnant of a great 
nation. Thus the sceptre de- 
parted from Judah, where it 
had rema'ned until the Mes- 
siah came, and has never been 
restored. 

SHIMEI. (2 Sam. xvi. 5.) A 
relative of Saul, who met Da- 
vid as he was leaving Jerusa- 
lem, in the time of Absalom's 
revolt, and treated him and his 
retinue with the grossest in- 
dignity. (2 Sam. xvi. 6—13.) 
For this offence Shimei after- 
wards sought David's forgive- 
ness, who not only spared his 
life then, but covenanted with 
him never to put him to death. 
(2 Sam. xix. 23.) On his death- 
bed, however, he charged So- 
lomon to remember Shimei as 



SHI 

a guilty man, who, having re- 
ceived such a charge, forbad© 
him to leave Jerusalem on 
pain of death. This prohibi 
tion he violated, by going to 
Gath in search of two fugitive 
servants, and suffered the 
threatened penalty. 

SHINAR. (Gen. x. 10.) An 
extensive and fertile plain, ly- 
ing between Mesopotamia on 
the west and Persia on the 
east, and watered by the Eu- 
phrates. It was upon this plain 
that Noah's posterity attempted 
to build the tower of Babel, 
and the site of the great city 
of Babylon was also here. 
(Dan. i. 1,2.) The territory is 
now within the pashalic of 
Bagdad, but its ancient bounds 
are not known. 

SHIPS. (Gen. xlix. 13.) Some 
of the ancient ships were very 
large. An account of one is 
given by Athenseus, which was 
nearly five hundred feet in 
length, and sixty in breadth. 
Upwards of four thousand row- 
ers, and at least three thou- 
sand other persons, w r ere em- 
ployed in the navigation of it. 
The art of navigation was, how- 
ever, but little understood. The 
Phenicians were principally 
concerned in it, (Ezek. xxvii. 
xxviii.,) and had ports of their 
own in almost every country, 
(Isa. xxiii.,) the most famous 
of which were Carthage and 
Tarshish in Spain. The ships 
from Tarshish undertook dis- 
tant voyages, and hence any 
vessels that were capable of 
such voyages were called shijps 
of Tarshish. (Isa. xxiii. 1.) 

The galley is a low, flat-buil 
vessel, navigated with oars 
and sails, and used particularly 
in the Mediterranean. The 
expression in Isa. xxxiii. 21, 
denotes that Jerusalem would 
be a glorious city, though des- 
titute of the commercial ad- 
vantages enjoyed by most other 

SB iSRAk. (1 Kings xi v. 25.) 
574 



SHI 

A king of Egypt, and supposed ! 
to be the SesGstris of profane j 
history. In the reign of Reho- , 
boam, he invaded Judea with j 
an immense army, took pos- 
session of Jerusalem, pillaged , 
the temple, and bore off the j 
treasures of the king. (I Kings j 
xiv. 26. 2Chron. xii. 9.) | 

The Scripture account of this j 
invasion is confirmed in the | 
most satisfactory manner, by 
recent discoveries in Egypt. 
Upon a ruined colonnade at 
Thebes is a representation of 
Shishak dragging at the feet 
of the-Egy ptian gods more than 
thirty "vanquished nations, 
among which is written, at full 
length, in the oriental lan- 
guage, The kingdom of the 
Jetcs, or qfJudah. 

Other inscriptions give a 
particular list of thefenced ci- 
ties mentioned in 2 Chron. xii. 
4, as having been taken in this 
expedition; and exhibit, also, 
various effigies commemora- 
tive of the "victory over the 
Jews, and even the name of 
the conquered Rehoboam is 
still preserved in Egyptian 
sculpture, after the lapse of 
2700 vears. 

SHITTIM. (Joel iii. 18.) 
This term, as used in this pas- 
sage, probably denoted some 
valley well known as abound- 
ing in shittim-wood ; or it may 
be" poetically used to denote 
any barren or uncultivated 
place. 

Shittim wood, (Ex. xxv. 5,) 
from the Shittah tree, (Isa. 
jdi. 19,) is a tough and very 
durable wood, much used in 
'.he structure and furniture of 
me tabernacle. It is generally 
apposed to be a species of the 
acacia, which abounds in all 
deserts from northern Arabia 
to Ethiopia, and from which is 
obtained our gum-arabic. It is 
4 beautiful tree, with spreading 
branches and fragrant flowers, 
and hence is figuratively em- 
ployed by the prophet, in the 



SHO 

above-cited passage, to repre- 
sent the happy influence of a 
general diffusion of divin6 
knowledge. 

SHOCOH, (1 Sam. xvii. L) 
or SOCOH, (Josh. xv. 35,) or 
SHOCO. (2Chron. xi. 7.) There 
were probably two places to 
which one or more of these 
names was applied. Both of 
them were in Judah, and in 
one of them, near Azekah, Da- 
vid save battle to Goliath. 

SHOES. (Acts vii. 33.) In 
addition to what is said under 
the article Clothes, it may 
be remarked that to take off 
the shoes in token of reverence 
was an early custom, (Josh. v. 
15 ;) and as no mention is 
made of them in the articles 
of the high-priest's official 
dress, it is inferred that they 
officiated with the feet unco- 
vered. To remove the shoe 
was also a token of humiliation 
and subjection. (2 Sam. xv. 30. 
Isa. xx. 2 — 4. Ezek. xxiv. 17.) 
Hence the expression, Ps. lx. 8; 
cviii. 9, imports the subjuga- 
tion of the country over which 
the shoe is cast. The pluck- 
ing off one's shoe and giving 
it to another was a signfficani 
token of a surrendered right of 
privilege. (Deut. xxv. 9. Ruth 
iv. 7. See Youth's Friend 
April, 1837, and The Affec- 
tionate Daughter-in-law, 
pp. 44—47, both by Am. S. S 
Union.) 

The phrase (Deut. xxxiii.25] 
thy shoes shall be iron and 
brass is prophetical of the 
abundance of precious metajs 
with which the soil of Asher's 
inheritance should be supplied. 

Shoe latchet. (See 

Clothes.) 

SHOSHANNIM, (Ps. xlv, 
lxix. title,) or SHOSHANNIM 
EDUTH, (Ps. lxxx. title,) pro 
bably signifies a particular 
musical instrument. Some 
have regarded it as the title of 
a bridal song; and if it only 
occurred in Ps. xlv., we mighj 
575 



SHU 

admit this interpretation; but 
Burely nothing can be farther 
from a song of delight and fes- 
tivity than the other two 
psalms which have a corres- 
ponding title. 

SHOULDER. (Gen. xlix. 
15.) To bare the shoulder is 
significant of servitude, and to 
withdraw it denotes rebellion. 
(Neh. ix. 29.) To bear upon 
the shoulder is to sustain. (Isa. 
ix. 6 ; xxii. 22.) 
SHRINE. (See Diana.) 
SHUHITE. (SeeBiLDAD.) 
SHULAMITE. (Sol. Song, 
vi. 13.) A poetical figurative 
title of the church personified. 
SHUNAMMITE. (SeeSmi- 

NEM.) 

SHUNEM. (Josh. xix. 18.) 
A town in the territory of Issa- 
char, and a little south of Nain. 
It is associated with several 
important incidents of Jewish 
history, (1 Sam. xxviii. 4. 1 
Kings i. 3. 2 Kings viii. 1—16,) 
and especially as the place 
where Elisha tarried on his 
iourneys between Gilgal and 
Carmel, and where he per- 
formed a miracle under cir- 
cumstances of unusual interest. 
(2 Kings iv. 8—37.) The inha- 
bitants were called Shunam- 
tnites. 

SHUR. (Ex. xv. 22.) The 
name of a wilderness (and 
perhaps a town also) lying 
north-east of the gulf of Suez, 
into which the children of Is- 
rael entered after the passage 
erf the Red Sea. It is now call- 
ed Djofar. 

SHUSHAN. (Neh. i. 1.) An 
ancient, extensive, and mag- 
nificent city, (called by the 
fcrreeks Sitsa, or the city of 
lilies,) situated on the river 
Ulai, (now Kerrah.) It was in 
Ijie province of Elam, in Per- 
sia, now known as Khusistan, 
$nd formerly as Susiana. Shu- 
Shan was the capital, and the 
residence of the kings, (Esth. 
i: 5. Dan. viii. 2.) and is said 
lo have been fifteen miles in 



SHU 

circumference. It is now 
heap of ruins, about thirty 
miles west of Shouster, the 
present capital of the province* 
of Khusistan, occupy inga space 
of from six to twelve miles in 
extent, and consisting of hil- 
locks of earth and rubbish, co- 
vered with broken pieces of 
brick and coloured tile. The 
largest is a mile in circumfe- 
rence, and nearly one hundred 
feet in height. They are form- 
ed of clay and pieces of tile, 
with irregular layers of brick 
and mortar, five or six feet in 
thickness, to serve, as it should 
seem, as a kind of prop to the 
mass. Large blocks of mar- 
ble, covered with hierogly 
phics, are not unfrequently 
here discovered by the Arabs, 
when digging in search of hid- 
den treasure ; and at the foot 
of the most elevated of the 
ruins, stands the tomb of Da- 
niel, a small and apparently a 
modern building, erected on 
the spot where the relics of 
that prophet are said to rest. 

Intelligent modern travellers 
are of the opinion that these 
are no other than the ruins of 
the ancient Shushan. One of 
the most intelligent of them 
(Sir John Malcom) observes 
of the tomb of Daniel, that " It 
serves to shelter some der- 
vishes who watch the supposed 
relics of the prophet, and are 
supported by the alms of pil- 
grims ; that these dervishes 
are the only inhabitants of the 
place ; and that every species 
of wild beast roams at large 
over the spot on which som 
of the proudest palaces ever 
raised by human art once 
stood." (See Elam.) 

Shushan-eduth. (Ps. Ix. 
title.) The same with Sho- 
shannim. (See Shoshannim. 

SHUTTLE. (Jobvii. 6.) A 
well known instrument, used 
by weavers for throwing the 
thread of the woof across the 
warp. As it moves with great 
576 



SID 

•wiflness from one side to the 
other, so as scarcely to be seen 
in its passage, it is used figu- 
ratively to "denote the rapid 
flight of lime. 

SIBBOLETH. (See Shib- 
boleth.) 

SIBMAH, (Isa. xvi. 8, 9 5 ) or 
SHJBMAH. (Num. xxxii. 38.) 
A city of Reuben, near by Hesh- 
bon, celebrated for the luxuri- 
ant growth of the vine. (Jer. 
xl vifi. 32.) It fell into the hands 
of the Moabites after the cap- 
tivity of Reuben, Gad, and Ma- 
nassehby Tiglath-pileser; and 
hence the prophets Isaiah and 
Jeremiah weep for Moab, be- 
cause the spoiler had broken 
the vines of Sibmah. 

Probably the expression in 
Che passage from Jeremiah re- 
fers either to the universal 
reputation of the vines of Sib- 
mah, or it is poetically u%ed to 
denote the luxuriance of their 
growth. The sea of Jazer 
was perhaps fifteen or twenty 
miles from Sibmah. 

SICHEM. (See Shechem.) 

SICKLE. (Deut. xvi. 9.) We 
have preserved in Egyptian 
monuments the form of the an- 
cient sickle, and it bears a 
very close resemblance to that 
implement in modern times. 

SIDDIM, vale of, (Gen. xiv. 
3,) now covered by the waters 
of the Dead Sea, is supposed 
to have been the site of Sodom 
and Gomorrah. 

SIDON, (Matt. xi. 21,) or ZI- 
DON. (Judg. i. 31.) A city of 
Phenicia, deriving its name 
probably from Sidon, the eld- 
est son of Caanan. (Gen. x. 
15 ; xlix. 13.) It was situated 
at the north-west angle of the 
land of Canaan,about20or30 
miles north of Tyre. It was 
assigned to Asher, (Judg. xviii. 
28,) but the aborigines were 
never wholly expelled, (Judg. 
i. 31,) and proved an annoy- 
ance to the Israelites. (Judg. 
x. 12.) Its position on the 
shore of the Mediterranean, 
49 



SID 

the fame of its timber, and 
skilful workmen, and its ex 
cellence in many ingenious 
and useful arts, made its com- 
mercial advantages peculiar; 
and they are noticed in pro- 
fane history. Their prosperous 
and luxurious habits led them 
into a careless and secure 
mode of life, which is alluded 
to, Judg. xviii. 7. It is called 
Great Zidon. (Josh. xi. 8; xix. 
28.) This city is the subject 
of some very remarkable pro- 
phecies. (Isa. xxiii. 4—18. Jer 
xxv. 17—38. Ezek. xxviii. 
21—24.) It was subdued suc- 
cessively by the Babylonians, 
Egyptians, and Romans, the 
latter of whom deprived it of 
its freedom. 

Messrs. Fisk and King, Ame- 
rican missionaries, "passed 
through Sidon in the summer 
of 182S, and estimated the po- 
pulation, as others have esti- 
mated it, at eight or ten thou- 
sand ; but Mr. Goodell, another 
American missionary, took up 
his residence there in June, 
1824, for the purpose of study- 
ing the Armenian language 
with a bishop of the Arme- 
nian church who lives there, 
and of course had far better 
opportunities to know the sta- 
tistics of the place. He tells 
us there are six Mohammedan 
mosques, a Jewish synagogue, 
a Maronite, Latin, and Greek 
church. The number of inha- 
bitants may be estimated at 
three thousand, of whom one- 
half may be Mussulmans. 
From Tyre and Sidon it was, 
that part of that great multi- 
tude was made up, who, on one 
occasion, came to Jesus, having 
heard what great things he did. 
(Mark iii. 8.) And on these 
coasts it was that the woman 
of Canaan manifested a faith 
which received the approba- 
tion of the Saviour, and which 
will be told for a memorial 
of her wherever the gospel, 
shall be preached. (Mark vii. 
577 



SIE 
24—30.) "For several days," 
says Mr. Good ell. " I have been 
much affected with the con- 
sideration, that probably no 
such individual can now be 
found here ; that there is pro- 
bably no one who knows any 
thing of the spirit of adoption, 
or of communion with God in 
prayer ; and have endeavoured 
to intercede for them, as if the 
way to the throne of grace was 
known to no other, and every 
thing was depending upon the 
prayers which I made. May 
all who love to read of this 
Syrophenician by nation, lift 
up their hearts in prayer, that 
the Lord Jesus may again pass 
this way, and again mani- 
fest his glory on these coasts, 
in giving sight to the blind, 
health to the sick, and life to 
the dead." 
The apostle Paul visited Si- 

; don on his voyage to Rome. 
(Acts xxvii. 3.) At present 

' the name of the place is Saide. 
It is a trading town of some 
importance. The harbour is 

" rendered comparatively use- 
less, however, by sandbars, 
and the town itself is badly 
built, and very dirty. The in- 
habitants are called Sidonians. 
(Deut. iii. 9.) 
SIEGE. (Deut. xx. 19.) The 

• surrounding of a city or castle 
with an army, in order to starve 
or force the inhabitants to sur- 

" render. The sieges of Sama- 
■ ria, Nineveh, Babylon, Jerusa- 
lem, and Tyre are most noted. 
The judgments of God, reduc- 
ing menlo great hardships, are 
■figuratively called sieges. (Isa. 
xxix. 3.) 

SIEVE. (Isa. xxx. 28.) The 
bolter, or sieve, which is so ne- 
cessary an article in our day, 
in the preparation of meal for 
bread, &c, was in ancient times 
made' of rushes, or papyrus. 
Ancient writers say that only 

• the Gauls had sieves of horse 
hair. What was left in the 

•Hwlter was put into the mill a 



S1L 

second time. Sieves of various 
degrees of fineness were no • 
doubt used, for the same au 
thors tell us of four different 
qualities of meal. 

SIGNET- (See Seal.) 

SIGNS (John iv. 48) ami 
wonders (as they are usually 
connected) sometimes denote 
those proofs or demonstrations 
of power and authority which 
were furnished by miracles, 
and by other tokens of the di- 
vine presence, as in Acts ii.22. 
And at other times those un- 
usual appearances which be- 
token the approach of a great 
event, as in Luke xxi. 11. 25. 

SIHON. (Num. xxi. 21-31.) 
A king of the Amontes, who 
lost his dominions in conse- 
quence of his refusal to permit 
the Hebrews to pass through 
them on their way from Egypt 
to Canaan. Sihon himselfwas 
slain in battle, his army was 
routed, Heshbon his capital 
was taken, and his country dis- 
tributed among the Israelites. 
(Ps. cxxxv. 10—12: cxxxvi. 
18, 19.) 

SIHOR. (See Egypt, rivbk 
of.) 

SILAS, (Acts xv. 40,) con- 
tracted from SYLVANUS, (2 
Cor. i. 19,) is called one of the 
chief of the brethren, (Acts xv 
22,) and a faithful brother. (1 
Pet. v. 12.) He is supposed to 
have been a native orAntioch, 
and a member of the Christian 
church there. (Actsxv. 37—41.) 
He was the associate of Paul 
in several of his missionary 
tours, and his fellow prisonei 
at Philippi. (Acts xv. 40 ; xvL 
25. 29 ; xvii. 4. 10. 15.) He it 
called a prophet, (Acts xv. 32 ;) 
but what was the precise na- 
ture of this office in the days 
of the apostles is not clear. 

SILK. (Prov. xxxi. 22.) Per- 
haps the ancient Hebrews 
knew nothing of silk ; and the 
word may signify cotton, or 
fine flax. ' (Isa. xix. 9.) 

In Eaek. xvi. 10. 13, an arti- 
578 



S1L 

ele called picked silk, is doubt- 
less intended ; and Pliny says 
that silk was brought from 
Eastern Asia to Greece, in 
robes which were only half 
silk, and was then unravelled 
or picked out, and made up 
again into garments of entire 
silk. (Rev. xviii. 12.) 

SILOAH, (Neh. iii. 15,) or 
SILOAM, (John ix. 7. 11,) or 
SHILOAH. (Isa. viii. 6.) A ri- 
vulet on the south-east of Jeru- 
salem, at the foot of Zion and 
Moriah ; supposed by some to 
oe the same with En-rogel and 
aihon. There seem to have 
leen two pools, the upper, (Isa. 
vii. 3,) or king's pool, (Neh. ii. 
'4,) and the lower pool. (Isa. 
£xii. 9. See Conduit.) A 
modern traveller says, " We 
oassed the Jewish burying 
ground, south-east of the city 
■)f Jerusalem, and came to the 
pool of Siloam, whose waters go 
softly: they have a current, 
but it is almost imperceptible. 
t alighted to descend more than 
>wenty steps, and taste the 
waters of this fountain, at 
which, in ancient times, the 
Jews were wont to celebrate a 
testival, singing the twelfth 
chapter of Isaiah. On the 
Dtherside of the projecting hill, 
(Ophel,) after passing under 
ground two or three hundred 
feet, these waters re-appear; 
md here they are drawn off to 
irrigate a lovely spot, consist- 
ing of gardens and small fields. 
These gardens are in summer 
often frequented by the Turks. 
Over against the pool, on the 
slope of a lofty mountain, is a 
village they call Siloa." 

Messrs. Fisk and King, Ame- 
rican missionaries, visited the 
pool of Siloam in the spring of 
1823, and thus describe it: 

" Near the south-east corner 
of the city, at the foot of Zion 
and Moriah, is the pool of Si- 
loah, whose waters flow with 
gentle murmur from under the 
nolv mountain of Zion, or rather 



SIL 

from under Ophel, having Zion 
on the west, and Moriah on the 
north. The very fountain is- 
sues from a rnck, twenty or 
thirty feet below the surface ov 
the ground, to which we de- 
scended by two flights of steps. 
Here it flows out without a sin- 
gle murmur, and appears clear 
as crystal. From this place it 
winds its way several rods un- 
der the mountain, then makes 
its appearance with gentle gur- 
gling, and, forming a beautiful 
rill, takes its way down into 
the valley, towards the south- 
east. (See Selumiel, ch. vi., 
by Am. S. S. Union.) 

Tower in Siloam (Luke 
xiii. 4) was probably a high 
wall or tower, contiguous to the 
pool of Siloam, by the sudden 
fall of which eighteen lives 
were lost. This being a noto- 
torious event, as the like inci- 
dent in New York or Philadel- 
phia would be now in our coun- 
try, it was alluded to by our 
Saviour to illustrate the facf 
that such events are not al- 
ways to be regarded as special 
judgments for an unusual de- 
gree of guilt. 

~" SILVER. (Gen. xiii. 2.) A 
well known precious metal, 
obtained chiefly from South 
America. Many suppose that 
the Tarshish of the Old Testa- 
ment was in Spain, and hence 
that we obtain a portion of our 
silver from the same mines 
which furnished it in the days 
of Solomon. (1 Kings x. 22.) 

That silver was known at a 
very early period is evident. 
(Gen. xliv. 2. Ex. xi. 2 ; xxv. 
3. Job xxviii. 1.) And the 
reason probably is, that like 
gold, it is often found in a state 
of purity in the earth, and 
therefore easily discovered. It 
was used in the construction 
of the temple, (Ex. xxvi. 19 
32.) and for its furniture, (1 
Chron. xxviii. 14—17;) and alsc 
for musical instruments, (Num. 
x. 2,; and for adorning idols. 
579 



SIM 

(Isa. xl. 19.) And that it was 
abundant in that day appears 
from 1 Kings x. 27. 

Silver constituted the chief 
medium of trade, though it was 
not coined, but used by weight. 
(Gen. xxiii. 16.) The pieces of 
silver (thirty of which were 
given as the price of innocent 
blood, Matt. xxvi. 15 ; xxvii. 3) 
were probably shekels of sil- 
ver, worth fifty cents each. 

The silverling (Isa. vii. 23) 
is supposed to have been of 
like value. 

SIMEON. 1. (Gen.xxix.33.) 
Son of Jacob and Leah. Ac- 
cording to the prediction of Ja- 
cob, (Gen. xlix. 5 — 7,) and as a 
punishment for his offence in 
the matter of the Shechemites, 
(Gen. xxxiv.— see Dinah.) his 
posterity dwindled, (c'omp. 
Num. i. 22 ; xxvi. 14, 15,) and 
their inheritance was only a 
dismembered portion of the 
territory of Judah. (Josh.xix. 1.) 

Tribe of, occupied nineteen 
cities, within the bounds of Ju- 
dah, principally south of Dan, 
on the coast. (Josh. xix. 2—7.) 
In Hezekiah's time they pos- 
sessed parts of mount Seir. (1 
Chron. iv. 42.) 

2. (Luke ii. 25.) A man of 
singular piety, residing at Je- 
rusalem. He had been favour- 
ed with a divine intimation 
that he should live to see the 
incarnateRedeemer, the Lord's 
Christ. And being led by the 
Spirit into the temple at the 
particular time when the in- 
fant Jesus was brought thither 
by his parents, according to 
the requirement of the law, 
(Ex. xiii. 12; xxii. 29,) he took 
him up in his arms and uttered 
the most devout thanksgivings 
to God, accompanied with a 
remarkable prediction respect- 
ing the various effects of his 
advent 

3. (Actsxiii. 1.) Was among 
the prophets and teachers of 
the Christian church at Anti- 
och. Some have supposed 



SIN 

(though without warrant) that 
he is the same with Simon the 
Cyrenian. (Matt, xxvii. 32.) 
' 4. (Acts xv. 14.) Simeon is 
a Heorew name, and in this 
passage is the same with Si- 
mon. 

SIMON. (Actsviii.9.) A na- 
tive of Samaria, and a famous 
sorcerer, who professed to be a 
convert to the Christian faith, 
and was baptized as such by 
Philip; but was severely re- 
buked by Peter as a. hypocrite, 
because, under the influence 
of mercenary motives, he de 
sired apostolic gifts. Hence 
the buying and selling of ec- 
clesiastical rights, benefits, or 
privileges, is called simony, 
a high "offence against the pu- 
rity and integrity cf the Chris- 
tian faith, and one of which 
the seller and buyer is equally 
guilty. 

6. Simon Peter. (See Peter.) 

7. Simon the Canaanitb, 
(Matt. x. 4,) or Simon Zelotes, 
(or the zealous,) one of the 
twelve disciples, was perhaps 
a native of Cana ; though some 
suppose the word Canaanite, 
like Zelotes, denotes his cha- 
racteristic zeal. Several other 
persons of this name are men- 
tioned, as the Pharisee, (Luke 
vii. 36,) the leper, (Matt. xxvi. 
6,) the father of Judas Iscariot, 
(John vi. 71,) and the tanner 
at Joppa, with whom Peter 
lodged. (Acts ix. 43.) 

SIN (Gen. iv. 7) is thetrans- 

fression of the law of God. (1 
ohn iii. 4.) Any departure in 
thought, word, or deed, from 
the rule of conduct which re- 
quires us to love the Lord our 
God with all the heart, and 
soul, and mind, and strength, 
and our neighbours as our- 
selves, is sin. (I John v. 17.) 
The word is sometimes used 
for a sin-offering, as in Hos. iv. 
8. Rom.viii.3. 2Cor.v.21. In 
the text first cited, reference 
is had to the eating of that 
which was brought as a sin-of 



SIN 
fering, either from greediness, 
or in violation of the law. The 
disobedience of our first parents 
to the positive command of 
God introduced sin with all its 
dreadful consequences into our 
world. 

The sin not unto death, and 
the sin unto death, (1 John 
v. 16,) have been variously 
interpreted. As there are of- 
fences under human govern- 
ments which are capital, in- 
volving the certain penalty of 
death without the hope of par- 
don, so under the divine go- 
vernment there are sins of such 
malignancy and aggravation, 
evincing an impious and unal- 
terable determination to reject 
the offered mercy of God, that 
we have little, if any ground, 
for the prayer of faith, or 
even for the hope that the 
offender may be forgiven. It 
Beems difficult to suppose a 
case, however, in the existing 
6tate of God's government, in 
which the character of a sin 
can be so determined by any 
human tribunal, as to make 
him who commits it no longer a 
subject of prayer. (John iii. 
15. Acts xvii. 30. 2 Pet. iii. 9.) 
Some have supposed that ex- 
clusive reference is had to a 
distinction in the Jewish law 
Detween offences capital and 
not capital ; or to the civil law 
of some particular place, by 
which some offences were pu- 
nishable with death, without 
the possibility of pardon. These 
were sins unto death, for no 
entreaty availed to avert the 
punishment. But there were 
other capital cases in which 
the law authorized a commu- 
tation of punishment, if the 
circumstances justified it. 
These were sins not unto death; 
for the powerful intercession of 
friends for the offender might 
gave him. Whether what is 
called the un pardonable sin 
(Matt. xii. 31, 32) can be com- 
mitted except by such as were 
40* 



SIN 
witnesses of the mighty works 
wrought by Christ, and by his 
apostles through the power of 
the Holy Ghost, is considered 
doubtful by many. From the 
connexion of the above cited 
passage from Matthew we have 
a very explicit illustration of 
one species of this sin; and 
perhaps the unpardonable sin 
is the same with the sin unto 
death. (See Sacrifice.) 

Sin (Ezek. xxx. 15, 16) is 
the Pelusium of the Greeks, 
and is called the strength of 
Egypt because of its position 
as a bulwark. The ruins of it 
are supposed to have been dis- 
covered by the French army, 
in the invasion of Egypt under 
Bonaparte. 

Sin, desert of, or wilder- 
ness of, (Num. xxxiii. 11,) was 
entered by the Israelites imme- 
diately after they passed the 
Red Sea. (Ex. xvi. 1.) It was 
between Elim and Sinai, and 
was the place where manna 
was supplied. (See Zin.) 

SIN-OFFERINGS. (See Sa- 

CRD7ICE.) 

SIN-MONEY. (2 Kings xii. 
16.) Money sent by persons at 
a distance, with which to buy 
the required offerings; and as 
there was usually some sur- 
plus, it was the perquisite of 
the priest, and was called sin- 
money, or sin-offering money. 
(Num. xviii. 9.) 

SINAI. (Ex. xvi. 1.) We 
have already given, under the 
article Horeb, a general view 
of the district of Arabia in 
which Sinai is situated. We 
subjoin a description of the as- 
cent and position of this sin- 
gular spot, associated with one 
of the most sublime and mo- 
mentous events recorded in sa- 
cred history; which, connected 
with the former article, furnish- 
es a clear view of the whole 
legion. (See Map, pp. 520, 521.) 

An English missionary who 
visited mount Sinai in the 
summer of 1834, says, "We 
531 



SIN 



SIN 




took our dinner on a high 
plain, where was much ver- 
dure; and we had very inte- 
resting views on every side ; 
the whole country being filled 
with bold granite mountains, 
from which, in a certain revo- 
lution in our earth, the water 
appears to have washed all the 
cultivatable earth down into 
the valleys : for you see on the 
mountains nothing but bare 
granite; except here and there, 
in a recess, some fertile ground, 
covered with shrubs. We first 
ascended a little; then descend- 
ed very much into a deep val- 
ley, shut up on every side by 
high mountains. Here the tem- 
perature was raised to such a 
height at once, that I do not 
recollect ever to have felt so 
great a heat; but we passed 
this valley in less than a quar- 
ter of an hour. In the middle 
of this passage, through which 
our camels passed, but with 
great danger, we took some re- 
pose in a small ravine, where 
we found a well with very good 
water, and a few small palm 
trees. We took our dinner 



the shade of a 
rock ; and then again ascend- 
ed, until we had reached, I 
think, the height of one thou- 
sand feet above the level of 
the sea. Here we found our- 
selves in a fine large plain, 
situated between two high ridg- 
es of mountains on both sides, 
between which it runs, south- 
ward, to the foot of the moun- 
tains of Horeb. In my humble 
opinion, this must have been 
the place where the Israelites 
made their encampment dur- 
ing their stay at mount Sinai ; 
because none of the surround- 
ing valleys which we observed 
there were so fit to receive so 
large an army for a whole 
year. In front of this plain, 
to the south, was a cluster of 
mountains, which I think are 
the mountains of Horeb. From 
the circumstance that the Scrip- 
tures speak of mount Si nai only 
on one occasion— that of the 
giving of the law,— while, on 
the contrary, the name of Ho- 
reb is mentioned on different 
occasions, I infer, that Horeb 
is applied by Scripture to the 
582 



SIN 
whole collection of mountains 
which stand here together, as 
the common name; and the 
name of Sinai to one mountain 
only, namely, that on the top 
of which the law was given. 
As we are in so many instances 
led into mistakes by tradition, 
60 I think here, also, a mistake 
has taken place. The name 
of Horeb has been applied, by 
tradition, to one mount only, 
namely, that which I should 
consider to be mount Sinai, 
because it faces the valley 
where the Israelites lay. If 
we suppose that this was the 
case, then the whole army 
could witness the important 
transaction, and receive the 
most powerful impression from 
it; whereas the supposed mount 
Shi3Li,ovcljebel Mousu, although 
a little higher than the former, 
is yet so far situated behind, 
Lhat whatever passed on the 
top of it could only be seen by 
that part of the army which 
lay at the utmost distance, 
where, through a space left 
between what is called mount 
Horeb and mount Catherine, 
they could have seen the top 
of djebel Mousa. 

" The first view I enjoyed 
of mount Sinai made the 
deepest impression upon my 
mind. I felt myself, as it were, 
transported among the Israel- 
ites, whom the Lord here had 
separated from the rest of the 
world, and led into this soli- 
tude, in order to declare them 
his chosen people. I saw, as 
it were, Jehovah in the pil- 
lar of cloud, on the summit of 
that bold mountain; and when 
he lifted his voice, saying, I 
am the Lord thy God, the thun- 
der of his voice re-echoed from 
all the surrounding mountains. 

" The convent of St. Cathe- 
rine lies in a small valley to 
the east of Horeb, where the 
basis of djebel Mousa joins that 
of the so called mount Horeb. 
Before we^. arrived at it, we 



SIN 

passed the garden belonging to 
it, surrounded with a high wall, 
in which an abundance of Eu- 
ropean and Asiatic plants grow, 
particularly a quantity of fine 
cypresses. The convent, from 
without, looks like a castle, 
and, from within, like a small 
town. It has no entrance be- 
low, except one that is shut up 
with stones, and is opened only 
at the arrival of a new bishop 
for the convent. On our arri- 
val, some friars, standing at a 
large window above, .and ob- 
serving us, let down a rope, to 
which we first fixed our letters 
of recommendation: these were 
taken up and looked at. An- 
other rope was then let down 
for our baggage; and, at last, 
one for ourselves, which we 
had to put round our bodies; 
whereupon we made an aerial 
passage, forty feet high ; and 
entered the convent through 
the window, at w T hich the su- 
perior waited to give us a 
friendly welcome. 

" We went up to the moun 
tain by steps which have been 
made on purpose for the pil- 
grims, by putting stone upon 
stone from the bottom to the 
top of the mountain, except at 
a few even places, where no 
stairs are necessary. On our 
way upward, we found several 
fine spots, where fountains of 
sweet water refreshed us. We 
soon arrived at the chapel de- 
dicated to Eiias the prophet, 
where is shown the place of 
his taking refuge from Jeze- 
bel. Near this chapel we saw 
what is called Elias' well, 
where there is a valley, from 
which the tops of several 
mountains diverge; and also 
the place where Moses is said 
to have sat with Aaron and 
Hur during the battle with 
the Amalekites ; the steep and 
small valley which is observed 
below this, being the supposed 
valley of Rephidim." (See 
Bedouin Arabs, ch. xiv. ; see 
583 



SMY 

also engraving and descrip- 
tion in "Youth's Friend for 
June, 1829, and May, 1833; all 
dv Am. S. S. Union.) 

SINCERITY (2 Cor. i. 12) 
stands opposed to dissimula- 
tion or hypocrisy, and implies 
the entire correspondence of 
the heart with the expressions 
of the lips. The original word 
refers to the bright "and pene- 
trating light of "the sun, and 
denotes such things as, on 
being examined by the bright- 
est fight; are found pure and 
unadulterated. 
SION. (See Zion.) 
SIRION. (SeeHERMON.) 
SISERA. (See Barak, De- 
borah, Jael.) 
SIVAN. (See Month.) 
SKINS. (See Clothing.) 
SLAVE. (See Servant.) 
SLIME. (See Pitch.) 
SLING. (See Arms.) 
SMYRNA. (Rev. ii. 8—10.) 
A celebrated Ionian city, and 
one of the finest of the Levant, 
is situated about fifty miles 
north of Ephesus, and the 
same distance from the coast, 
on a bay formed by the river 
Melas, on the western coast of 
Asia Minor. It was extolled 
by the ancients as the crown 
of Ionia, the jewel of Asia, 
overflowing with wealth, and 
beautiful in works of art. It 
has been overthrown at least 
six times by earthquakes, lost 
sixty thousand inhabitants by 
the plague in 1814, and was 
severely scourged by the cho- 
lera in 1831. It is now called 
by the Turks Is?nir, and is 
about four miles in circum- 
ference. The harbour is capa- 
cious, and affords the finest 
anchorage for ships of the larg- 
est class. The city contains a 
population of from 100,000 to 
130,000 ; among whom are up- 
wards of 20,000 to 30,000 Greeks, 
10,000 Jews, 8000 Armenians ; 
and the residue principally 
Turks. The city has twenty 
mosques, besides churches and 



SO 

monasteries; and some of the 
ruins of its former magnificence 
are still visible. 

The church in this place is 
one of the seven addressed in 
the Apocalypse. And in the 
efforts of the present day to 
evangelize the world, Smyrna 
is one of the most important 
centres of action. Several 
newspapers are published, one 
or two of which are decidedly 
religious in their character: 
and the schools, presses, ana 
agencies established by Chris- 
tian benevolence in this inte- 
resting city promise well for 
religion. 

SNAIL. (Lev. xi. 30.) A 
species of worm. In the pas- 
sage above cited, the original 
word is thought to denote some 
species of lizard. And in Ps. 
lviii. 8, the only place besides 
in which it occurs, reference 
may be had to the common 
snail, or slug, which is found in 
cellars and damp places, and 
which seems to waste itself by 
covering its path with a thick, 
shining slime. 

SNOW. (2 Sam. xxiii. 20.) 
Vapour congealed in the air, 
and often falling in large broad 
flakes resembling wool. (Ps. 
cxlvii. 16.) The allusion to 
snow in the sacred writings, 
especially to its whiteness, are 
frequent. (Ex. iv. 6. Num. xii. 
10. 2 Kings v. 27. Ps. li.7. Isa. 
i. 18.) The comparison in Prov, 
xxv. 13, has reference to the 
use of snow brought from the 
mountains to cool the drink of 
the reapers in the heat of har- 
vest, as we use ice. Snow- 
water is softer and more deter- 
gent than common water ; 
hence the allusion, Job ix. 30. 
Mr. Fisk, an American mis- 
sionary, found snow on mount 
Lebanon upwards of two feet 
deep, Oct. 4, 1823 ; and hence 
concludes that it lies through 
the year. 

SO. (2 Kings xvii. 4.) An 
Ethiopian king, an<^ supposed 



SOL 

to be the same with Sabacus 
or Sabacon of profane history. 
He is called king of Egypt in 
the above passage because he 
invaded Egypt, and reigned for 
a term of years over that coun- 
try, during which time he re- 
ceived the proposition of an 
alliance from Hoshea, king of 
Israel; which incensed Shal- 
maneser, king of Assyria, to 
attack the country. 
SOAP. (See Nitre.) 
SOCHOH. (SeeSHocoH.) 
SODOM (Gen. xiii. 13) and 
Gomorrah, two of the cities 
of the plain which were mira- 
culously destroyed because of 
thedeepandalmost universal 
corruption of the inhabitants. 
(See Salt Sea. See also 
Ev. Recreations, vol. ii. pp. 
46—50, by Am. S. S. Union.) 
SOLDIERS. (See Armies.) 
SOLOMON, (2 Sam. v. 14,) 
king of Israel, was .the son and 
successor of David. His cha- 
racter, and the general condi- 
tion of the country during his 
reign, were predicted in re- 
markable terms, (1 Chron. xxii. 
9, 10 ;) and especially remark- 
able, as the prediction is sup- 
posed to have ultimate and 
more comprehensive reference 
to the Messiah and his reign. 
Soon after the birth of Solo- 
mon, the prophet Nathan was 
sent by divine authority to give 
him the name of Jedidiah, sig- 
nifying beloved of the Lord. 

Towards the close of David's 
life, a conspiracy was detected 
to place Adonijah on the throne. 
To settle the government in 
he order of the divine appoint- 
ment, David caused Solomon 
to be invested with the robes 
of royalty, and resigned to him 
voluntarily the sceptre of go- 
vernment, giving him a solemn 
charge respecting the adminis- 
tration of it. The early part 
oi his reign was exceedingly 
prosperous, and was marked by 
several public acts which dis- 
played his wisdom and piety. 



SOL 

(1 Kings ii. 19.27.31; ill. 1.9. 
16—28.) He was also favoured 
with a remarkable promise of 
the divine favour. (1 Kin^s iii. 
12—14.) His court was distin- 
guished for its magnificence; 
his dominions and revenue 
were vast ; his personal cha- 
racter exalted ; his wisdom pro- 
verbial; and his capital and 
palace renowned for wealth 
and splendour. (1 Kings iv. 
and x.) The great event of 
his reign, however, was the 
erection of the temple in Jeru- 
salem, (hence called Solomon's 
temple,) which was designed 
by David his father. (1 Chron. 
xxii. 1—11.) The plan and 
materials of the house, and the 
furniture, as well as of the 
royal palace, are minutely de- 
scribed, 1 Kings vi. vii., (see 
Temple,) as are also the ser- 
vices at the dedication of it, 
1 Kings viii. After this, Solo- 
mon received a renewed as- 
surance of the divine favour, 
and of a gracious answer to his 
prayers and supplications ; and 
at the same time, one of the 
most fearful denunciations of 
wrath in case they should for- 
sake God's law. (1 Kings ix. 
1—10.) In the latter part of 
Solomon's reign, he was led 
into the practice of idolatry 
and other abominable sins, 
which drew upon him and the 
country heavy judgments. (1 
Kings xi.) We are told that 
the Arabs call the southern 
side of the mount of Olives the 
mount of Solomon, because his 
idolatrous altars were built 
here. It is called the mount 
of Corruption (2 Kings xxiii. 
13) from the same cause. He 
reigned forty years, and was 
succeeded by his son Rehobo- 
am. (1 Kings xi. 42, 43. See 
Life of David, ch. xxiv. ; by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 

We are told of the book of 

the acts of Solomon, (1 Kinjrs 

xi. 41,) and elsewhere that hla 

acts were written in the book* 

585 



SOL 

of Nathan, the prophecy of 
Ahijah, and the visions of Iddo 
against Jeroboam, (2Chron. ix. 
29;) but no other knowledge 
of these books has come down 
to us ; and perhaps they were 
chiefly genealogical, and were 
destroyed with other Jewish 
writings in the frequent revo- 
lutions of the country. 

Pools of. (Eccl. ii. 6.) We 
have from Mr. Whiting, an 
American missionary, the fol- 
lowing description of what are 
called the pools of Solomon, 
upon the supposition that they 
were erected by him. " These 

Eools are on the road to He- 
ron, about three miles south- 
west of Bethlehem, in a nar- 
row sloping valley. They are 
three in number, placed one 
above another in the valley. 
They are immensely large cis- 
terns, built of stone and mortar, 
and plastered within. The 
length of the uppermost is one 
hundred and sixty yards, the 
second we estimated at two 
hundred yards in length, and 
the third is still longer. The 
width of the three is nearly the 
same, and is perhaps somewhat 
less than one hundred yards. 
They may be thirty feet in 
depth. At the distance of 
thirty or forty rods from the 
upper pool are the subterra- 
nean springs, sometimes call- 
ed the Sealed Fountains, from 
which the pools are supplied. 
Descending through a small 
hole, like the mouth of a well, 
to the depth of ten or twelve 
feet, you find yourself in an 
excavated, vaulted room, or 
rather two rooms connected by 
a door, at one side of which the 
water flows out of the rock in 
a copious and pure stream, and 
descends by an underground 
conduit to the pools. "From 
the pools it is conveyed by an 
aqueduct around on the sides 
of the hills to Jerusalem. The 
tradition is that these pools 
H'ere built by Solomon, which 



SOL 

is perhaps not improbable. 
They certainly are ancient. 
It is somewhat remarkable 
that no history extant informs 
us of their origin, or makes 
any evident mention of them. 
If we consider them the work 
of the Jewish monarch, and 
that this valley was once 
adorned with gardens, groves, 
and palaces, it must have been 
a delightful retreat. A short 
distance below the pools, in 
the valley, there are still some 
beautiful gardens, watered from 
the aqueduct." 

Proverbs op. (See Pro- 
verbs.) 

Solomon's porch. (See 
Temple.) 

Song of Solomon. This is 
the twenty-second in the order 
of the books of the Old Testa- 
ment. A Greek translation cf 
it is extant, which is ascribed 
without contradiction to the 
authors of the Septuagint. who 
lived about two centuries before 
Christ. The ancient Jews, with- 
out exception, regarded it as a 
sacred book; Josephus inserts 
it in his catalogue of sacred 
books ; and it is cited as of di- 
vine authority, from the earliest 
period of the Christian church. 
That it is in the highest degree 
figurative,must be allowed; but 
whether it is to be regarded as 
a poem, or a series of poems, or 
as a nuptial dialogue, or as a 
drama, is not determined. The 
prevailing opinion is, that the 
book consists of twelve distinct 
poems or idyls, such as are 
common among Arabian poets, 
and that it should be divided 
thus: 

Idyl 1 Chap. i. 1—8. 

2 - - i. 9-ii. 7. 

3 - . ii. 8— 17. 

4 - - iii. 1—5. 

5 - - iii. 6— iv. 7. 

6 - - iv. 8 — v. 1. 

7 • v. 2— vi. 10 

8 • - vi. 11—13 

9 . . vii. 1—9. 

10 • vii. 10— viii. * 

11 • • viii. 5— 7. 

12 • viii. 8-14 

5S6 



SON 

The allusions with which I 
this book abounds are made to 
scenes and customs of which 
our knowledge is very imper- 
fect; and hence much per- 
plexity must attend any at- 
tempt to analyze the truths it 
Leaches; and much care and 
Judgment are necessary so to 
use this part of divine truth as 
not to abuse it. 

SON OF MAN. (Matt. viii. 
20.) This title is given to our 
Saviour eighty times in the 
New Testament, and in thir- 
ty instances he applies jt to 
himself. It is also applied to 
aim by Daniel, (vii. 13.) The 
Jews perfectly understood it to 
denote the Messiah. It pro- 
bably denotes his peculiar and 
intimate relation to mankind 
in his incarnate state, as the 
phrase Son of God denotes his 
peculiar relation to the Divine 
Being. 

The term Son of man is ap- 
plied to Ezekiel not less than 
eighty-nine times, and may be 
accounted for on the ground 
that this prophet was, in many 
respects, an eminent type of 
Christ. 

Son of God. (Dan. iii. 25.) 
This is cue of the titles of our 
Divine Redeemer, and is ap- 
plied to none else, except in a 
connexion which shows the 
sense. It is applied to angels, 
(Job xxxviii. 7,) and to Adam, 
(Luke iii. 38,) as created imme- 
diate ly by his hand, and to be- 
lievers, (Rom. viii. 14, 15. 2 
Cor. vi. 18,) as adopted into 
God's spiritual family ; but 
when applied to Christ, it is in 
a peculiar and exalted sense, 
vrnich cannot be mistaken. 

Sons of God. (Gen. vi. 2.) 
The original word, translated 
God in this passage, is some- 
times rendered prijices, or dis- 
tinguished persons; and the 
reading might properly be, 
1 sons of the patriarchs,' or 
eminent men mentioned in 



SOR 

the preceding chapter. (See 
Adoption.) 

SOOTHSAYER (Dan. ii. 27) 
was one who pretended to tore- 
tell future events. The ori- 
ginal word is supposed to de- 
note that they dissected the 
entrails of animals, for the pur- 
pose of discerning what would 
come to pass. The Philistines 
appear to have been notorious 
for their practice of this magic 
imposition. (Isa. ii. 6.) This 
was a common mode of divin- 
ing among the Romans. 

SOP. (John xiii. 26.) Our 
ordinary table utensils were 
unknown among the Hebrews. 
Hence in eating broth or milk, 
it was either taken with the 
hollow of the hand, or the 
bread was dipped into it. This 
is at present the usage in all 
the oriental countries^ even at 
the table of the Persian king. 
Thus the reapers of Boaz dip- 
ped their morsel in the mne- 
^ar,(Ruth ii. 14;) and thus our 
Saviour dipped the sop or mor- 
sel, and gave it to the traitor 
Judas. 

SORCERY. (Acts viii. 9; 
xiii. 6.) One of the arts of the 
magicians, (Ex. vii. 11, hence 
called sorcerers,) by the use 
of which they pretended to 
predict future events, cure 
diseases, work miracles, <&c. 
The practice of sorcery, or 
any confidence in it, is threat- 
ened with the severest judg 
ments. (Mai. iii. 5. Rev. xxi, 
8; xxii. 15.) 

SOREK. (Judg. xvi. 4.) A 
brook and vale in the south 
of the territory of Dan, where 
Delilah dwelt. It probably 
derived its name from iflf 
choice grapes, and was but a 
mile or two from Eshcol. The 
brook empties into the Medi- 
terranean near Askelon. 

SORROWS OF HELL, and 

SORROWS OF DEATH, (Ps. 

xviii. 4, 5,) signifies pangs, oi 

pains, as in Acts ii. 24. In both 

587 



SPA 

passages the word cords may 
be read. Death is personified 
in many systems of pagan wor- 
ship. There is a Hindoo deity 
Ya?na, or the catcher of the 
souls of men, whose image is 
represented as holding a "cord 
or snare, which he throws over 
his victim, and thus secures 
him. 

SOSIPATER, (Rom. xvi. 21,) 
or SOPATER. (Acts xx. 4.) A 
native of Berea, and a kins- 
man of Paul. 

SOSTHENES. (Acts xviii. 
17.) A ruler of the Jewish 
synagogue at Corinth. He was 
seized and beaten by a party 
of Greeks in that city, who 
were excited thus to acts of 
violence by what they thought 
the unjustifiable and malicious 
persecution of Paul. It is 
thought that he afterwards be- 
came a convert to the Chris- 
tian faith. (I Cor. i. 1, 2.) 

SOUL. (Gen. ii. 7.) The 
Scriptures evidently distin- 
guish between the spirit and 
soul. (1 Thess. v. 23. Heb. iv. 
12.) The word which we call 
soul is used to denote mere 
animal life, the seat of sensa- 
tions, appetites, and passions. 
(Gen. i. 20.) Here the word 
translated life is the same with 
that which is elsewhere trans- 
lated soul. Hence it may be 
inferred, that as we have our 
bodies and animal life in com- 
mon with brutes, it must be 
the spirit which was created 
in the' likeness or image of God, 
and which raises man above 
the brutes that perish, and 
makes him a rational and 
accountable being. We can- 
not comprehend the exact con- 
nexion and relation of these 
various parts of our being; but 
that they exist is the declara- 
tion of Scripture, fully sup- 
ported by observation and ex- 
perience. 

SPAIN. (Rom. xv. 24.) For- 
merly this term included the 
whole Spanish peninsula, era- 



SP 

bracing Portugal. In PauPi 
time it was subject to Rome, 
and the resort of many Jews. 
/h is uncertain whether that 
apostle's intention to visit 
Spain was ever executed. (See 
Life of Paul, chap, xxi., by 
Am. S. S. Union.) 
SPAN. (See Measures.) 
SPARROW (Ps. lxxxiv. 3) 
is well known to be one of the 
smallest and leaet valuable 
of all birds. Hence the force 
of the allusion, Matt. x. 29. 
Luke xii. 6. The original 
word is generic, and means a 
bird generally, as in Ps. cii. 7. 
The probable allusion in Ps. 
lxxxiv. 3, maybe better under- 
stood by placing the former 
part of the third verse in a 
parenthesis, and thus connect- 
ing the latter part with the 
second verse, thus, My soul 
longeth, yea, even fainteth, for 
the courts of the Lord: my 
heart and my flesh crieth out 
for the living God, {Yea, the 
sparrow hath found a house, 
and the swallow a nest for 
herself, where she may lay her 
young,) even thine altars, O 
Lord of hosts, my King, and 
my God. Then the desire of 
the psalmist to go up to the 
courts of the Lord's house is 
beautifully compared with the 
instinctive desire of the bird 
for its nest— its home. 
SPEAR. (See Armour.) 
SPICES. (Gen. xliii. 11.) 
This term, as used by the sa- 
cred writers, is much more 
comprehensive than the mo- 
dern use of it. With them it 
includes not only fragrant 
gums, as myrrh, and also roots 
and barks, as cassia, cinna- 
mon, cane, &c, but the odours 
of flowers and various per- 
fumes. (Sol. Song iv. 14, 15.) 
Spices were imported into 
Judea chiefly from southern 
Arabia. Sweet spices (Mark 
xvi. 1) are merely aromatic 
substances used in embalm- 
ing. The word spices fully 
588 



SPI 

expressed the meaning of the 
original word without the ad- 
jective. 

SPIDER. (Job viii. 14.) A 
well known insect of very 
singular structure and habits. 
Its method of weaving its web, 
— the thinness and frailty of 
which are strikingly emble- 
matical of a false hope, and of 
the schemes of wicked men, 
(Isa. lix. 5,)— and the remark- 
able construction of its foot so 
as to resemble a part of the 
■human hand, will be found 
fully illustrated with engrav- 
ings, &c. in Bible Natural 
History, art. Spider, by Am. 
S. S. Union. 

The expression in Prov. 
xxx. 23, is supposed by some 
to refer to some other and 
larger animal; but the strik- 
ing' correspondence between 
the construction of the spider's ' 
foot and the terms used to ex- 
press its method of working, 
goes far to establish the cor- 
rectness of the present render- 

D |piKENARD. (Johnxii. 
3—5.) A plant of the grass 
fcind, of strong aromatic taste 
and smell, and found chiefly 
in India. The ointment made 
of the genuine Indian nard 
was very precious, (Mark xiv. 
3,) a single pound costing, in 
our Saviour's day, what, in 
the modern value of money, 
would be upwards of forty 
dollars. Protaue history tells 
us that the crude vegetable 
was worth one hundred denarii 
(or nearly foriy-five dollars) a 
pound, at Rome, in the time 
of Christ. Like other unguents 
and perfumes, it was carried 
in a box clwely sealed, so as 
to be air-tight. Opening this 
seal is called breaking the box. 
SPIRIT. (Gen. vi. 3.) This 
term is often employed figu- 
ratively by i lie sacred writers, 
and its import may be gene- 
rally determined by its con- 
nexion. 

50 



SPK 

The Holy Spirit is the title 
of that divine Agent— the Com- 
forter, the Holy~Ghost, plainly 
distinguished from the Father 
and the Son, (John xiv. 26; 
xvi. 7, 8;) by whose influence 
the truth is received, under- 
stood, believed and obeyed. 
He quickens those who are 
dead in trespasses and sins, 
purifies and sanctifies them, 
and thus prepares them to glo- 
rify God and enjoy him "for 
ever. (John xv. 1—6. Rom. v 
5 ; viii. 16. See Discernin 

of SPIRITS.) 

SPIRITUAL BODY. (1 Cor. 
xv. 44.) We are probably to 
understand by this that tho 
body which will be raised will 
be divested of all sensual and 
animal appetites; and while 
it will retain a bodily shape or 
form, it will be perfectly fitted 
for pure spiritual exercises and 
enjoyments, in perfect unison 
with the redeemed and sanc- 
tified soul. 

SPOIL. (Ex. iii. 22.) The 
original word in this passage 
means to recover property 
taken away by violence. (1 
Sam. xxx. 22.) 

SPONGE. (Matt, xxvii. 48.) 
A submarine substance, com- 
posed of fibres interwoven in 
a surprising manner, and sur- 
rounded by thin membranes, 
which arrange themselves ih 
a cellular form. It imbibes a 
great quantity of fluid, and 
parts with it upon a strong 
pressure. Drink could be easily 
conveyed in this form where 
cups could not be used. It is 
inhabited by animals, like tho 
coralj who use the openings of 
the sponge to suck in and throw 
out water. 

SPRINKLING, blood of. 
(Heb. xii. 24.) The Jewish 
high-priest, on the great day 
of atonement, carried bloocl 
into the inner sanctuary, and 
sprinkled it upon the mercy 
seat. It was by this sprink- 
ling of blood that an atonement 
589 



STA 

was made for the tioly place, 
because of the uncleanness of 
the children of Israel. (Lev. 
xvi. 16.) The blood of sprink- 
ling was typical of the aton- 
ing blood of Christ. When 
this has been applied to the 
soul of the believer, he may 
approach the presence of a 
holy God, in the name of the 
great Advocate and Redeemer, 
confident of a gracious recep- 
tion. The blood of Abel, al- 
uded to in the above passage 
from Hebrews, called only for 
vengeance, (Gen. iv. 10, 11;) 
but the blood of Christ speaks 
of pardon, peace, and eternal 
life. 

STACTE. (Ex. xxx. 34.) 
One of the prescribed ingre- 
dients of the sacred incense. 
It is the Greek name for the 
purest myrrh; or that which 
flows freely from the tree with- 
out incision. 

STARS. (Deut. iv. 19.) Un- 
dej* the name of stars, the He- 
brews comprehended all con- 
stellations, planets, and hea- 
venly bodies; all luminaries, 
except the sun and moon. The 
psalmist, to exalt the power 
and omniscience of God, (Ps. 
cxlvii. 4,) describes him tak- 
ing a survey of the stars, as a 
king taking a review of his 
army, and knowing the name 
of every one of his soldiers. 
To express a very extraordi- 
nary increase and multiplica- 
tion, the sacred writers use 
the similitude of the stars of 
heaven, or of the sands of 
the sea. (Gen. xv. 5; xxii. 17; 
xxvi. 4. Ex. xxxii. 13, &c.) 

No part of the visible crea- 
tja/i exhibits the glory of the 
Creator more illustriously than 
the starry heavens. (Ps. xix. 
I.) When we seriously con- 
template the moon and stars, 
the work of the fingers of God, 
we cannot but be astonished 
that he should condescend to 
pay any attention to men. (Ps. 
viii. 3.) 



STE 

The star of Bethlehem, which 
appeared to the Magi, to direct 
them to the birthplace of the 
Messiah, was not a natural phe- 
nomenon, but evidently mi 
raculous, and, when it had an 
swered its purpose, it vanished. 
It is a. fact, however, that of the 
fixed stars some have entirely 
disappeared ; while others not 
marked in any catalogue have 
become visible, where they 
could not have existed before 
without being noticed. 

Jesus Christ is called the 
Morning Star, (Rev. xxii. 16,) 
as he introduced the light of 
the gospel day, and made a 
fuller manifestation of the 
truths of God than the pro- 
phets, whose predictions are 
now accomplished. 

STEEL. (Ps. xviii. 34.) The 
degree of strength and agility 
which one possessed was often 
shown among the ancient na- 
tions in the use of the bow. 
The word rendered steel in 
this passage might (according 
to some critics) be more pro- 

Jierly rendered copper. So of 
ob xx. 24. (Comp. Jer. xv. 12. 
Ezek. xxvii. 19.) 

STEPHANAS (1 Cor. i. 16) 
was one of the earliest con- 
verts to Christianity in Corinth, 
(1 Cor. xvi. 15.) and received 
baptism at the hands of Paul. 
STEPHEN, (Acts vi. 5,) 
usually known as the first 
martyr, was one of the seven 
men of honest report who were 
elected, at the suggestion of the 
twelve apostles, to relieve them 
of a particular class of their 
labours. His character is given 
by the sacred historian as a 
man full of faith and of the 
Holy Ghost; and he was en- 
dowed, in a remarkable de- 
gree, with divine power and 
grace. (Acts vi. 8. 10.) His 
defence against the false and 
malicious charges of his oppo- 
nents, (Acts vii. 2—53,) among 
whom was Saul of Tarsus, is 
a masterly exhibition of truth 
590 



STO 

ana so direct was its appeal to 
Ih? consciences of the popu- 
lace, that they were excited 
to madness, (Acts vii. 54,) and 
fell upon Stephen like wild 
beasts, shouting, and stopping 
their ears; and~after they had 
forced him beyond the walls of 
the city, (Lev. xxiv. 14,) they 
stoned him to death, Saul being 
present and conspicuous in 
this barbarous transaction. The 
last breath of the martyr was 
spent, like that of his divine 
Master,in prayerfor theforgive- 
ness of his murderers. It is 
worthy of remark that this 
prayer of Stephen's is directed 
to the Lord Jesus, or rather it 
seems to be a continuation of 
the prayer respecting himself 
which was addressed imme- 
diately to Christ; the word 
God in verse 59 of our trans- 
lation not being in any ancient 
manuscript or version. 

STEWARD. (Gen. xv. 2.) 
The chief overseer of the 
household. (Comp. Gen. xxiv. 
2, with passage first cited. 
See Eliezer, Joanna.) 

STOCKS. (Jobxiii.27.) The 



STO 

name of a machine or instru 
ment by which the feet and 
arms of prisoners are secured 
It is said that the jailer at Phi 
lippi, to whose custody Paul 
and Silas were committed with 
a strict charge to keep them 
safely, not only put them in an 
inner prison or dungeon, but 
made their feet fast in the 
stocks. The form of this in- 
strument, as seen in the east 
at this day, is given in the 
following cuts. 




The upper half (a) being re- 
moved, each leg is placed, just 
above the ankle, in the groove 
of the lower half, and then the 
upper part is fastened down 
so as to confine them inex- 
tricably. The instrument for 
confining the hands is formed 
on the same principle, and is 
represented in the subjoined 
cut. (For still another form, 




and more nearly resembling | 
that in modern use, see Chris- 
tian Martyrs, p. 71, by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

STOICS (Acts xvii. 18) 
were a sect of heathen philo- 
sophers, (much like the Phari- 
sees,) who took their rise from 
one Zeno, a Cyprian. It is 
said, he borrowed many of his 
opinions from the Jewish Scrip- 
tures; but it is certain that 
Socrates and Plato had taught 



some of them before. The 
Greek word for porch is stoa* 
and from the circumstance of 
his teaching his scholars in a 
famous public portico or porch 
at Athens, his followers were 
called Stoics. They gene- 
rally taught, that it if wisdom 
alone thai renders men happy ; 
that the ills of life are but fan- 
cied evils; and that a wise 
man ought not to be moved 
either with joy or srief: and 
591 



STO 

m their practice, they affect- 
ed much patience, austerity, 
and insensibility. The Stoics 
were known for many ages, 
especially at Athens, where 
some of them encountered 
Paul. 

Of all the ancient sects, the 
Stoics were most strict in 
their regard to moral virtue. 
They believed in the unity 
of the Divine Being ; the crea- 
tion of the world by the Logos 
r Word, and a superintend- 
ing providence administered 
in conformity with the will 
and purpose of God ; but all 
'their opinions were mingled 
with the grossest error. 

STONE. (Gen. xxxv. 14.) 
Houses of stone were as com- 
mon among the Hebrews as 
among ourselves. The more 
elegant, structures were built 
of hewn and squared stones. 
Amos says to the luxurious 
Israelites, Ye have built houses 
of hewn stone, but ye shall not 
dwell in them. (Amos v. 11.) 
"When Solomon was about to 
raise the temple, he command- 
ed, and they brought great 
stones, costly stones, and 
hewed stones, to lay the foun- 
dation of the house. (1 Kings 
v. 17.) 

Stones were often used as 
we use knives, (Ex. iv. 25. 
Josh. v. 2;) and we are told 
that stone knives were used 
Dy the Egyptians in preparing 
dead bodies for the process of 
embalming. The disciples of 
Christ are called stones, or 
lively (living) stones, (1 Pet. 
ii. 5,) in allusion to their con- 
nexion with Christ, upon whom 
they are built up compactly 
together, as upon the one 
only foundation which God 
has laid; the living stone, 
(IPet. ii.«4,) or the source of 
life. A heart of stone is a figu- 
rative expression, importing 
great hardness and impeni- 
tency. A stone is sometimes 
put for an idol. (Hab. ii. 19.) 



STO 

Heaps of stones were raised 
to mark some signal provi- 
dence of God, in the way either 
of deliverance or punishment. 
(Josh. iv. 5—7.) The weights 
of the Hebrews were also called 
stones. 

White stone, (Rev. ii. 17,) 
here, is supposed by many to 
be an allusion to the practice 
of some ancient nations of pass- 
ing judgment on an accused 
person. Those in favour of 
acquitting him cast a white 
ball into an urn, and these who 
adjudged him guilty cast in a 
black ball ; and if the number 
of the former exceeded that of 
the latter, the prisoner was dis- 
charged. Others think refer- 
ence is made to the white stones 
which were given to conquerors 
in the Olympian games, with 
their names written upon them, 
and the value of the prize 
they won. So the new name 
mentioned in Isa. lxii. 2, may 
denote the adoption of the in- 
dividual into the family of God, 
by which he is admitted to pri- 
vileges and blessings known 
only to him who possesses them. 

STONING was the most ge- 
neral punishment inflicted on 
notorious criminals, and is 
usually meant where no other 
description of punishment is 
expressly mentioned, as in 
Lev. xx. 10. Idolaters, blas- 
phemers, Sabbath-breakers, in- 
cestuous persons, and stubborn 
or rebellious children, 4vere lia- 
ble to it. The culprit was led 
out of the city, and, as some 
have supposed, w r as bound. 
The witnesses against him 
were required to commence 
the work of death ; and proba- 
bly they divested themselves 
of clothing, that it might be 
done more effectually. (Acts 
vii. 58.) At the murder of Ste- 
phen they committed the cus- 
tody of their clothes to Saul, 
who was not improbably, from 
his talents and ardour, a ring- 
leader of the mob, and one of 



STO 

the most violent of the perse- 
cutors ; and the multitude fol- 
lowed the example of the lead- 
ers, until the victim was beaten 
to death. It is said that the 
frequent taking up of stones 
by the Jews to throw at our Sa- 
viour, and the stoning of Ste- 
phen, (Acts vii.59,)and of Paul, 
(Acts xiv. 19.) were vestiges of 
a punishment called the rebels 1 
beating, inflicted by the mob, 
with fists, staves, or stones, 
on the excitement of the mo- 
ment. 

STORK. (Jer. viii. 7.) A 
bird of passage, formed much 
like the crane, but larger. It 
feeds on insects and frogs, and 
was reckoned among the un- 
clean birds. (Lev. xi. 19.) It 
has long legs, with which it 
seeks food in marshes and wa- 
tery places, and its bill is 
formed so as to retain its slip- 
pery prey. It builds its nest 
sometimes in trees, (Ps. civ. 17,) 
and sometimes in high ruined 
towers. Its name, in the He- 
brew, means mercy, or piety ; 
and its English name, taken 
(indirectly at least) from the 
Greek storge, signifies natural 
affection. This accords with 
our knowledge of its character, 
which is remarkable for ten- 
derness, especially in the 
young towards the old birds. 
An eminent naturalist tells us 
of a Dane, who related, from his 
own personal knowledge, facts 
which occurred in the southern 
part of Jutland, that the two 
parent birds guard and feed the 
brood alternately, one always 
remaining in the nest while the 
other goes for food ; and after 
their young become old enough 
to fly, the parent birds bring 
them back at night, and long 
preserve the nest as their na- 
tural and proper home. The 
old birds teach their young 
with great care how to find and 
distinguish proper food. In the 
autumn they fly to a warm cli- 
mate, and returning in the 
50* 



STR 
spring, betake themselves and 
families to their several nests. 
The people of the country often 
assemble to see them come, as 
there are certain superstitious 
observances connected with 
their return ; and it is not un 
common to see several of the 
old birds, which are tired and 
feeble with the long flight, 
supported at times on the backs 
of the young; and the peasants 
speak of it as well known, that 
such are carefully laid in their 
old nests, and cherished by the 
young ones whom they reared 
there the spring before. A 
modern traveller speaks of the 
storks which build their nests 
in the old ruins of Pergamus, 
and he says he saw their habits, 
and that the male bird would 
often caress his mate before 
he left her, and then stretch 
his broad, snow-white wings, 
and fly away to provide for his 
faithful partner at home. (For 
further description and illus- 
trative engravings,seeYouTH's 
Friend, for Feb. 1829, by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

STRANGER. (Gen. xv. 13.) 
This word has a variety of sig- 
nifications in the sacred writ- 
ings; as, 1. One who is in a 
foreign land, at a distance from 
the place of his nativity. (Gen. 
xxiii. 4.) 2. One who is not a 
Jew. (Ex. xx. 10. Isa. xiv. 1.) 
3. One not of Aaron's family. 
(Num. iii. 10 ; xvi. 40.) 4. One 
that is not of the royal stock 
and family. (Matt. xvii. 25, 26.) 
5. Unknown, disregarded. (Ps. 
lxix. 8.) 

The Jewish laws had many 
provisions for the protection 
and comfort of the stranger or 
toreigner. Those who are called 
strangers, in 1 Chron. xxii. 2, 
were probably persons taken 
in war, and so by the custom 
of nations liable to any service 
imposed upon them. Hospi- 
tality to strangers is a duty en- 
joined by the sacred writers, 
both in precept and example. 

WWW 



SUM 
(Judg. xix. 15—20. Job xxxi. 
32. 1 Tim. v. 10. Heb. xiii. 2.) 

STRAW. (Gen. xxiv. 25.) 
The straw wanted by the Jews 
for bricks (Ex. v. 7—18) was 
to lay them on when fresh 
moulded. For want of it their 
mould fell in pieces, and their 
work was vain. 

STREET. (Gen. xix. 2.) The 
streets of oriental cities are 
usually narrow. Mats are some- 
times spread across from roof 
to roof to shade the streets from 
he sun. The streets were 
Darned as in modern times, 
(Ezra x. 9. Acts ix. 11 ;) but 
it is supposed that in other pas- 
sages, (2 Chron. xxxii. 6. Neh. 
vhi. 1.3. 16,) the word trans- 
lated streets means squares, or 
open places around the gates. 
Modern travellers often men- 
tion it as a common custom in 
the eastern countries to sit in 
the streets. (1 Sam. iv. 13. Job 
xxix. 7. See Bake, City.) 

SUBURBS. (See City.) 

SUCCOTH. (Josh. xiii. 27. 
Judg. viii. 15.) The place men- 
tioned in Num. xxxiii. 5, was 
probably a resting place for 
caravans to and from Egypt. 
In other passages, Succoth de- 
notes a city or valley on the 
east of Jordan, between ft 
and Jabbok, where Abra- 
ham pitched his tent on his 
return from Mesopotamia. 
(Gen. xxxiii. 17.) It was al- 
lotted' to the tribe of Gad, and 
its inhabitants, for insolent 
language to Gideon, were se- 
verely punished by him. (Judg. 
viii. 15.) It is called the val- 
ley of Succoth, (Ps. Ix. 6,) or 
booths, because of Jacob's build- 
ing booths there for his cattle. 

SUKKIIMS. (2 Chron. xii. 
3.) The name of a portion of 
the allies of Shishak, king of 
Egypt, in the invasion of Ju- 
dea. They are supposed to 
have been a tribe of Ethiopi- 
ans from the shores of the Red 
Sea. 

SUMMER. (See Seasons.) 



SUR 

Summer house. (See 
Dwellings.) 
SUPERSCRIPTION. (See 

Cross.) 

SUPERSTITIOUS. (Acts 
xvii. 22.) This term in the 
original is at best ambiguous. 
Perhaps it signifies nothing of- 
fensive, but simply that the 
Athenians were remarkably 
addicted to worship. They had 
more gods, more temples, more 
festivals, in short, more reli- 
gious observances, than the 
apostle had seen elsew T here; 
and he was about to tell them 
what he thought were errors in 
these services. 

SUPPER. (See Meals.) 

SUPPLICATION. (1 Tim. 
ii. 1—5.) It is supposed that the 
distinction made in this pas- 
sage between prayers and sup- 
plications is, that the latter 
rather respected the averting 
of threatened or the removal 
of inflicted judgments, and the 
former the bestowing of bless- 
ings. 

SURETY. (Heb. vii. 22.) 
Some have supposed that the 
word thus translated means, one 
who draws nigh to God, or 
brings others nigh. Thus, as 
in Heb. vii. 19, the apostle had 
spoken of the introduction of a 
better hope, by which ice draw 
nigh unto God, so (ver. 22) he 
speaks of Jesus d.shim by tchom 
ice draw nigh, thus denoting 
the effect of his mediation. 
The word sponsor, pledge, or 
surety, is of equal significancy. 
The better hope had been 
mentioned. If it were asked 
what security there is that it 
will be realized, it might be 
answered that Jesus Is the 
surety of thedispensation which 
affords or supports this hope. 

The danger of becoming 
surety for others is strongly re- 
presented. (Prov. vi. 1 ; xi. 15; 
xvii. 18; xx. 16 ; xxii. 26.) The 
striking or joining ui hands was 
a token of suretiship. (Jot 
xvii. 3.) 

694 



SWE 

S WALLOW. (Prov. xxvi. 2.) 
A well known bird of passage, 
whose instinctive knowledge 
of its time of migration is used 
by the prophet (Jer. viii. 7) to 
reprove the infidelity of the 
Jews. The allusion in Prov. 
xxvi. 2, probably signifies that 
the curses or imprecations of 
the wicked, when uttered 
against the innocent, pass 
away like the birds in their 
flight. The short, broken twit- 
tering of the swallow is alluded 
to, Isa. xxxviii. 14. 

SWAN. (Deut. xiv. 16.) A 
large and very beautiful water 
bird, unclean by the ceremo- 
nial law, (Lev. xi. 18,) though 
it is very doubtful whether 
some other bird is not intended 
in this passage. 

SWEAR. (See Oath.) 

SWEARING, voice op. 
(Lev. v. 1.) The import of this 
expression in the Hebrew is, 
" hear the voice of adjuration, 
execration, oath, or curse," i. e. 
hears this voice when one is 
adjured or put upon his oath as 
a witness in court. The pre- 
cept unquestionably relates, 
not to the duty of informing 
against a common swearer, but 
to the case of one who is sum- 
moned to give evidence before 
the civil magistrate. Judges 
among the Jews had power to 
adjure not only the witnesses, 
but the persons suspected, as 
appears from the high-priest's 
adjuring ourSaviour,who there- 
upon answered, though he had 
before been silent. (Matt, xxvi. 
63.) If a person heard the voice 
of swearing, i. e. if he were ad- 
jured by an oath of the Lord to 
testify what he knew in rela- 
tion to any matter of fact in 
question, and yet, through fear 
or favour, refused to give evi- 
dence, or gave it but in part, 
he was to bear his iniquity. It 
seems to be implied that sucn 
a one should be considered in 
the sight of God as guilty of the 



SYC 

transgression which he has 
thus endeavoured to conceal. 

SWINE, (Deut. xiv. S,) or 
hog, was unclean by the ritual 
law, and an object of utter ab- 
horrence to the Jews. Hence 
the employment of the prodi- 
gal son implies the most con- 
temptible degradation. (Luke 
xv.15.) Eating theHesh of swine 
is mentioned among the sinful 
practices of the Jews. (Isa. 
lxv. 4; lxvi. 17.) The filthy 
habits of this animal illustrate 
one feature in the character of 
sinners. (2 Pet. ii. 22.) 

The herd of swine miracu- 
lously destroyed (Matt. viii. 
32) perhaps belonged to Jews, 
and were of course kept in vio- 
lation of their own law. (Lev. 
xi. 7.) 

To cast pearls before sicine 
(Matt. vii. 6) is not more vain 
and wasteful than to offer the 
words of truth and wisdom to 
those who are known to de- 
spise them, and who would 
only return the offer with in- 
sult and abuse. 

SWORD. (See Arms.) 

SYCAMINE. (Luke xvii. 

6.) A tree common in Egypt. 

and closely resembling the 

^mulberry tree in its general 

appearance. 

SYCAMORE. (Lukexix.4.) 
A common tree in Judea, and 
the east generally. The name 
is applied (though improperly) 
to our button wood, or plane 
tree, and also to a species of 
maple. The sycamore of the 
Scriptures is the Egyptian fig 
tree. Its fruit, which closely 
resembles figs, is much esteem- 
ed, and the gathering of it was 
intrusted to special officers. 
(1 Chron. xxvii. 28. Amos vii. 
14.) The wood was used for 
building, anl though much 
less valuable than the cedar, 
(1 Kings x. 27. Isa. ix. 10,) was 
very durable. Egyptian cof- 
fins, made of sycamore wood, 
have been found in a sound 
595 



SYN 

State after the (supposed) lapse 
of 3000 years. (For description 
and engravingof tree and fruit, 
Bee Youth's Friend for Janu- 
ary, 1829, by Am. S. S. Union.) 
SYCHAR. (See Shechem.) 
SYCHEM. (See Shechem.) 
SYENE. (Ezek. xxix. 10.) 
A very ancient city, on the 
southern frontier of Egypt, near 
the ruins of which is the mo- 
dern city ofAssooar, or Aswan. 
The site of Syene shows some 
granite columns and a confused 
nixtureofmonuments. "Here," 
ays a celebrated modern geo- 
grapher, "the Pharaohs and 
the Ptolemies raised the tem- 
ples and the palaces which are 
found half buried under the 
drifting sand. Here are the 
quarries from which the obe- 
lisks and colossal statues of 
the Egyptiantemples were dug. 
And on the polished surface 
of some of the native rocks are 
found hieroglyphic, sculptured 
representations of Egyptian 
deities." 
SYLVANUS. (See Silas.) 
SYRACUSE. (Acts xxviii. 
12.) A wealthy and important 
city on the eastern coast of the 
island of Sicily. It was founded 
b. c. 730, and is distinguished 
as the birthplace of Archime- 
des. Syracuse was on the di- 
rect course from Malta to Rome, 
and the apostle stopped there 
two or three days. It is now 
called Syracusa, or Syragossa, 
and contains about 18,000 in- 
habitants. 

SYNAGOGUE. (Matt. xii. 
9.) There is no conclusive 
evidence that stated meetings 
of the people for social re- 
ligious services, or meetings 
for receiving public instruc- 
tion, were known among the 
Jews before the captivity. Af- 
ter that event such meetings 
became common, and were 
called synagogues. They were 

Erobably held at first in private 
ouses or in the open air. Af- 
ter a time, however, buildings 



SYN 
were erected expressly fortheit 
use, and these were called sy- 
nagogues, signifying properly 
the collection of worshippers, 
but figuratively the place of 
meeting. Tradition says there 
were no less than four hundred 
and eighty of these buildings 
in the city of Jerusalem before 
it was subdued by the Romans. 
Probably this is an exaggera- 
tion. To build a synagogue 
was considered a deed of piety 
and public advantage. (Luke 
vii. 5.) They might be built 
in any place where there were 
worshippers enough to asso- 
ciate for the purpose. There 
was some resemblance be- 
tween the construction of these 
synagogues and that of the 
temple. The centre building, 
which was called the temple, 
was furnished with an ark, or 
chest, containing the copy of 
the law which was read. A 
low desk or pulpit was erected 
about the middle of the syna- 
gogue. Some of the seats were 
higher than others, and were 
assigned to the elders. They 
were called chief or uppermost 
seats. (Matt, xxiii. 6.) Each 
synagogue had its proper of- 
ficers. The council, to whom 
the supreme direction be- 
longed, consisted of elders, or 
agecland influential men. The 
president of this council was 
called the ruler, or chief ruler 
of the synagogue. (Mark v. 
22. Acts xiii. 15: xviii. 8.) 
The rulers of the' synagogue 
had power to excommunicate 
and to scourge offenders. (Matt, 
x. 17. John xvi. 2.) The put- 
ting one out of the synagogue 
was a punishment greatly 
dreaded by the Jews— much 
more than scourging. It would 
seem, also, that judicial pro- 
ceedings were sometimes had 
in the synagogues, where cer- 
tain offences were tried, the 
punishment of which was 
scourging. The stripes were 
inflicted under the directicu 



SYN 
of the tribunal, in the syna- 
gogue, (Acts xxii. 19; xxvi. 11,) 
by an appointed person. 

When the apostles were ex- 
cluded from the Jewish syna- 
gogues, they held i their reli- 
fious meetings in private 
ouses. Hence we repeatedly 
hear of churches in houses. 
(Acts ii. 46; v. 42. Rom. 
xvi. 5. 1 Cor. xvi. 19. Col. iv. 
15. See Biblical Antiqui- 
ties, vol. ii. ch. viii., and Se- 
tUMiEL, ch. xi., both by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

The service of the synagogue 
was as follows. The people 
being seated, the minister, or 
angel of the synagogue, as- 
cended the pulpit, and offered 
up the public prayers; the 
people rising from their seats, 
and standing in a posture of 
deep devotion. (Matt. vi. 5. 
Mark xi. 25. Luke xviii. 11. 
13.) The prayers were nine- 
teen in number, and were 
closed by reading the execra- 
tion. The next thing was the 
repetition of their phylacteries; 
after which came the reading 
of the law and the prophets. 
The former was divided into 
fifty-four sections, with which 
were united corresponding por- 
tions from the prophets, (see 
Acts xiii. 15. 27; xv. 21 ;) and 
these were read through once 
in the course of the year. After 
the return from the captivity. 
an interpreter was employed 
in reading the law and the 
prophets, (Neh. viii. 2—8,) 
who interpreted them into the 
Syro-Chaldaic dialect, which 
was then spoken by the people. 
The last part of the service 
was the expounding of the 
Scriptures, and preaching from 
them to the people. This was 
done either by one of the of- 
ficers, or by some distinguished 
person who happened to be 
present. This happened with 
our Saviour, (Luke iv. 17—20.) 
and there are several o'.her 
Instances recorded of himself 



SYR 

and his disciples teaching ii 
the synagogues. (Matt. xiii. 
54. Mark vi. 2. John xviii. 20 
Acts xiii. 5. 15. 44 ; xiv. 1 ; xvii. 
2-4. 10. 17 ; xviii. 4. 26 ; xix 
8.) The whole service con 
eluded with a short prayer, or 
benediction. (For an accurate 
engraving of the interior of a 
modern Jewish synagogue, and 
a description of the service 
see Youth's Friend for Janu 
ary, 1836, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

SYRIA. (2 Sam. viii. 12.) 
When Babylon, instead of 
Nineveh, was the seat of su 
preme power, the words Baby 
Ionia and Chaldea were equi 
valent to Assyria, and com 
prehended two extensive re- 
gions on opposite sides of the 
Euphrates. These are called 
by the sacred writers Aram 
beyond the river, (2 Sam. x. 16,) 
and Aram on this side of the 
river. To the former, by way 
of distinction, the Greeks gave 
the name Assyria, and to the 
latter the name of Syria, of 
which Zobah first, and after- 
wards Damascus, (Isa. vii. 8,) 
was the capital. (See As- 
syria.) 

The word Syria, called in 
the Hebrew Aram, from a son 
of Shem, (Gen. x. 22,) in its 
largest acceptation, extended 
from the Mediterranean and 
the river Cydnus to the Eu- 
phrates, and from mount Tau- 
rus on the north to Arabia and 
the border of Egypt on the 
south. It was divided into 
Syria Palestina, including 
Canaan and Phenicia, Ccele 
Syria, between two ridges 
of mount Lebanon, and Upper 
Syria. The last was known 
as Syria in a restricted sense. 
The kings of these provinces 
were engaged in frequent wars 
with the children of Israel, 
sometimes subject to them 
sometimes independent, some- 
times opposed, and sometimes 
in alliance with them. Syria 
was successively subject to the 
597 



SYR 

Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, 
Macedonian, Seleucidan, Ro- 
man, and Mohammedan do- 
minion, to which last it now 
belongs. 

The leading features in the 
physical aspect of Syria con- 
sist of the great mountainous 
chains of Lebanon, or Lihanus, 
and Anti-Libanus, extending 
from north to south, and the 
great desert lying on the south- 
east and east. The valleys 
are of great fertility, and yield 
abundance of grain, vines, 
mulberries, tobacco, olives, 
excellent fruits, as oranges, 
figs, pistachios, &c. The cli- 
mate, in the inhabited parts, 
is exceedingly fine. Syria is 
inhabited by various descrip- 
tions of people, but Turks and 
Greeks form the basis of the 
population in the cities. The 
only tribes that can be con- 
sidered as peculiar to Syria 
are the tenants of the heights 
of Lebanon. The most remark- 
able of these are the Druses 
and Maronites. The general 
language is Arabic: the sol- 
diers and officers of govern- 
ment speak Turkish. "Of the 
old Syriac no traces exist. 

No country was more cele- 
brated in antiquity than Syria. 
In the south-west was the land 
oi promise, the country of the 
Israelites, and the cradle of 
Christianity. Phenicia, par- 
ticularly its cities of Tyre and 
Sidon, were famous for com- 
merce. Damascus was long 
the capital of a powerful king- 
dom, and Antioch was once a 
royal residence, and accounted 
the third city in the world in 
wealth and population. Balbec 
and Palmyra still exhibit splen- 
did ruins of their ancient great- 
ness. Heee have the Assyrians, 
Jews, Greeks, Parthians, Ro- 
mans. Saracens, the crusaders, 
and the Turks, struggled at 
different periods for possession. 
Ninus, Semiramis, Sesostris, 
Alexander, Pompey, Antony, 



SYR 

Caesar, Titus, Aurelian, &c. , 
at a later period, Godfrey of 
Bouillon, Richard Cceni' de 
Lion, Saladin, &c. ; and, still 
more recently, Napoleon and 
Mohammed.Ali, have in turn 
acted apart on the plains of 
Syria. Ignorance, superstition, 
and barbarism now cover the 
land, and no traces of its civil- 
ization remain but ruins. 

The Nestorians of the pre- 
sent day call themselves Syrian 
Christians, because they use 
the ancient Syriac in their 
forms of worship ; and they 
possess the New Testament in 
this language. At present the 
Arabic language prevails in 
Syria, and the "Bible is there- 
fore within their power. 

Syria is one of the most in- 
teresting fields of missionary 
effort known in our times. 
Within its limits are to be 
found nine-tenths of the scenes 
of the sacred history. It was 
the only home for the church 
for thousands of years: it was 
the candlestick for the only 
light which shined in a dark 
world for nearly twenty cen- 
turies : all parts of it have been 
trodden by the feet of the Son 
of God, or by his prophets and 
apostles: scarcely a hill or a 
valley but has resounded with 
the songs of Moses, of David, 
and of Isaiah ; while, above all, 
here w r asshed that blood which 
taketh away the sin of the 
world. The whole country is 
one vast living commentary 
on the word of God, spread out 
for the perusal of every age, 
and for the confusion of every 
skeptic. 

And if these countries are 
unrivalled in the thrilling in- 
terest of their past history, they 
are equally so in the singular 
features of their present" con- 
dition, and in the solemnity 
of their future expectations. 
Palestine, robbed and spoiled, 
sits in desolate widowhood 
amidst the dust and ruins of 



SYR 

oer former greatness ; and the 
remnant of Xhe Jewish nation, 
once the entire church of God, 
live like aliens and bond-ser- 
vants in the land of their fa- 
thers. But if we have not read 
the word of God in vain, there 
is much of unfulfilled prophecy 
and promise scattered along 
the whole track of revelation, 
which, touching and glancing 
on every age, throw a strong 
and cheering light over the 
happy future ; and faith rests 
assured, that 

" These ruins shall be built again} 
And all this dust shall rise." 

The present number of in- 
habitants is variously estimated 



SYR 

from 800,000 to 2,500,000. Pa> 
bably it does not differ far froiat 
1,000,000. This last estimate 
is somewhat confirmed by that 
part of the census which ha. 
already been taken by th& 
present new government. 

Several missionary station* 
have been advantageousl/ 
taken. Nine male mission- 
aries are now (1837) on tha 
ground; tenor twelve school 
are established; and The sue 
cess of their proceedings '& 
encouraging. 

Syria-Ma achaii. The same 
with Aram-Maachah. (Set 
Aram.) 

SYRO-PHENICIA. (Set 
Phenicia.) 



TAB 

TAANACH, (Josh.xii.21,) or 
TANACH, (Josh. xxi. 25,) 
was a city of Manasseh, though 
Within the boundaries of Issa- 
char. It was not far from Me- 
giddo, in connexion with which 
it is usually mentioned. 

TABERAH. (Num. xi. 3.) 
An encampment of the Israel- 
ites in the wilderness of Haran. 
This name was given to it to 
commemorate the" judgment by 
fire that came on the people 
for their murmurings at this 
place. (Num. xi. 3—34.) 

TABERNACLE (Ex. xxv. 
9) properly means a tent, or 
moveable dwelling-place. In 
this sense it is used, Num. 
xxiv.- 5. Job xi. 14; xxii. 23. 
Matt. xvii. 4; but, in the 
Scriptures generally, it is ap- 
plied to the structure which 
wae prepared by Moses, under 
the divine direction, for the 
Jews to worship in. The ta- 
bernacle of the congregation 
(Ex. xxxiii. 7) was erected by 
Moses for his own use. In it 
he gave audience to the people, 
heard and decided controver- 
sies, and sought divine direc- 
tion Probably tl?e public 



TAB 

offices of religion were alsfl 
performed here, and hence th* 
name. Another tabernacl* 
was erected by David for the 
reception of the ark. (2 Sam 
vi. 17. IChron. xvi. 1.) Bui 
the tabernacle, pre-eminently 
so called, was built, as above 
intimated, by Moses for God, 
partly to be the palace of hi * 
presence as the King of Israel, 
and partly as the place of tht 
most solemn acts of public 
worship. It was constructeu 
with extraordinary magnifi 
cence in every part, according 
to the express instruction of 
Jehovah, and evidently with 
typical design and use. (Heb 
ix. 1 — 8.) The means of build 
ing it were furnished in super 
abundance by the voluntary 
contributions of the people, 
(Ex. xxxv. 4—9 ; xxxvi. 3— 7,) 
who had enriched themselves 
with the spoils of the Egyp- 
tians, which they were directed 
to take as a remuneration for 
their labour. (Ex. iii. 21,22. 
See Spoil.) The oversight of 
the work was intrusted to Be- 
zaleel and Aholiab, who were 
endued with supernatural skiU 
599 



TAB 

for that purpose. (Ex. xxxi. 1— 
6.) The plan, size, materials, 
furniture, &c, to the most mi- 
nute particular, were revealed 
to Moses in mount Sinai. (Ex. 
xxv. 9—40.) The whole space 
enclosed for the tabernacle 
was one hundred and fifty feet 
by seventy-five. This space 
was surrounded by fine linen 
curtains, nearly eight feet in 
height, and hung from brazen 
(or copper) pillars. They were 
secured by rods or cords at- 



TAB 

tached to the top, and stretched 
so as to fasten to wooden or 
metal pins in the ground, as 
represented in the annexed 
cut. Twenty of these pillars 
or columns were on each side, 
and ten on each end. The 
entrance or gate of the court 
was closed with a curtain of 
different colour and texture 
from the rest, stretched on four 
of the pillars, and so hung as 
to be drawn up or let down at 
pleasure. (Ex. xxvii. 9—18.) 




At the upper cart of this 
enclosure, and facing the en- 
trance, was the tabernacle 
properly so called; represent- 
ed in its proper place in the 
above cut, and in a more dis- 
tinct form on the following 
nage. This was forty-five by 
fifteen feet, and fifteen feet 
high. The sides and rear 
were enclosed with boards, 
and the front was open. Over 
the top was thrown a rich, 
gorgeous fabric, of various ma- 
terials, the connexion and dis- 
position of which, as well as 
of the other parts of the cover- 



ing, are prescribed with tha 
utmost minuteness. (Ex. xxvi. 
1—30.) The entrance or door 
of the tabernacle was covered 
with a beautifully embroidered 
curtain, suspended on five 
columns. The interior waa 
subdivided into two apart 
ments, and separated, each 
from the other, by a richly 
wrought curtain hanging en- 
tirely across, and reaching 
from the top to the bottom. 
This was called the veil, or 
second veil, (Heb. ix. 3,) be- 
cause the first entrance was 
also curtained. The outer 
600 



TAB 



TAB 




apartment was called the holy 
place, or sanctuary, or the first 
tabernacle, and the inner was 
the second tabernacle, or the 
most holy place, or the holiest 
of all. (Heb. ix. 2—8.) 

As to the furniture of the 
court, there were— (1.) The 
altar of burnt-offering, which 
stood near the centre of the en- 
closure. (See Altar.) (2.) The 
brazen laver, (Ex. xxx. 18, cor- 
responding to the molten sea, 
llUngs vii. 23,) which stood 
between the altar and the 
tabernacle, in its shape re- 
sembling an urn. It contained 
water for washing the hands 
and feet of tlie priests, when 
they were about to enter the 
sanctuary. 

As to the furniture of the 
tabernacle itself, there was — 
(1.) The golden candlestick, 
standing on the left of a person 
entering the sanctuary. (See 
Candlestick.) (2.) The table 
of shew-bread, opposite to the 
candlestick. (See Bread.) 
(3.) The altar of incense, be- 
tween the shew-bread and the 
51 



candlestick, and in front of 
the ark, (see Altar ;) and (4.) 
The ark of the covenant. (See 
Ark.) 

The tabernacle and its court 
were finished with perfect ex- 
actness, according to the pat- 
tern or model supernaturally 
revealed to Moses. (Heb. viik 
5.) And it is estimated that 
the silver and gold used in its 
construction (to say nothing 
of the brass or copper, the 
wood, the curtains and ca- 
nopies, the furniture, &:.) 
amounted to nearly one rvi>. 
lion dollars, at the present 
value of the precious metals. 

When it was finished, it 
was consecrated, with very 
solemn and imposing rites, 
to the service of Jehovah. (Ex. 
xxx. 23-33; xl. 9-11. Heb. 
ix. 21.) 

While passing through the 
wilderness, the tabernacle was 
always pitched in the midst 
of the camp. The tents of the 
priests and Levites surrounded 
it in appointed order; and, at 
some distance from them, the 
601 



TAB 

residue of the tribes in four 
great divisions, consisting of 
three tribes each, and each 
division with its appropriate 
name and standard or ban- 
ner. (Num. ii. 2—29.) The 
tabernacle and its furniture 
were so constructed as to be 
conveniently taken down, 
transported, and set up again; 
and particular individuals or 
classes had their respective 
duties assigned to them. E very- 
encampment and removal, and 
even the order of the march, 
were directed expressly by 
Jehovah. On the day the ta- 
bernacle was completed, God 
revealed himself in a cloud, 
which overshadowed and filled 
it. By this cloud assuming 
the shape of a pillar or column, 
their subsequent course was 
governed. When it rested over 
the tent, the people always 
rested ; and when it moved, the 
tabernacle was taken down, 
and the whole host followed 
wherever it led. In the night 
this cloud became bright like 
a pillar of fire, and preceded 
them in like manner. (Ex. xl. 
85—38. Num. ix. 15—23.) When 
the journeyings of the people 
were ended, and they entered 
Canaan, the tabernacle was 
erected at Gilgal, (Josh. iv. 19.) 
where it continued until the 
country was subdued, and then 
it was removed to Shiloh, 
(ISam. i. 3,) where it stood 
between three hundred and 
four hundred years. It was 
thence removed to Nob, (1 Sam. 
xxi. 1—9,) and thence, in the 
reign of David, to Gibeon, 
(1 dhron.xxi.29,) where it was 
at the commencement of Solo- 
mon's reign, (2Chron. i. 1—13,) 
and when the temple was 
finished, the sacred fabric, with 
its vessels and furniture, was 
removed into it. (See Temple. 
See also Biblical Antiqjji- 
ties, vol. ii. chap, ii., Scrip- 
ture Illustrations, vol. i. 
pp. 88— 123, and Evening Re- 



TAB 

CREATIONS, VOl. IV. pp. ifc— #j, 

all by Am. S. S. Union.) 

Ttie worshippers of the hea- 
then gods had tabernacles, 
(Amos v. 26,) the idea of which 
they probably took from the 
Jews. These tabernacles were 
probably portable, carried upon 
the shoulders, and contained 
the idol. 

Tabernacle of witness, 
(Num.xvii. 7,8,) Tabernacle 
of testimony. (Ex. xxxviii. 
21.) These terms may refer 
to the law, which was deposited 
in the tabernacle, and which 
testified to God's authority and 
holiness, (Ex. xxv.21 ;) or they 
may refer to the revelations 
which God made of himself in 
the tabernacle, and by which 
he testified his presence and 
majesty in the most sublime 
and mysterious manner. 

Tabernacles, feast of. 
(See Feasts.) 
TABITHA,or DORCAS. (Acts 
ix. 36.) An exemplary disciple 
of Christ at Joppa, whose deeds 
of benevolence had greatly 
endeared her to the people. 
(Acts ix. 39.) After she was 
dead, and her body prepared 
for the grave, she was mira- 
culously restored to life through 
the instrumentality of Peter. 

TABLE. (ISam. xx. 29.) 
The table of ancient times 
was nothing but a circular 
skin, or piece of leather, spread 
upon the matted or carpeted 
floor ; and this, at home as well 
as by the way, answers foi 
table and cloth. Near the 
edges of this Jeathern tray, 
there areholes.or loops, through 
which, when the meal is com- 
pleted, a cord is drawn, by 
means of which the whole at 
fair is compressed into a small 
compass, andhungupon a naiL 
Some have thought that this it* 
the pavilion mentioned in Jer. 
xliii. 10. (See Bread.) 

The nearest approach u 
what we call a table is a mere 
stool, which is placed in the 
602 



TAB 

centre of the leather we have 
mentioned. This might be 
intended in Judg. i. 7. Its only 
use is to hold "the principal 
dish, or dishes. There have 
been seen among the Arabian 
nobles, and in cities, long ta- 
bles. These, however, were 
only a span high, and not a 
yard wide, and'were entirely 
uncovered, and usually held 
nothing but the dishes. More 
frequently all such conve- 
niences are wanting, and the 
dishes stand on the leather. 

Instead of a table cloth, there 
is spread round the leathern 
tray, a long cloth, or two such 
cloths, of a dark colour, which 
prevent the soiling of the car- 
pet. Among poorer people 
there is nothing of the kind, 
and every one uses his hand- 
kerchief, by way of napkin. 
Instead of plates, there are set 
thin, round cakes, of a coarse 
kind. (See Omar, pp. 30, 31, 
by Am. S. S. Union.) 

After the captivity, raised 
tables like ours became com- 
mon, and the Persian practice 
of reclining on couches at 
meals was introduced. (For 
the manner of sitting, see 
Seats, Eat.) 

TO SERVE TABLES. (Acts vi. 

2.) This expression may de- 
note attention to the pecuniary 
or secular affairs of the church, 
(Matt. xxi. 12, and xxv. 27,) or 
it may relate to the oversight 
of the distribution of the cha- 
rity of the church for the relief 
of the poor. 
Writing table. (See Book.) 
TABLET. (See Book.) 
TABOR, mount. (Judg. iv. 
6.) A limestone mountain 
which rises on the northern 
border of the plain of Esdraelon, 
about fifty miles north of Jeru- 
salem, and six from Nazareth. 
Its shape resembles a cone 
with the point struck off, the 
summit presenting a level 
area a quarter of a mile in 
length, and the eighth of a 



TAB 

mile in breadth. This area 
\£as once enclosed, and pro- 
bably fortified, as there are 
the ruins of a thick wall of 
solid masonry and bastions all 
around the circumference of 
it, and the foundations of pi i- 
vate dwellings within. The 
height of the mount is va- 
riously estimated from one 
thousand feet to three miles. 
By some the estimate is made 
from the time taken to ascend, 
and by others from the actua 
measurement of the circuitou 
path, which may be pursuea 
on horseback even to the 
summit. The declivities on 
every side are covered to 
the very top with verdure, 
and clumps of trees, (oaks, 
olives, and sycamores,) inter- 
spersed with a rich variety of 
plants and flowers. The view 
from the summit of Tabor is 
described by all travellers in 
terms of the highest admira- 
tion. It overtops all the neigh- 
bouring hills. (Jer xlvi. 13.) 
On the west is the noble ex- 
panse of the Mediterranean. 
Beneath are spread the beau- 
tiful plains of Esdraelon and 
Galilee, while in the distance 
appear Carmel, and the heights 
of Samaria and Gilboa. East- 
ward, thirty miles off, is the 
sea of Tiberias ; and north are 
the snow-covered peaks of 
Lebanon. The modern name 
of Tabor is djebel Toor. 

On this mountain, Barak 
encamped with ten thousand 
of the men of Zebulon aui 
Naphtali, on the eve of th 
battle with Sisera, (Judg. iv. 
6. 12. 14;) and here, according 
to tradition, was the wonderful 
scene of the transfiguration of 
Christ. (Matt. xvii. 1.) 

Mr. King, an American mis- 
sionary, ascended this moun 
tain in the autun\n of 1823, and 
speaks of the summit as " a 
lovely spot, and one on which 
every man,'even if without any 
feelings of devotion, would love 
603 



TAD 

to linger. It resembles the 
centre of one immense gai- 
den." The woody parts of the 
mountain abound in some spe- 
cies of wild beasts, and have 
ever been a resort for hunters 
and fowlers. (Hos. v. 1. For a 
more particulardescriptionand 
accurate engraving of this cele- 
brated mountain, see Views of 
Palestine, p. 20; see also 
Evening Recreations, vol. 
ii. pp. 13—18, and Elisama, 
pp. 143-145, all by Am. S. S. 
union.) 

TABRET, (Gen. xxxi. 27,) 
an instrument of music used 
in the east at the present day, 
and called dift, was formed and 
played like the modern tam- 
bourine. 

TACHES (Ex. xxvi. 6. 11) 
were hooks or clasps of gold 
and copper, used in connect- 
ing the curtains of the taber- 
nacle. 

TACKLING. (Isa. xxxiii. 
23. Acts xxvii. 19.) Strictly, 
in the former passage, it is 
used for the ropes attached to 
the mast ; in the latter, it is 
used loosely, and imports the 
sails, cordage, baggage, and 
indeed all the instruments of 
sailing except the anchors, or 
what was indispensable to the 
preservation of the ship. 

TADMOR, (1 Kings ix. 18,) 
signifying palm tree. An an- 
cient city,' said to have been 
founded by Solomon, and one 
of the finest and most magnifi- 
cent cities of the world. It was 
ituated about one hundred 
miles east of Damascus, twenty 
west of the Euphrates, and one 
hundred and twenty from 
Aleppo, on a kind of island, 
separated from the habitable 
earth by an ocean of barren 
sands. Alexander the Great, 
who conquered it, gave it the 
name of Palmyra, or the city of 
palms, because of its position 
amid palm groves. There is 
extant a folio volume with fifty 
plates, illustrating the ruins 



IAD 
of this ancient city. Ita deso- 
late situation in the midst of a 
vast and arid plain ; its high 
antiquity, and its almost count- 
less remains of architectural 
splendour, claim for it the first 
attention among the famous 
monuments of past ages. At 
present, it may be said to con- 
sist of a forest of Corinthian 
pillars, erect and fallen. So 
numerous are they, that the 
spectator is at a loss to reduce 
them to any order, or to con- 
ceive for what purpose they 
were designed. " In the space 
covered by these ruins," says 
a celebrated modern traveller, 
" we sometimes find a palace 
of which nothing remains but 
the court and the walls ; some- 
times, a temple whose peristyle 
is half thrown down ; and then 
a portico or gallery, or triumph- 
al arch. Here stood groups of 
columns whose symmetry is 
destroyed by the fall of some 
of them; there we see them 
ranged in rows of such length, - 
that like rows of trees they"de- 
ceive the sight, and assume the 
appearance"of solid walls. And 
if we cast our eyes on the 
ground, we behold nothing but 
subverted shafts, some above 
others shattered to pieces, or 
dislocated in their joints. And 
whichever way we look, the 
earth is strewed with vast 
stones half buried with broken 
entablatures, mutilated friezes, 
disfigured relics, effaced sculp- 
tures, violated tombs, and al- 
tars defiled by dust." Of all 
the ruins those of the temple 
of the sun are the most mag- 
nificent. 

Situated on the great com- 
mercial thoroughfare between 
Syria and Mesopotamia, it is 
probable that Tadmor was a 

?)lace of importance long be- 
bre the time of Solomon, and 
was used by him for purposes 
of commercial enterprise. It is 
very obvious that the present 
ruin a belong to different and 
604 



TAR 

far distant ages. The place is 
now occupied by some twenty 
or thirty huts, or hovels, which 
afford shelter to a few wild 

TAHAPANES, (Jer. ii. 16,) 
TEHAPHNEHES,(Ezek.xxx. 
18,) TAHPANHES, (Jer. xliii. 
7,) or HANES. (Isa. xxx. 4.) 
These several names were 
given to an Egyptian city, 
known to the Greeks as Daph- 
ne, not far from Pelusium. It 
seems to have been an import- 
ant place, containing a palace 
of the king. (Jer. xliii. 9.) Thi- 
ther the Jews under Johanan 
fled from the Chaldeans, after 
the destruction of Jerusalem ; 
but were pursued by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, king of Babylon, who 
established "his throne there, 
in accordance with Jeremiah's 
prophecy. Jeremiah is sup- 
posed to have died there. 

TALENT. (See Measures.) 

TALITHA CUMI. (Mark v. 
41.) A phrase in the Syrian- 
Chaldaic language, the literal 
translation of which is given 
by the evangelist : Damsel, (or 
maiden,) arise. 

TAMMTJZ. (Ezek. viii. 14.) 
Probably the same with the 
Adonis of Grecian mythology; 
a pagan idol, the rites of whose 
worship were in the highest de- 
gree obscene. (See Jealousy, 
idol of. Month.) 

TAPESTRY. (Prov. xxxi. 
£2.) Cloth woven or wrought 
with figures. 

TAPPUAH. (Josh. xv. 34.) 
There were evidently two ci- 
ties of this name; one in the 
•ow country of Judah, towards 
the Mediterranean ; the other 
Delonging to Ephraim, on the 
oorder of Manasseh, and most 
probably the En-tappuah of 
Josh. xvii. 7. 

TARES. (Matt. xiii. 25.) 
This term, as used in the Bible, 
is supposed to mean the darnel 
grass, now known in eastern 
countries. Its resemblance to 
wheat is very exact, but some 
51* 



TAR 

of its properties are highly per 
nicious. Travellers "describe 
the process of pulling up this 
grass, and separating it from 
the genuine grain, and their 
descriptions perfectly accord 
with the language of our Sa- 
viour in the parable. Perhaps, 
however, he referred to any 
noxious weed which is suffered 
to grow with the grain for the 
sake of the latter, until the 
time of harvest, and is then 
sure to be separated and cast 
away. 
TARGET. (See Armour.) 
TARSHISH, (Isa. xxiii. 1,) 
or THARSHISH. (1 Kings x. 
22.) It is supposed that some 
place of this name existed on 
the eastern coast of Africa, or 
among the southern ports of 
Asia, with which the ships of 
Hiram and Solomon traded in 
gold, and silver, ivory, and 
apes, and peacocks. (2 Chron. 
ix. 21.) It is said that once in 
every three years these ships 
completed a voyage, and 
brought home their merchan- 
dise. Hence, it is inferred , the 
place with which they traded 
must have been distant from 
Judea ; or (what may be con- 
firmed by the variety which 
was imported) that after visit- 
ing Tarshish, and procuring 
what it furnished, they traded 
with other and more distant 
ports, and accomplished the 
whole in three years. The 
more rational hypothesis is, 
that in that age of the world, in 
those seas, and on that coast, a 
voyage of three years would 
not necessarily imply a great 
distance from port to port. 
Ophir was perhaps in the land 
of Tarshish ; and it is not im- 
probable, that from the value 
of its productions, and the ex 
tent of its commerce, vessels 
trading in that direction, and 
always touching there, would 
be called ships of Tarshish. 
The vessels given by Hiram to 
Solomon, and those built by 
605 



TAR 

Jehoshaphat, to goto Tarshish, 
were all launched at Ezion- 
geber, at the northern extre- 
mity of the eastern gulf of the 
Red Sea, now called the gulf 
of Ahaba. (2 Chron. xx. 36.) 
The trade of Ophir and Tar- 
shish, wherever these places 
were situated, is generally ad- 
mitted to be what is now called 
the East India trade. 

There appears also to have 
been a place of this name 
somewhere on the Mediterra- 
nean, to which Jonah intended 
to flee ; perhaps Tartessus, of 
Spain. (Jonah i. 3 ; iv. 2.) Or 
we may suppose this name to 
have been originally applied 
to Tartessus, to which it is evi- 
dently similar, and afterwards 
used to express any distant 
port. (See Ships, Tarsus.) 

TARSUS, (Acts xxi. 39,) the 
chief town of the ancient Cili- 
cia, and the birthplace of the 
apostle Paul, was situated on 
the river Cydnus, about six 
miles from its mouth, and like 
Alexandria, was celebrated 
both for its commerce and lite- 
rature. When Cilicia became 
a Roman province, Tarsus re- 
ceived from the emperor Au- 
gustus the privileges of a Ro- 
man colony. Hen ce'Paul speaks 
of himself as free-born, and 
claims the immunities of a Ro- 
man citizen. (Acts xxii. 28.) 
The privileges of this city made 
it the resort of many wealthy 
and learned men, and was the 
occasion of its rising to great 
commercial eminence, and to 
be highly distinguished as a 
seat of learning. In regard to 
the latter, profane historians 
say that in philosophy and po- 
lite learning, the schools of 
Tarsus even excelled those of 
Athens and Alexandria. Paul 
was indebted to his native city 
not only for his privileges of 
Roman citizenship, but for his 
literary acquirements. Tarsus 
was a very ancient town, and, 
as some suppose, derived its 



TEK 

name from Tarshish, one of the 
sons of Ja van. (Gen. x. 4.) It 
is now poor and dilapidated, 
though it has a population of 
30,000, and some commerce. 
Its modern name is Tar sous. 

TAVERNS. (See Three 
Taverns.) 

TEARS. (Ps.lvi.8.) Allu- 
sion is supposed to be made in 
this passage to an ancient cus 
torn, which was preserved 
among the Romans, of collect 
ing the falling tears of mourn- 
ers at funerals, and putting 
them into a bottle, or urn, call- 
ed a lacrymatory , or tear-bottle. 
These vessels were afterwards 
fixed upon the sepulchres of 
the dead, thus seeming to pre- 
serve a memorial of the affec- 
tion and grief of the survivors. 
TEBETH. (See Month.) 
TEETH. (See Tooth.) 
TEHAPHNEHES. (SeeTA- 

HAPANES.) 

TEIL TREE. (Isa. vi. 13.) 

Though the original word in 
this passage is rendered oak, it 
is generally supposed, from the 
connexion, that the lime, or 
linden, is here meant. Perhaps 
two ditferent species of the oak 
may be intended. 
TEKEL. (SeeMENE.) 
TEKOA, (2 Chron. xi. 6,) or 
TEKOAH. (2 Sam. xiv. 2.) A 
city of Judah, south-east of Je- 
rusalem, and a few miles from 
Bethlehem. It was probably 
founded by Ashur, (1 Chron, 
ii. 2; iv. 5,) and was fortified 
byRehoboam. (2 Chron. xi. 6.) 
This seems to have been a spot 
resorted to by herdsmen, among 
whom was Amos the prophet. 
(Amos i. 1.) It was here too 
that Joab obtained a woman of 
peculiar skill and address to 
present a fictitious case to Pa 
vid, in order to force from him 
a favourable judgment in the 
parallel case of Absalom. Da- 
vid, however, detected the hand 
of Joab in the whole device. 

Wilderness op, was in the 
same region; and constituted 
606 



TEM 

part of the wilderness of Judah. 
Here Jehoshaphat defeated the 
Ammonites and Moabites. (2 
Chron. xx. 20.) 

TELABIB. (Ezek. iii. 15.) 
A town on the river Chebar, 
where Ezekiel and many of 
the Jewish exiles dwelt. Its 
site is supposed to be occupied 
by the modern Thelabar. 

TEMAN. (Amos i. 12.) A 
city of Edom, not far from 
Joktheel, supposed to have 
Deen settled by Teman, grand- 
son of Esau. (Gen. xxxvi. 11.) 
In Hab. iii. 3, allusion is made, 
in the highest grade of poetic 
imagery, to the removal of the 
symbols of the divine presence 
from the land of Teman and 
Paran to Sinai. (Ex. xix. See 
Edom.) 

TEMPLE. (1 Sam.i.9.) The 
sacred edifice erected at Jeru- 
salem as a permanent place of 
worship for the Jewish church. 
In its general form it resembled 
the tabernacle, for which it 
was substituted, and it was the 
centre of the same great system 
of ceremonial worship. (See 
Tabernacle.) The temple 
was ouilt on mount Moriah. 
(2 Chron. iii. 1.) This was one 
summit of a range of hills, the 
general name of which was 
mount Zion. (Ps. cxxxii. 13, 
14. See Jerusalem.) The idea 
of building it was suggested to 
the mind of David, (1 Chron. 
xvii. 1,) and became a subject 
of his lively and unceasing in- 
terest. He collected what was 
equal to forty-eight thousand 
tons of gold and silver, or, as 
some have estimated the 
amount, £35,520,000,000, (the 
lowest estimates give one-fifth 
of this amount ;) besides im- 
mense quantities of brass, 
iron, stone, timber, &c. ; and 
he secured skilful mecha- 
nics and artificers for every 
branch of the work. (1 Chron. 
xxii. 14; xxix. 4. 7.) He also 
r urnished the design, plan, and 



TEM 

which he was divinely in- 
structed. (1 Chron. xxi.; xxii.^ 
xxviii. 11—19.) He was no\ 
permitted, however, to see » 
sinsle step taken in its erec- 
tion. (1 Kings v. 3.) Thte su- 
perintendence of the building 
was committed to Solomon, the 
son and successor of David* 
who in the fourth year of his 
reign commenced the work. 
There were 183,600 Jews and 
strangers employed on it; of 
Jewsf 30,000, by rotation 10,000 
a month; of Canaanites. 153,600, 
of whom 70,000 were' bearers 
of burdens, 80,000 were hewers 
of wood and stone, and 3600 
overseers. The parts were all 
prepared at a distance from 
the site of the building, and 
when they were brought toge- 
ther, the whole immense struc- 
ture was erected without the 
sound of hammer, axe, or any 
tool of iron, (1 Kings vi.7,) and 
at the end of seven and a half 
years it stood complete in all 
its splendour, the glory of Jeru- 
salem, and the most magnificent 
edifice in the world. 

The temple, like the taber- 
nacle, had its front towards the 
east. The porch, or portico, ex 
tended across the whole front, 
projecting fifteen feet from the 
main building, and rising to 
the height of one hundred and 
eighty feet. Upon the sides 
and rear of the main building 
was an additional building of 
three stories, each nearly eight 
feet high. This structure was 
about half the height of the 
temple, andthoughbuiltagainst 
the walls, was not fastened 
into them. (1 Kings vi. 6.) It 
was divided into apartments 
like chambers, which opened 
into the gallery that surrounded 
it. There was a flight of stairs 
on the south side which led 
into the second story and an- 
other leading from the second to 
the third. (1 Kings vi. 8.) The 
whole building and its envi- 
rons were enteredby two courta 
607 



TEM 



TEM 



The subjoined engraving re- I ous courts, as described by Jew 
presents thetemple and its vari- 1 ish historians and antiquaries. 



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] [ 



S£l 



□ 



B 



3) 



B 



anonB"C""q 

East. 



60 



TEM 

A The outer walL 

B The gates in the outer wall. 

C The gate Shushan, which is called the 

gate of the king. (I Chron. ix. IS.) 
D Gate of Huldah. 
E Another gate of the same name. 
F The gate Tedi. 
G Solomon's porch. (John x. 23.) 
H Court of the Gentiles. 
I The enclosure, or outer verge of the 

court, within which none but Jews 

might come, called the outer court, 

or court of the women. 
K The temple itself. 
L The foundation of the temple. 
M The flight of steps to the temple. 
N The columns called Jachin and 

Boaz. 



TEM 

' P The vestibule, or porch of tin temple 
Q The holy place. 
R The most holy place. 
S A court on each side of the temple, 

which separated the people fro» 

the court of the priests. 

V The brazen laver. 

W Ten brazen vessels, five on each side, 
(1 Kings vii. 38, 39.) where the sa- 
crifices were washed before they 
were brought to the altar. 

X The great altar of burnt-offerings. 

Y Twenty-four rings, to which the ani- 

mals were fastened that were de- 
signed for sacrifice. 
Z Eight marble tables, on which the 
slain animals were laid to be pre- 
pared for the altar. 



a Eight small marble columns,on which 
the slain animals were suspended. 

fiGazith, the room or court where the 
great sanhedrim or Jewish court 
held its sessions. 

c Another part of the same court, where 
the priests' courses were distributed 
by lot. 

d The place where was distributed all 
the wood required for the use of 
the temple. 

• The court or chamber of the wheels, 
where the water for the officers of 
the temple to drink was drawn up 
by means of a wheel. 

/The gate of burnt-offering, through 
which the wood was brought. 

g The gate of firstlings, through which 
the. firstlings were brought to be of- 
fered up. 

A The water gate. 

i Barriers to prevent the overlooking of 
the temple. 

h Thekitchen,in which thatportion of the 
sacrifices which were designed for 
the priests wasprepared for their use. 

{ The court of the lambs, where eight 
lambs were kept for the daily sacri- 
fice. 

mThe court of fire, where firo was 
constantly preserved. 



n The court of shew-bread, where the 
shew-bread was prepared in the 
evening before the Sabbath. 

o The court in which was distributed 
oil or wine for the sacrifices. 

p The fire gate, leading to the place 
where the guards of the priests 
were, and where was a fire for the 
priests' use. 

q The gate of sacrifices, through which 
the sacrifices were carried into the 
inner court. 

r The gate of the singers, near to the 
singing Levites. 

* The washing gate, where the sacrifices 

were washed preparatory to being 

taken to the altar. 

i t Parbar, or court gate, where the skin* 

of animals were taken off and salted. 

u The chamber of salt. 

to The court of the priests, twenty-five 
feet wide and two hundred and sixty 
long. 

x Two tables, one of silver and the other 
of marble, near the altar of burnt- 
offering, containing ninety-three 
golden vessels. 

yAsh vessels, designed to receive the 
ashes of the consumed sacrifices. 

z A cistern of water. 



1 The court of the Israelites. 

2 The throne of Solomon. (2 Chron. vi. 

13.) 
S The place where the half shekel tax 
was received. (Ex. xxx. 13.) 

4 The outer court of the women. 

5 The gate of Nicanor, called the higher 

gate, (2 Kings xv. 35.) and the new 
gate. (Jer. xxxvi. 10.) 

6 A court for the feast of tabernacles. 

7 Pulpit of the high-priest, from which 

a part of the law was read at the 
feast of propitiation. 
The great golden candlesticks. 

9 Places between the columns for receiv- 

ing gifts. 

10 The court of the Nazarites. 



11 The court of wood, where wood wm 

selected for the burnt-offerings. 

12 The court where the lepers showed 

themselves to the priests before of- 
fering their sacrifices. 

13 The court where oil and wine wer* 

deposited for the daily sacrifice* 
and for the lamps. (Ex. xxvii. 20.) 

14 Synagogue where ije law was ex 

plained on the Sabbath and feas* 
days. 

15 The beautiful gate of the temple. 

16 The flight of steps on which the Le- 

vites stood and sung the fifteen 
psalms, from cxx. to exxxiv. in* 
; elusive, at the feast of tabernacles. 
1" Openings for the passage of stioke. 
fi09 



TEM 

The inner court, cju.'ed the 
court before the temple, or the 
court of the priests, correspond- 
ed generally with the court of 
the tabernacle, as did also the 
sacred apartments, furniture, 
and utensils. 

The temple of Solomon stood 
altogether four hundred and 
twenty-four years ; but in the 
short space of thirty years after 
its completion, it was plunder- 
ed by Shishak, king of Egypt. 
(1 Kings xiv. 25, 26.) After this 
it was frequently profaned and 
pillaged, and was at last broken 
down and destroyed by the 
king of Babylon, b. c. 538, and 
the nation itself carried into 
captivity. In fifty-two years 
after these events, a number 
of the Jews returned, and the 
rebuilding of the temple was 
commenced under the superin- 
tendence of Zerubbabel, the 
Jewish governor, and Jeshua, 
or Joshua, the high-priest. 
They were permitted and en- 
couraged to undertake it by 
Cyrus, the Persian emperor, to 
whom Judea had now become 
tributary. (Isa. xliv.28; xlv.13.) 
Much interruption and delay 
attended the enterprise, of 
which we have a full account 
in the book of Ezra. It was 
completed, however, and dedi- 
cated b. c. 515, or about seven- 
ty-three years after the destruc- 
tion of it ; and though inferior 
in many respects to the first 
temple, having no ark, no mer- 
cy-seat, no visible revelation 
of the divine glory, no sacred 
fire, no urim and thummim, 
and no spirit of prophecy, (Ezra 
iii. 12, 13,) still it was in 
creadth and height twice the 
size of Solomon's. It furnished 
a fixed place of worship for the 
nation, and ultimately became 
the theatre of far more glorious 
illustrations of the divine glory 
than the first temple ever wit- 
nessed. (Hae. ii. 6—9. Mai. 
iii. 1. Col. ii. 9. 1 Tim. iii. 16.) 

The temple of Zerubbabel had 



TEM 

stood nearly fivehundred years, 
and was much decayed, when 
Herod the Great, with a view 
to secure the favour of the 
Jews, and obtain to himself a 
great name, undertook to re- 
build it; so that it was not a 
new edifice, strictly speaking, 
but rather a complete repair of 
the second temple. He began 
the work only seventeen years 
before the birth of Christ, and 
completed the main building 
in less than ten years, so that 
it was fit for the service. The 
whole work occupied forty-six 
years. (John ii. 20.) We shall 
describe it as it stood in the 
days of our Saviour. 

The outer wall, which en- 
closed the buildings, was about 
one-eighth of a mile square, 
and nearly forty feet above the 
summit of the mount. This 
wall was built up from the val- 
ley beweath, and was in some 
places from six hundred to se- 
ven hundred feet high. It is 
supposed to have been from 
this height (or pinnacle) that 
our Saviour was urged to cast 
himsolf. (Matt. iv. 5—7.) In 
these walls were seven mas- 
sive and costly gates, each fif- 
teen feet wide, and thirty feet 
high. These were in addition 
to th*s beautiful gate, (Acts iii. 
2,) which was on the east side, 
and was called beautiful be- 
cause it was of the finest brass, 
(copper,) seventy-five feet in 
height, highly polished, and 
richly adorned. Between the 
gates, along the inside of the 
wall, were piazzas supported 
partly by the wall itself, and 
partly by a double row of co- 
lumns, except on the south 
side, where were three rows of 
columns. The porch on the 
east side was called Solomon's* 
(John x. 23,) because he built 
it, or at least the stupendous 
wall on which it rested. All 
within the area which these 
walls enclosed was called the 
temple. 

610 



TEM 

The larger part of the area 
was vacant ground, completely 
paved with marble, and was 
distinguished as the court of 
the Gentiles, because all classes 
of persons might enter it. But 
beyond the wall which sepa- 
rated this from the next court 
no uncircumcised person was 
permitted to pass. A prohibi- 
tion to that effect was inscribed 
upon the gate-post. (Eph. ii. 
13, 14.) Around this outer court 
the stock for the supply of the 
temple service was kept, and 
the money-changers had their 
places of business. The second 
court was enclosed by a wall. 
It was called the new court, (2 
Chron. xx. 5,) the outer court, 
(Ezek. xlvi. 21,) or court of the 
women, because women were 
not allowed to go beyond it to- 
ward the sanctuary, unless 
when they brought a sacrifice. 
In this court men and women 
performed their ordinary wor- 
ship unaccompanied with sa- 
crifices. (Luke xviii. 10—14. 
Acts iii. 1 ; xxi. 26—30.) Here 
also was the treasury, (Mark 
xii. 41,) where the gifts for the 
service of the temple were de- 
posited in small chests or cof- 
fers, fixed in the surrounding 
wall ; and this was the place 
where some of our Saviour's 
most hnpressive discourses 
were delivered. (John viii. 20.) 

The next court towards the 
sanctuary was the court of Is- 
rael. The outer half of this 
court was entered by common 
Israelites to attend on particu- 
lar services of religion ; but the 
inner half, next to the sanctu- 
ary, was called the court of the 
priests, and they were sepa- 
rated from each other by a low 
railing. Our Saviour, being 
of the tribe of Judah, had no 
privileges in the temple above 
any other Israelite. Hence 
whatever he is said to have 
done in the temple must be 
intended of the courts of the 
temple. 



TEM 

Within the court of the 
j priests stood the altar of burnt- 
: offering and the brazen later, 
j and not even an Israelite could 
on any condition pass the rail- 
ing that enclosed them, unless 
when he came to offer his sa- 
crifice before the altar. 

Next came the sanctuary, 
the materials of which were 
beautiful and costly beyond de- 
scription. (Mark xiii. I.) The 
porch extended one hundred 
and fifty feet across tne front 
j of the main building. It was 
thirty feet wide, and rose at 
' the highest elevation to nearly 
one hundred and eighty feet. 
The entrance to this porch was 
one hundred and thirty-five 
feet by thirty-seven. It had no 
door. The sanctuary itself was 
ninety feet high, ninety feet 
long, and thirty feet wide. 
Around it, except in front, was 
a structure of three stories high, 
like that attached to the first 
temple as before described. 
The sanctuary had two apart- 
ments, separated from each 
other by a curtain or veil, 
(Matt, xxvii. 51,) viz. the holy 
place, which occupied sixty 
feet of the whole length, and 
in which were the altar of in- 
cense, the golden candlestick, 
and the table of shew-bread; 
and the most holy place, which, 
measured thirty feet every way. 
It is worthy of remark, that in 
our translation of the Bible, 
when these apartments are 
mentioned by these terms, the 
word place is generally, if not 
always, supplied by the trans- 
lators. 

This temple was razed to 
its foundation by the Romans, 
a. d. 70—71, and the site of it 
was made like a ploughed field. 
(Jer. xxri. 18. Matt. xxiv. 2.) 
It is now occupied by a Turk- 
ish mosque, which neither Jew 
nor Christian was until lately 
permitted to enter. 

The veneration with vtrhich. 
the temple was regarded by the 
611 



TEN 
Jews appears from the manner 
in which they treated any sup- 
posed disrespectful allusion to 
it. (Matt. xxvi. 61. John ii. 19, 
20. Acts xxi. 28, 29; xxiv. 6 ; 
xxv. 8. See Jerusalem. For 
a full account of the temple, 
and its imposing services, see 
Selumiel, ch. iv., Scripture 
Illustrations, part ii., Elisa- 
jvia, ch. viii.— x., and Biblical 
Antiquities, vol. ii. ch. iii.— 
v., all by Am. S. S. Union.) 

TEMPT, (Matt. xxii. 18,) 
TEMPTATION. (Luke i v. 13.) 
These words are used in va- 
rious senses by the sacred writ- 
ers. The ordinary import of 
them is allurement or entice- 
ment to sin. Hence our great 
adversary the devil is called 
the tempter. (Matt. iv. 3.) 
These words sometimes denote 
the trial of a person's faith or 
obedience, (Gen. xxii. 1. James 
i. 2, 3,) or the trial of God's 
patience and forbearance, (Ex. 
xvii. 2. 1 Cor. x. 9 ;) but gene- 
rally they signify that which 
persuades to sin. The prayer 
lead us not into temptation 
(Matt. vi. 13) does not imply 
that God leads us into tempta- 
tion, (James i. 13, 14,) but it is 
a prayer that we may not be 
suffered to fall into temptation. 
When it is said that the law- 
yer and others tempted our 
Saviour, (Matt. xvi. 1 ; xix. 3. 
Mark x. 2. Luke x. 25,) it is 
meant that they tried to en- 
snare him, or lead him into 
the commission of some offence. 
(See this subject plainly treated 
in the House of Refuge, ch. 
v. and vi., by Am. S. S. Union.) 

TENT. (See Dwellings. 
See also Bedouin Arabs, ch. v. 
and viii., by Am. S. S. Union.) 

Tent-maker. (Acts xviii. 
3.) This is said to have been 
Paul's trade ; but it is supposed 
to refer to the manufacture of 
tent-cloth rather than to the 
preparing of tents. Some sup- 
pose that he made military 



TES 

tents, the material of wnicfc 
was goat skins. 

TENTH DEAL. (See Mea- 
sures.) 

TERAH. (Gen. xi. 31,32.) 
The father of Abraham, who 
accompanied him to Haran ? in 
Mesopotamia, where he died 
at the age of two hundred and 
five, Abraham being then se- 
venty-five years of age. 

TERAPHIM. (Judg. xvii. 5.) 
From comparing Gen. xxxi. 19. 
30, it would seem tnatthis word 
sometimes denotes household 
idol gods or images. Perhaps 
it was also applied to the forms 
or instruments of astrology 
and so might be found in pos- 
session of those who were not 
idolaters. As it is used by the 
prophet in relation to the state 
of the Jews, (Hos. iii. 4,) it pro- 
bably means that that unhappy 
nation should be without any 
god, true or false; not only 
without sacrifice and ephod 
which belonged to their reli- 
gious system, but also without 
images and teraphim, which 
were parts of their idolatry. 

TERTULLUS. (Acts xxiv. 
1.) Probably a Roman lawyer, 
who acted as prosecutor in the 
case of Paul before Fel ix. The 
Jews, being ignorant of the Ro- 
man forms of law, &c, would 
naturally employ a person ac- 
quainted witn them to manage 
their causes. 

TESTAMENT. (Heb. is. 
15.) The word testament, 
when applied to our Scriptures, 
(as the Old and New Testa- 
ments used in the same sense 
with covenant. The old cove- 
nant is spoken of in Ex. xxiv. 8, 
and the new in Matt. xxvi. 28. 
The former was ratified by the 
blood of sacrifices, and the lat- 
ter (of which the other was a 
type) was ratified by the blood 
of Christ. 

According to some critics,the 
word testament is also used by 
the sacred writers, as it is in 
612 



THA 

modern times, to signify the in- 
strument by which a man di- 
rects what disposition shall be 
made of his property after his 
death. (Heb. ix. 16.) It is well 
known that such an instrument 
takes effect only at the death 
of the testator, (or he who makes 
the testament.) Hence the apos- 
tle, in allusion to this fact, says 
in substance, that the death of 
Christ has the same effect on 
the covenant of redemption, 
which is the new testament, 
as the death of the testator has 
on his last will and testament, 
viz. gives it force and validity. 
Others, however, have sup- 
posed that the apostle refers to 
the ancient custom of confirm- 
ing covenants by sacrifices, 
(Gen. xv. 8, 9,) in reference to 
which it is true that a covenant 
was of no force so long as the 
victim by whose death it was 
to be confirmed was livinsr. 

TESTIMONY, TESTIMO- 
NIES. (Ps.cxix.88.99.) These 
terms sometimes denote the 
whole revelation of God's will. 
They frequently occur in this 
sense in the above Psalm. They 
also refer to the tables of stone, 
which were part of the cove- 
nant between God and the 
people of Israel, (Ex. xxv. 16 ;) 
and hence the ark in which 
they were deposited is called 
the ark of the testimony. (Ex. 
xxv. 22. See Ark.) The gos- 
pel is also called the testimony 
m ICor. i. 6. Rev. i. 2, and 
elsewhere. (See Witness.) 

TETRARCH. (Matt. xiv. 1.) 
This title was given to a sove- 
reign prince, and strictly de- 
notes one who governs the 
fourth part of a province or 
kingdom. In our Scriptures, 
however, it is applied to any 
one who governed a province 
of the Roman empire, what- 
ever portion of the territory 
might be within his jurisdic- 
tion. The tetrarch had the 
«tle of king. (Matt. xiv. 9.) 

THADDEUS. (See Jude.) 
52 



THE 
THAMMUZ. (See Tam 

MUZ.) 

THANK-OFFERING. (See 
Offerings.) 
THARSHISH. (See Tar- 

SHISH.) 

THEATRE. (Acts xix. 29. 
31.) A place of public amuse 
ment, where popular assem- 
blies, courts, elections, &c. 
were often held. 

THEBEZ. (Judg. ix. 50., 
A city north-east of Shechem, 
within the territory of Ephra- 

j im, celebrated as the plac 
where Abimelech was slain 

! (See Aeimelech.) 

THEOPHILUS. (Luke i. 3.) 
A distinguished individual, 
probably of Greece or Rome, 
to whom, as his particular 
friend or patron, Luke address- 
ed both his gospel and his his- 
tory of the Acts of the Apostles. 
The title most excellent pro- 
bably denotes official dignity. 
(Acts xxiii. 26; xxiv. 3, and 
xxvi. 25.) 

THESSALONICA. (Acts 
xxvii. 2.) The capital of one 
of the pretorial districts of Ma- 
cedonia. It is now called &*. 
loniki, and is situated in El*v 
ropean Turkey, at the northern 
extremity of the gulf of Sah>- 
niki, (formerly the Thermate 
gulf,) two hundred and seven- 
ty-two miles west of Constan- 
tinople ; and, of the towns of 
European Turkey, is, in point 
of commerce, second only to 
that city. Its population fe 
estimated at 70,000, of whom 
30,000 to 35,000 are Turks, 
10,000 or 12,000 Greeks, 20,003 
to 30,000 Jews, and a few hun 
dred Franks. The Jews are 
the principal business mei\ 
The ancient walls are nearly 
entire, and are five or six miles 
in circuit. The Greeks have 
twenty-six churches, eighteen 
of which are spacious ; and tne 
Jews have seventy-six syna- 
gogues, thirty-six ot which &re 
small, and connected with 
private dwellings. 

613 



TH1 

Messrs. Dwight and Schauf- 
fler, American missionaries, 
visited Thessalonica in the 
spring of 1834. They speak 
of the Jews as in a miserable 
condition, and as having fully 
preserved the spirit of their 
forefathers respecting Chris- 
tianity. (Acts xvii. 5.) Paul 
and his associates, Timotheus 
and Silas, (1 Thess. i. 1 ; ii. 1, 
2.) planted a church here about 
the year a. d. 52 ; and Aris- 
tarchus and Secundus were 
among the converts to the 
faith. (Acts xx. 4, and xxvii. 
2.) Two of his letters are ad- 
dressed to the disciples of 
Christ in this city. 

THESSALONIANS, epis- 
tles to. These constitute the 
thirteenth and fourteenth in 
order of the books of the New 
Testament. They were writ- 
ten by the apostle Paul to the 
church of the Thessalonians. 
(See Thessalonica.) The 
first epistle was probably writ- 
ten near the close of a. d. 52 
or beginning of 53 ; and its de- 
. sign is to establish the follow- 
ers of Christ there in all those 
graces for which they were 
so conspicuous, and encourage 
them, by the most affectionate 
and pointed exhortations, in 
- seeking for higher attainments 
and richer consolations in the 
divine life. The fourth chap- 
ter is remarkable for the dis- 
tinctness with which it reveals 
the order of the general resur- 
rection. 

The second epistle was writ- 
ten soon after the first, and 
seems to have been designed 
to correct some misapprehen- 
sions which had occurred re- 
specting the first; and, at the 
same time, still farther to esta- 
blish and encourage them in 
the works of faith and labours 
of love. The second chapter 
contains a very full prophecy 
respecting the revelation of 
antichrist. 

THIGH, (Gen. xxiv. 2.) The 



THI 

practice o putting the hand 
under the tnigh might denote 
the obedience or subjection of 
the individual, or it might be 
connected with the rite of cir- 
cumcision as a token of God's 
faithfulness. The inscription 
upon the thigh (Rev. xix. 16) 
alludes to the custom of in- 
scribing the names and deeds 
of conquerors on their garments 
and weapons. The name 
might be inscribed on the 
sword, which was girded on 
the thigh, or on that part of 
the dress which covered the 
thigh. Jacob's thigh was smit- 
ten by the angel, (Gen. xxxii. 
25,) to show that he had super- 
natural power, and that he 
yielded in mercy, and not from 
necessity. (See Jacob, Un- 
cover.) 

THISTLES AND THORNS. 
(Gen. iii. 18.) These terms 
are generally connected in the 
Scriptures, and probably often 
denote any kind of useless oi 
noxious plants that grow spon- 
taneously, to the annoyanos 
of the husbandman, and th? 
great injury of his crops. The 
figurative use of these terms 
denotes desolation, (Prov. xxiv. 
31. Isa.v.6. Hos.ii.6; ix.6; x. 
8;) the visitations of Provi- 
dence, (Num. xxxiii.55. Judg. 
ii. 3. 2Cor. xii. 7;) difficulties 
and hind erances, (Prov. xv. 19 ;) 
and troubles. (Prov. xxii. 5.) 

The crowning with thorns 
(Matt, xxvii. 29) was probably 
the wanton invention of the 
Roman soldiery, and made no 
part of the established punish- 
ment. We are not certain 
as to the kind of thorns used ; 
some suppose the white thorn, 
which grows in abundance 
near Jerusalem; some tlie 
acacia, and others the acan- 
thus, which blossoms in March. 
The object of the soldiers was 
to ridicule the idea of Christ 
being a king, and also to aggra- 
vate his sufferings. 

The passage (Hos. ii. 6) above 
614 



THR 

cited is forcibly illustrated by 
the remark of a modern tra- 
veller in Judea. "As we rode 
through Riphah, we perceived 
it to be a settlement of about 
fifty dwellings, all very mean 
in their appearance, and every 
one fenced in front with thorn- 
^•ushes, while a barrier of the 
same kind encircled the whole 
of the town. This was one 
of the most effectual defences 
which they could have raised 
against the incursions of horse 
Arabs, the only enemies whom 
they have to dread, as neither 
will the horse approach to 
entangle himself in these 
thickets of brier, nor could the 
rider, even if he dismounted, 
get over them, or remove them 
to clear a passage, without 
assistance from some one 
within." 

THOMAS, (John xx. 24,) 
one of the twelve apostles, was 
also called Didymus, (the 
twin.) We know little of his 
history. He seems to have 
been of singular temperament. 
(John xi. 16 ; xiv. 5 ; xx. 20— 
29.) It is supposed he was 
actively engaged in propa- 
gating the gospel, and suffered 
martyrdom. 

THORNS. (See Thistles.) 

THREE TAVERNS. (Acts 
xxviii. 15.) A place so called, 
perhaps, from the circumstance 
that three houses of public en- 
tertainment were established 
there. It was about thirty-three 
miles from Rome ; and Paul 
was met at that place, when 
on his way to Rome as a pri- 
soner, by some brethren from 
that city, who had heard of his 
approach. 

THRESH, (Isa. xli. 15,) 
THRESHING FLOOR. (Gen. 
1. 10.) The ancient threshing- 
floors were selected on the 
hiehest summits, open on every 
sidfe to the wind. Though 
called floors, they were an- 
ciently nothing but plats of 
ground, levelled and rolled, 



THR 

so as to be as hard as a floor 
The sheaves were thrown to- 
gether in a loose heap, and the 
grain beaten out by a machine, 
or by the feet of oxen. 'Deut. 
xxv. 4.) The threshing ma- 
chine was formed of a heavy 
square frame, with rollers, each 
of which was encircled by 
three or four iron rings or 
wheels, serrated like theleeth 
of a saw. (Isa xli. 15,16.) The 
machine was drawn by a pair 
of oxen, the driver sitting on 
a cross-piece fastened iutcTth. 
frame; and as the heavy roll- 
ers passed over it, the grain 
was crushed out on every side. 
Sometimes this frame was so 
constructed as to resemble a 
cart, (Isa. xxviii. 27, 28,) and 
furnishes a striking figure of 
violence and destruction. (A- 
mos i. 3. Hab. iii. 12.) After 
the grain was threshed and 
winnowed, (see Fan,) the chaff 
and fine straw were collected 
on a neighbouring hill and 
burned. (Isa. v. 24. Matt. iii. 12.) 
In Isa. xli. 15, a new sharp 
threshing instrument having 
teeth is mentioned. One of 
these instruments is thus de- 
scribed by a traveller in Sy- 
ria, in 1&37:— "The threshing 
instrument is a board about 
three feet wide, six or eight 
feet long, and three inches 
thick. On the lower side, 
many holes are made, from an 
inch and a half to two inches, 
in which are fastened pieces 
of stone, flint, or iron. These 
project, it may be, from a half 
to three-quarters of an inch 
from the face of the board, and 
serve as teeth to tear the beards 
of the grain in pieces. Oxen 
are fastened to the forward 
end of the boards, and driven 
round the floor, drawing it after 
them. The driver of the oxen 
usually stands or sits on the 
instrument. This is the com- 
mon threshing instrument in 
these countries. I saw it every 
where, and ± have seen n* 
615 



THY 

other. The oxen are usually 
without muzzles, and are often 
as they pass around taking up 
from time to time a few straws 
and feeding on them. I do not 
recollect of seeing the horse 
used in any instance on the 
barn floor — the oxen very 
often." (For cuts of threshing- 
instruments, and a minute de- 
scription of the process, see 
Hebrew Customs, pp. 63—65, 
Elnathan, pp. 119—123, and 
Scripture Illustrations, 
part i. pp. 16—20; all by Am. 
S. S. Union.) 

Threshing floor of Or- 
nan. The apparent discre- 
pancy between 2 Sam. xxiv. 
24, and 1 Chron. xxi. 25, is re- 
conciled by the probable sup- 
position that in the former case 
nothing is included but the 
floor, oxen, and threshing ma- 
chine; and, in the latter, the 
whole hill whereon the temple 
was afterwards erected. (See 
Araunah.) 
THRONE. (See Footstool.) 
THUMMIM. (See Urim.) 
THYATIRA. (Acts xvi. 14.) 
A city of the province of Lydia, 
in Asia Minor, now known as 
Akhisar. It is situated in an 
extensive plain, near a small 
river, a branch of the Caicus, 
south-east of Smyrna, between 
Sardis and Pergamos, and was 
the site ol one of the seven 
churches of Asia, to which John 
wrote. (Rev. i. 11.) It was also 
the residence of Lydia, whom 
Paul met and baptized at Phi- 
.ippi. Its present population 
may be a thousand families, 
between three and four hun- 
dred of which are composed 
of nominal Christians of the 
Greek and Armenian faith. 
Except the Moslem's palace, 
there is scarcely a decent 
house in the place. Every 
thing indicates poverty, igno- 
rance, and degradation. 

Messrs. Smith and Dw:ght, 
American, missionaries, were 



TIM 

| at this city in the spring Oi 
\ 1S30. It had been devastated 
| by fire a year or two previous 
| They found many ruins and 
inscriptions which bespoke a 
j hish antiquity. 

TH YINE WOOD (Rev. xviii. 
12) may mean sweet scented 
wood generally, or the wood 
of a particular species of ever- 
green resembling the cypress, 
which was prized for us aro- 
matic properties, and for being 
susceptible of a fine polish. 
TIBERIAS. (See Chinne 

RETH.) 

TIBERIUS CESAR (Luke 
iii. 1) was the son-in-law and 
successor of Augustus, (Luke 
ii. 1,) and though with some 
apparent virtues, was one of 
the most infamous tyrants that 
ever scourged the empire of 
Rome. He began his reign 
a. d. 14, reigned during the 
eventful period of the succeed- 
ing twenty-three years, and 
was finally murdered by suffo- 
cation with pillows. (See Ce- 
sar.) 

TIGLATH-PILESER. (See 
Ahaz.) 

TILING. (See Dwellings.) 

TIMBREL. (Ex. xv. 20.) A 
musical instrument, supposed 
to have resembled very nearly 
the instrument of modern days 
called the tambourine. A skin 
is stretched over a rim like the 
end of a drum ; around the rim 
are hung little bells, and the 
player strikes the skin with 
the knuckles of one hand, and 
shakes it with the other hand. 
It was used in ancient times 
chiefly by women. 

TIME. (See Days, Hours, 
Watches.) 

TIMNATH, (Gen. xxxviii 
12,) or TIMNAH, (2 Chron. 
xxviii. 18.) situated on the 
northern border of Judah, was 
one of the oldest towns of Ca- 
naan. In Samson's time it 
belonged to the Philistines, 
and he obtained his wife there* 
616 



TIM 

Judg. xiv. 1—5.) The inha- 
bitants were called Timnites. 
(Juds:. xv. 6.) 

TliVINATH-SERAH, (Josh, 
xix. 50,) or TIMNATH-HE- 
RES, (Judg. ii. 9,) was a city 
on mount Ephraim, given to 
Joshua at his own request, and 
the place of his residence and 
^ial. 

FROTHY, (1 Tim. i. 2,) or 
TDIOTHEUS, (Acts xvi. 1,) 
was a native either of Derbe 
or Lystra. His mother's name 
was "Eunice, and a woman of 
distinguished piety, as was also 
his grandmother Lois, (2 Tim. 
I. 5 ;) and by them he was edu- 
cated religiously. (2 Tim. iii. 
15.) His father was a Greek. 
Paul found him in one of the 
cities above named, and being 
informed of his good standing 
among the Christians there, 
selected him as an assistant 
in his labours, and, to avoid 
the cavils of the Jews, perform- 
ed on him the rite of circum- 
cision. (1 Cor. ix. 20.) He after- 
wards became the companion 
of Paul ; and that he was the 
object of the extraordinary af- 
fection and solicitude of that 
apostle, his letters plainly 
show. He was left in charge 
of the church at Ephesus, and 
that, probably, when he was 
quite young. (1 Tim. iv. 12.) 

Epistles of Paul to. 
These are the fifteenth and 
sixteenth in order of the books 
of the New Testament, The 
first is supposed to have been 
written about the year 60, 
and contains special instruc- 
tions respecting the qualifi- 
cations and the duties of 
sundry ecclesiastical officers, 
and other persons, and the 
most affectionate and pungent 
exhortations to faithfulness. 
The second epistle was writ- 
ten a year or two later, and 
while Paul was in constant 
expectation of martyrdom, 
(2 Tim. iv. 6— 8,) and may be 
regarded as the dying counsel 
52* 



T1S 

of the venerable apostolic fa- 
ther to his son in the Lord. 
It contains a variety of injunc- 
tions as to the duties of Chris- 
tians under trials and tempta- 
tions, and concludes with ex- 
pressions of a full and tri- 
umphant faith in the Lord 
Jesus Christ, and in all the 
glorious promises made to his 
true followers. 

TIN. (Num. xxxi. 22.) A 
well known metal, in use at 
a very early period, and an 
article of Tyrian commerce. 
(Ezek. xxvii. 12.) In Isa. i. 25, 
the word rendered tin probably 
means a sort of dross. 

TINKLING. (See Bells, 

TIPHSAH, (1 Kings iv. 24,) 
meaning a ford, is the same 
as Thapsacus, and was situated 
on the western bank of the 
Euphrates. It was the extreme 
limit of Solomon's dominions in 
that direction. It is generally 
supposed that the place of thi3 
name mentioned 2 Kings xv. 
16, was near Samaria. 

TIRSHATHA. (Neh. vii. 
65.) An officer of state. 

TIRES. (Isa. iii. 18.) This 
generally denotes an orna- 
mental head-dress, but it may 
mean other parts of the attire ; 
and in the text cited the origin- 
al probably signifies a neck- 
lace, the parts of which might 
have resembled the moon in 
shape. 

TIRZAH (1 Kings xvi. 17) 
was the residence of the kings 
of Israel from the time of Jero- 
boam to that of Zimri, or nearly 
fifty years. Its exact site is 
uncertain,though it is supposed 
to have been within the terri- 
tory of Ephraim. 

TISHBITE (1 Kings xvii. 
1.) Elijah is called the Tishr- 
bite; but whether it denotes 
the place of his nativity or 
residence, or whether it simply 
describes his office as a re- 
prover and reformer, is uncer- 
tain. 

617 



TIT 

TISHRL (See Month.) 

TITHES, (Gen. xiv. 20,) or 
tenths. A sort of tax known 
long before the time of Moses, 
and practised under the civil 
and religious government of 
heathen nations. It was intro- 
duced into the Levitical code, 
and consisted in rendering a 
fixed proportion of the produce 
of the earth, herds, &c. to the 
service of God their King, 
whom they were taught to 
consider as the proprietor of 
all. One-tenth of this produce 
went to the use of the Levites, 
who had no part in the soil, 
and of course were dependent 
on their brethren for the means 
of subsistence. One-tenth of 
their tenth they paid in their 
turn to the priests. (Num. xviii. 
21—32.) 

The nine parts were tithed 
again, and of this second tithe 
a feast was made in the court 
of the sanctuary, or in some 
apartment connected with it. 
If, however, the Jew could not 
with convenience carry his 
tithe thither, he was permitted 
to sell it, and to take the 
money, adding one-fifth of the 
amount, (that is, if he sold the 
tithe for a dollar, he should 
bring in money a dollar and 
twenty cents,) and to purchase 
therewith what was required 
at the feast, after they came 
to the sanctuary. (Lev. xxvii. 
31. Deut. xii. 17, 18; xiv. 22- 
2~.) 

At this feast of thanksgiving, 
they entertained their families 
and. friends, and also the Le- 
vites. It has been supposed 
by some, from Deut. xiv. 28, 29, 
that in every third year a third 
tithe was required; but it is 
more probable that in the third 
year the second tithe above 
mentioned was consumed at 
home, instead of at the sanc- 
tuary, so that the poor neigh- 
bours and friends, and espe- 
cially such as were aged and 
infirm, might partake of it. 



TIT 

The cattle were tithed by 
letting them pass out of an 
enclosure, under a rod held 
by some person, who touched 
every tenth beast, which there- 
upon became the property of 
the Levites ; so that if ex- 
changed, both were forfeited. 
(Lev. xxvii. 32, 33.) 

It does not appear that the 
tithe of herbs was demanded. 
The Pharisees, however, tithed 
their mint, anise, cummin, and 
rue ; nor was it for this that our 
Saviour condemned them, but 
for neglecting weightier things, 
as mercy, judgment, and faith, 
while they were so scrupu- 
lously exact in matters of infe- 
rior moment. (Matt, xxiii. 23.) 

Under the gospel dispensa- 
tion, the ministers of religion 
seemed to have relied for their 
support chiefly on the hospi- 
tality of their brethren and 
friends, (Matt. x. 10. Luke x. 
7 ;) and it is certainly reason- 
able that those who give them- 
selves wholly to the ministry 
of the word should be exempt- 
ed from all anxiety respecting 
their own subsistence*. The 
system of tithes known in 
modern times has very little, 
if any, resemblance to that 
under the Jewish dispensation, 
either in the collection or dis- 
bursement of them. 

TITLE. (See Cross.) 

TITTLE. (Matt. v. 18.) The 
least point. 

TITUS. (Gal. ii. 1.) A Gen- 
tile by descent, and probably 
converted to Christianity undei 
the preaching of Paul. (Tit. i. 
4.) He, however, refused to 
subject him to the rite of cir 
cumcision, though, as some 
have inferred, he was strongly 
urged so to do. (Gal. ii. 3-^5.) 
Titus was the companion ot 
Paul in many of his trials and 
missionary tours, (2 Cor. viii. 
6. 16. 23,) and was intrusted 
with several important com- 
missions. (2 Cor. xii. 18. 2 
Tim. iv. 10. Tit. i. 5.) 
618 



TOO 

Epistle of Paul to, is the 
seventeenth in order of the 
books of the New Testament. 
It was designed to instruct Ti- 
tus in the right discharge of his 
ministerial offices in Crete, or 
rather to furnish the Cretans, 
through Titus, with a variety 
of important rules of Christian 
conduct. 

TOB. (Judg. xi. 3. 5.) A dis- 
trict in the south-east of Syria, 
whither Jephthah fled, and 
whence he was called to lead 
the army of Israel against 
Ammon. 

TOBIAH. (Neh. ii. 10.) An 
Ammonite of considerable in- 
fluence, and a leader in the 
opposition which was made 
to the rebuilding of the temple 
by Nehemiah. Being con- 
nected by marriage with some 
influential families, he became 
the head of a formidable party, 
and maintained a correspond- 
ence with the nobles of Judah 
adverse to the interests of Ne- 
hemiah and his party, and 
even descended to threats, for 
the purpose of deterring that 
devoted man from the prose- 
cution of his purpose. During 
the absence of Nehemiah from 
Jerusalem, Tobiah obtained 
apartments in the temple for 
his private residence ; but Ne- 
hemiah, as soon as he returned 
to Jerusalem, expelled him 
and his furniture from the 
holy place, and ordered the 
chamoer which had been thus 
desecrated to be thoroughly 

TOGARMAH. (Ezek.xxvii. 
14.) A country deriving its 
name probably from a descend- 
ant of Japheth, (Gen. x. 3,) and 
trading with Tyre in horses 
and mules. The connexion in 
which Togarmah is usually 
mentioned would place it in 
Armenia. (Ezek. xxxviii.5, G.) 
TOMB. (See Burial.) 
TONGUE. (See Language.) 
TOOTH. (Ex.xxi.24.) The 
law of retaliation allowed the 



TOW 

Jewish magistrate to give to 
one who had been deprived ol 
a tooth or an eye, the tooth or 
eye of the aggressor in revenge. 
The Jews construed this law 
to justify private revenge; and 
this construction and the whole 
principle of the law were con- 
demned by our Saviour, and the 
law of forbearance and forgive- 
ness commended. (Matt. v. 39.) 
Cleanness of teeth is a figu- 
rative expression for famine. 
(Amos iv. 6.) Gnashing the 
teeth indicates terror, rage, and 
despair. (Matt. viii. 12.) The 
phrase in Ezek. xviii. 2, de- 
notes that the children suffer 
for the sins of their fathers. 

TOPAZ. (Ex. xxviii. 17.) A 
precious stone of various co- 
lours, which is supposed by 
many to have been the ancient 
chrysolite. A single topaz has 
been sold for upwards o'f a mil- 
lion of dollars. The finest spe- 
cimens are found in the East 
Indies. 

The topaz of Ethiopia, (Job 
xxviii. 19,) or southern Arabia, 
(see Ethiopia,) was probably 
distinguished for its beauty and 
value ; and that the most pre- 
cious stones were once found 
there, profane history asserts. 

TOPHET. (See Hell.) 

TORMENTORS. (Matt. 
xviii. 34.) This probably means 
the keepers of the prison, who 
were often employed to torture 
criminals in various ways. 

TORTOISE. (Lev. xi. 29.) 
It is generally supposed that 
this word, in the original, de- 
notes a species of lizard, and 
not the amphibious animal 
known to us as the tortoise. 

TOWER. (Matt. xxi. 33.) 
Towers were common in vine- 
yards, (Isa. v. 2,) and are often 
seen at the present day. They 
are sometimes thirty feet 
square, and sixty feet hish, 
and are a kind of pleasure- 
houses, serving as a shelter for 
the watchmen, and as a sum 
mer retreat of the owner, af 
619 



TRA 

erding an extensive prospect 
and fresh air. 

Tower of Babel. (See 
Babel, Language.) 

TowerofEdar, (Gen. xxxv. 
21,) or tower of the Jlock, as it 
is called, Mic. iv. 8. This is 
supposed to have been a par- 
ticular tower about a mile from 
Bethlehem, and to have been 
erected, like other towers, for 
the use of shepherds and herds- 
men to superintend theirflocks, 
and descry the approach of 
danger. (2Chron. xxvi. 10.) 
Some have supposed ihat the 
phrase tower of the Jiock had 

fjrophetic reference to Beth- 
ehem, as the birthplace of the 
Saviour. 

Tower of Shechem. This 
seems to have been a very- 
strong and spacious citadel, 
in the vicinity of the town of 
Shechem, to which the inha- 
bitants fled for refuge when 
the town was besieged by 
Abimelech. Fearing that this 
would not protect them, they 
escaped to the temple of one 
of their idol gods, which was 
also fortified, and the supposed 
sanctity of which they hoped 
would deter Abimelech from 
attacking it; but he surrounded 
it with fire made of green 
boughs, and burned or suffo- 
cated the whole multitude. 
£See Vines.) 

Tower lv Siloam. (Luke 
xiii.4.) Supposed to have been 
a high structure erected near 
the fountain or pool of Siloam. 
To those whom our Saviour 
addressed, the loss of life occa- 
sioned by the falling of this 
tower was familiar. 

TOWNS. (See Cities.) 

TKACHONITIS. (Lukeiii. 
1.) A rocky broken district 
east of the Jordan. It was in- 
fested with robbers,- and Herod 
theGreat obtained the province 
on condition that he would 
extirpate them. At his death 
his son Philir succeeded to 
the government of it. 



TRA 

TRADITION. (Matt. xv. 2.) 
A precept or custom not con- 
tained in the written law, but 
handed down from generation 
to generation. The Jews main- 
tain that God gave Moses, be- 
sides the law which w r e have 
in the Old Testament, a va- 
riety of precepts, which he 
made known to Joshua, by 
whom they were communi- 
cated to the elders, and by 
them to the judges, prophets, 
&c. ; that they were finally 
collected from various sources, 
and recorded in what is called 
the Talmud. Many of their 
traditions were in direct oppo- 
sition to the law of God, a strik- 
ing example of which is given 
by our Saviour in connexion 
with the passage above cited. 
There were, however, a variety 
of traditions, or doctrines and 
precepts, which persons di- 
vinely inspired taught by word 
of mouth. (2 Thess. ii. 15, and 
iii. 6.) The only way in which 
we can know satisfactorily 
that any tradition is of divine 
authority, is by its having a 
place in those writings which 
are generally acknowledged 
to be the genuine productions 
of inspired men. All tradi- 
tions which have not such 
authority are without value, 
and tend greatly to distract 
and mislead the minds of men. 

TRANCE. (Acts x. 10.) This 
word occurs but twice in the 
Old Testament, (Num. xxiv. 
4. 16,) and in both instances 
is supplied by the translators, 
and not found in the original. 
The word denotes a state of 
mind in which external objects 
are entirely unnoticed and for- 
gotten, so that the soul seems, 
for the time, to have passed 
out of the body, and to be occu- 
pied in purely spiritual con- 
templations. This slate may 
sometimes be the effect of na- 
tural causes; but, in the cas*» 
of Peter, there was an into 
position of supernatural powf . 
620 



TRE 

TRANSFIGURE. (Matt, 
xvii. 2.) This term denotes a 
change of aspect or appear- 
ance, not of substance or body. 
The change was seen in the 
face of the Redeemer, and in 
his apparel. It was exceed- 
ingly majestic and glorious, 
and is particularly described 
by the evangelists, ind alluded 
to by Peter. (2 Pet. i. 16—18.) 
The design of this miraculous 
event was manifold, but chiefly 
to attest, in the most solemn 
and mysterious manner, the di- 
vinity of the Messiah's person 
and mission; to support the 
faith of the disciples by evi- 
dence of the existence of a 
separate state, which was fur- 
nished by the appearance and 
conversation of Moses and 
Elias, and as showing, by the 
audible declaration of the Fa- 
Cher, a broad distinction be- 
tween this prophet and all 
others— This is myu beloved 
Son, hear hi?n. (See Life of 
Peter, pp. 53—56, by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 

TRANGRESSION. (Heb. 
ii. 2.) The two words used in 
this passage are by common 
usage nearly synonymous. Per- 
haps the former may be con- 
sidered as passing over the 
bounds prescribed by a law, 
or doing the things we ought 
not to do ; and disobedience 
as a refusal to do what it en- 
joins, or not doing the things 
we ought to do, 

TREASURE CITIES, (Ex. 

11,) TREASURE HOUSES. 
Ezra v. 17.) The kings of 
udah had keepers of the trea- 
ures both in city and country, 
(1 Chron. xxvii. 25;) and the 
towns where these treasures 
were deposited were called 
treasure cities, and the maga- 
zines or houses for their safe 
keeping were called treasure 
houses. (See Pithom.) • 

TREASURY, (John viii. 20,) 
TREASURIES. (1 Chron. ix. 
2G.) The place in the temple 



TRI 

where gifts were received. (See 
Temple.) 

TREE OF KNOWLEDGE. 
(See Adam. See also Ths 
First Man, § ii., by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

TRESPASS (Lev. vi. 2) 
usually denotes an offence 
committed against, or an inju- 
ry done to another. It implies 
a departure from duty in re- 
spect to God or man. (Matt. 
vi. 15.) 

Trespass-offering. (Set 
Offering.) 

TRIBE. (Num. i. 4.) The 
posterity of each of the tw 7 elve 
sons of Jacob is called a tribe. 
Jacob, on his death-bed, adopt- 
ed Ephraim and Manasseh, 
the sons of Joseph, as his own 
children, (Gen. xlviii. 5,) and 
thus made two tribes of one. 
In the distribution of the pro- 
mised land, however, only 
twelve shares were made ; for 
the tribe of Levi were to mi- 
nister in the temple, and to 
be supported by the contri- 
butions of the rest. (See Le- 
vites, Tithes, &c.) The 
twelve tribes continued to be 
one people until after the death 
of Solomon, when ten of them 
revolted, and became a sepa- 
rate monarchy u nder Jeroboam, 
and were called the kingdom 
of Israel, leaving the tribes of 
Benjamin and ~Judah under 
the government of Rehoboam, 
with the name of the kingdom 
of Judah. (See Hebrews.) 

TRIBUTE. (Gen.xlix. 15.) 
That which is paid to rulers 
in token of subjection, and 
for the support of government. 
By the Jewish law, (Ex. xxx. 
13,) a tribute or capitation tax 
was half a shekel, or twenty- 
five cents, which was expend- 
ed in the temple service. The 
conversation of our Saviour 
with Peter, on the subject of 
paying this tribute money, was 
designed to show him' that, 
being himself the Son of God, 
the king for whose service the 
621 



TUTt 

tribute was paid, he might 
justly be exempted from paying 
it ; but to prevent any need- 
less irritation on the part of the 
officers or nation, he, by mira- 
culous power, provided the 
means of paying the required 
tribute, which amounted to fifty 
cents for both. (Matt. xvii. 24.) 

TROAS. (Acts xvi. 8.) A 
maritime city of Mysia, on the 
Mediterranean, near the site 
of ancient Troy, so celebrated 
in Grecian history. Paul vi- 
sited it repeatedly. (Acts xx. 
5-12. 2 Cor. ii. 12. 2Tim.iv. 
13.) 

TROGYLLIUM. (Acts xx. 
15.) A town at the base of 
mount Mycale, in Ionia, op- 
posite to Samos, where Paul 
tarried one night on his way 
from Troas to Miletus. 

TROPHIMUS. (Acts xx. 4.) 
A native of Ephesus, (Actsxxi. 
29,) and a convert to the faith 
of the gospel, probably under 
Paul's ministry. He became 
one of the apostle's compa- 
nions and helpers in mission- 
ary travels and labours. (2 
Tim. iv. 20.) 

TRUMPET. (Ex. xix. 16.) 
The trumpet differed littlefrom 
the horn, and in particulars 
which are no longer discover- 
able. The silver trumpets 
were used by the priests alone 
in publishing the approach of 
festivals, and giving signals 
of war. (See Feasts.) 

TUBAL. (Gen. x. 2.) Fifth 
son of Japheth, whose descend- 
ants probably peopled a coun- 
try lying south of the Cauca- 
sus, between the Black Sea 
and the Aranes, whose inha- 
bitants were the Tibareni of 
the Greeks. The Circassians, 
who inhabit this region, are 
slave-dealers, and they of Tu- 
bal traded in the persons of 
men, (Ezek. xxvii. 13; xxxviii. 
2. Comp. Rev. xviii. 13.) 

TURBAN. (See Clothes.) 

TURTLE DOVE. (Lev. i. 
14.) A species of pigeon. By 



TYR 

the Jewish law, the poor who 
could not afford a more costly 
sacrifice were permitted to 
bring two turtle doves, or two 
young pigeons. (Lev. xii. 6 — 8.) 
By this the outward circum- 
stances of Mary, the mother 
of Christ, are known. (Luke 
ii. 24.) 

It is a bird of passage, (Jer. 
viii. 7,) and hence the allusion, 
Sol. Song ii. 12. Our transla- 
tion of Ps. lxxiv. 19, would be 
more conformable to ancient 
versions, if it should read, O 
deliver not the soul of him 
that confesseth thee, &c. And 
this variation can easily be 
accounted for, only by sup- 
posing, that, in the Hebrew, 
one letter has been substituted 
for another very much like it. 
There is, therefore, a strong 
probability that the Septuagint 
and the Syriac have preserved 
the true readmg in this place. 

TYCJHICUS. (Acts xx. 4.) 
A companion of Paul, and evi- 
dently a devoted and faithful 
disciple. (Eph. vi.21, 22. Col. 
iv. 7, 8.) 

TYRE, (Josh. xix. 29,) or 
TYRUS. (Ezek. xxvi. 2.) A 
city of Phenicia, now in the 
pachalic of Acre, about ninety 
miles north-west of Jerusalem, 
and 20 or 30 miles south-west 
of Sidon, and a city whose anti- 
quity is of ancient days. (Isa. 
xxiii. 7.) It was probably built 
thirteen hundred years before 
Christ. This, which was on the 
continent, and was destroyed 
by Nebuchadnezzar after a 
siege of thirteen years, must be 
distinguishedfromInsular,now 
Peninsular, Tyre, called Sour, 
(Sur.) The latter is about five 
miles distant from the other, 
and was the city which Alex- 
ander reached by means of a 
causeway from the main land, 
and entirely consumed, in 
accordance with prophecy. 
(Zech. ix. 3, 4.) Subsequently 
to this it revived, and belong- 
ed successively to Syria, and 
622 



TYR 

Egypt, to the Romans, Sara- 
cens, crusaders, and finally 
was razed to the ground by 
the Mamelukes of^Egypt, to 
prevent the ingress of Chris- 
tians. The city has now about 
four thousand inhabitants, and 
has some commercial pros- 
perity. 

The luxury, vice, and de- 
struction of this mighty city, 
which once had the entire 
control of the trade with India, 
and into whose lap the trea- 
sures of the world were poured, 
form the subjects of some of the 
most interesting prophecies, 
(Isa. xxiii. Ezek.xxvi. xxviii.;) 
and we are told by modern 
travellers that its desolation 
is complete. Messrs. Fisk and 
Jowett, missionaries, were 



TYR 

there io the fall of 1823, and 
the former describes the town 
and harbour as environed by 
rocks, on the ledges of which 
are scattered in every direction 
the fragments of ancient co- 
lumns. They counted not less 
than one himdred columns in 
one place on the rocks, and 
some ten or fifteen feet under 
water. The harbour is small 
and shallow, and they express 
their conviction that the waves 
of the sea now roll where once 
stood the vapt and magnificent 
palaces of Tyrlan wealth and 
luxury, and that the monu- 
ments of commercial enter- 
prise and prosperity have been 
overwhelmed by the storm of 
divine indignation, and are 
as if they had never been. 



UND 

ULAI. (See Shushan.) 
UNCIRCUMCISION. 
•'See Circumcised.) 

UNCLEAN. (See Clean 
and Unclean.) 

UNCOVER. (Lev. x. 6.) Un- 
covering the head was a token 
of mourning and captivity. 
(Isa. xlvii. 2.) Uncovering the 
thigh was removing the gar- 
ments from it preparatory to 
passing through the water. 
Uncovering the arm (Ezek. iv. 
7) was a preparation for the 
siei r P, by removing every en- 
cumbrance. 

UNCTION (1 John ii. 20) 
denotes the grace of God's Spi- 
rit bestowecfon believers, and 
used figuratively (in reference 
to the ceremony of anointing) 
to signify either health or pu- 
rity, or as a token of rejoicing. 
(See Anoint.) 

UNDERGIRDTNG. (Acts 
xxvii. 17.) Encircling the ves- 
sel with a stout cable. Lord An- 
son mentions a Spanish man- 
of-war that was saved by throw- 
ing overboard one tier of guns, 
and .aking six turns of a cable 



UNI 

around the ship, by which she 
was prevented from opening. 

UNDERSETTERS. (lKirigs 
vii. 30.) Projections by which 
the brazen laver was orna- 
mented and supported. 

UNICORN, (Deut. xxxiii. 
17,) or one horned. The ani- 
mal designated by this name 
was evidently distinguished 
for its ferocity, (Isa. xxxiv. 7,) 
strength, (Num. xxiii. 22 ; xxiv. 
8,) agility, (Ps. xxix. 6.) wild- 
Ifcss, (Job xxxix. 9,) and the 
prominency of its horn. (Deut. 
xxxiii. 17. Ps. xcii. 10.) But 
whether the original word 
translated unicorn means any 
particular animal, or at least 
any animal now known, is very 
problematical. That it was 
not the rhinoceros seems gene- 
rally agreed by modern critics, 
and that it might have been 
the eastern 'buffalo is not im- 
probable. 

UNITY of the spirit (Eph. 
iv. 3) signifies a union of judg- 
ment, affection, and feeling, 
among those who constitute the 
one body of Christ. It is the 
623 



UR1 

gift of God. (Jer. xxxii. 39.) It 
was remarkably enjoyed in the 
early ages of the church, (John 
xvii!2L Acts iv. 32,) and is to 
be desired and sought after as 
among the chief of Christian 
graces. (2 Cor. xiii. 11.) 

UNRIGHTEOUS MAM- 
MON. (See Mammon.) 

UPHARSIN. (SeeMENE.) 

UPPER ROOM. (See 
Dwellings.) 

UPPERMOST SEATS. (See 
Synagogues.) 

UR, (Gen. xi. 28.) called Ur 
of the Chaldees, was the birth- 
place of Abraham. Its con- 
nexion with the history of 
Abraham and Jacob, and the 
position of the only Haran 
now known, have induced 
modern geographers to place 
Ur in the north-west part of 
Mesopotamia, which was the 
land of the Chaldeans, (Ezek. 
i. 3,) where Orfah (formerly 
Edessa) now stands. A modern 
missionary tells us that Orfah 
is l>etween twenty and thirty 
miles distant from Haran, and 
that the eastern Jews still 
make their pilgrimage to this 
place as Ur of the Chaldees, 
and the birthplace of their 
great progenitor. Orfah is 
known in modern history as 
the seat of war between the 
emperor Julian and the Per- 
sians. It has now a population 
of 30,000, and derives its suste- 
nance from manufactures and 
the caravan of Aleppo. 

URIAH, (2 Sam. xi. 3,) or 
URIAS. (Matt. i. 6.) The hus- 
band of Bathsheba, and an of- 
ficer in David's army. His 
death was purposely brought 
about by an understanding be- 
tween Joab and David, in order 
that David's guilt in the case 
of Bathsheba might be con- 
cealed, and that he might ob- 
tain her for his wife. 
• UR1M AND THUMMIM. 
(Ex. xxviii. 30.) Thiese words 
literally signify lights and per- 



uzz 

fections. And whether they 
denote some divine manifesta- 
tion made in or upon the breast- 
plate itself, or whether it was 
a visible appendage to the 
breastplate, indicating its pe- 
culiar and sacred use in tnia 
respect, we know not. The 
utmost that can be satisfacto- 
rily known respecting the sub- 
ject is, that it was the manner 
or thing through which aknow- 
ledge of the divine will waa 
sought and conveyed. (DeuU 
xxxiii, 8. 1 Sam. xxviii. 6.) 

USURY. (Matt. xxv. 27.) 
The word usury, by modern 
usage, means exorbitant or un- 
lawful interest; but in the 
Scriptures it means any inte- 
rest. The law of Moses prohi- 
bited the Jews from taking any 
interest of each other for the 
loan of money, or any thing 
else, though they were allowed 
to take it of foreigners. The 
exchangers of money were in 
the habit of receiving it at low 
interest, and loaning it at high 
interest, taking the difference 
for their gain. (Ezek. xxii. 12.) 
The practice of usury is severe- 
ly denounced in the Scripture* 
(Neh. v. 7. 10. Ps. xv. 5. Prow 
xxviii. 8.) 

UZ. (Lam. iv. 21.) A dte 
trict of Arabia, which was pro- 
bably settled by the posterity 
of Uz. or Huz, a descendant of 
Shemi, (Gen. x. 23; xxii. 21,) and 
distinguished as the dwelling 
place of Job, whose estate wa» 
like that of a modern BedouiB 
sheikh. It was probably an 
extensive district, (Jer. xxv. 
20,) and perhaps subject to Idu 
mea. (Lam. iv. 21.) 

UZZAH. (2 Sam. vi. 3.) A 
son of Abinadab, who was in- 
stantly killed, by the immedi 
ate act of God, for laying his 
hands upon the ark, in viola- 
tion of the express provisions 
of the divine law. (Num. iv. 
2-15.) 

UZZIAH. (See Azariah.) 
624 



V1N 



VIJV 



VAIL, or VEIL. (See Tem- | 
ple, Clothes.) 

VALLEY OF SALT. (See 
Salt.) 

VASHTI. (Esth. i. 9.) Queen 
of Persia, and the repudiated 
wife of Ahasuerus. (See Ha- 
dassah, pp. 14—16, by Am. S. 
S. Union.) 

VENGEANCE (Rom. xii. 
19.) This word often denotes 
merely punishment, without 
any reference to the state of 
mind in which it is inflicted. 
In the passage cited, and else- 
where, (Deut. xxxii. 35,) the 
exclusive right of God to pu- 
nish wrong-doers, and to vin- 
dicate the right, is plainly 
asserted. Hence every act of 
revenge is an interference with 
the divine prerogative. The 
word is applied to God in the 
same manner in which anger, 
hatred, &c. are applied ; not as 
denoting a state or temper of 
mind, but as implying an act 
or course of proceeding such 
as usually indicates a particu- 
lar state of mind, when done 
or pursued by man. 

VERMILION. (Ezek. xxiii. 
14.) A chemical substance, 
used for colouring red, and 
much valued for ornamenting 
dwellings (Jer. xxii. 14) and 

fainting images. (Ezek. xxiii. 
4.) Modern travellers men- 
tion that the custom of paint- 
ing and sometimes gilding the 
ceilings of eastern houses is 
still prevalent. 
VIAL. (See Censer.) 
VILLAGES. (See Cities.) 
VINEGAR. (Prov.x.26.) The 
Hebrews seem to have had two 
kinds of vinegar ; one of which 
they used as a drink, (Num. 
vi. 3,) which was probably a 
weak red wine; and the other 
as an acid diluted with wa- 
ter. Bread and cider formerly 
made a common article of food 
among labouring men in some 
parts of this country. Ruth ii. 
53 



14.) The first kind was proba 
bly provided foi *he Romav 
soldiers on the occasion ol 
the crucifixion. (John xix. 29.> 
The unpleasant sensation pro 
duced upon the teeth by vine 
gar illustrates the offensiveness 
of a sluggard to those who em* 
ploy him. (Prov. x. 26.) And 
the effervescence occasioned 
when vinegar is poured upon 
nitre, or soda, represents th 
opposition or incongruity o. 
mirth and sorrow, and the e 
feet of attempting to mingle 
them. (Prov. xxv 20.) 

VINES (Num. xx. 5) and 
VINEYARDS (Ezek. xxviii. 
26) have been highly prized in 
every country. We first read 
of a vineyard in the history of 
Noah. (Gen. ix. 20.) The culti- 
vation of the vine had obtained 
to some perfection in very early- 
times. In the accounts of Met 
chizedek, who set bread and 
wine before Abraham ; of Lot, 
who was drunken; of aged 
Isaac, when regaled by his 
sons ; in the prophecy of dying 
Jacob, and in the book of Job, 
we have the earliest accounts 
of wine as a common dririft. 
(Gen. xiv. 18; xix. 32; xxvii, 
25 ; xlix. 12. Job i. 18. Prov. 
xxiii. 30, 31. Isa. v. 11.) 

The vineyard is commonly 
mentioned in the Bible in con- 
tradistinction from the field, 
and is occasionally used in 
speaking of ordinary gardens. 
Vines were usually planted 
upon heights and precipitou 
crags, (Jer. xxxi. 5,) where i 
was sometimes necessary to 
build walls in order to retain 
the soil. 

The methods of planting the 
vine were various. They were 
usually propagated by suckers. 
The branches'were sometimes 
suffered to creep upon trie 
earth ; or the vine stood up- 
right without support ; or a post 
was erected with a cross-piece : 
625 



VIN 
or a trellis or arbour was set 
up, with four or more d;_.r : ght 
pillars, over which the boughs 
spread. We are told that the 
vines in Africa, Syria, and all 
Asia were left to trail upon 
the ground, and this method is 
observed in the region of Le 
banon,.and about Joppa. (Ezek. 
xvii. 6.) Very often, however, 
the Syrian vines are trained 
upon trellis, or frame-work, in 
straight rows ; sometimes upon 
rees, and particularly the fig 
• ree, whence the proverbial 
expression, to repose under 
one's own vine and fig tree, as 
an emblem of peace and secu- 
rity. (Mic. iv. 4. Zech. iii. 10.) 
Vines are found at Hebron 
trained in this manner, and 
bearing clusters of ten pounds 
weight. Sometimes they run 
up upon the sides of the house. 
(Ps. cxxviii. 3. See Walls.) 

Vineyards were enclosed 
with a hedge or a wall, to de- 
fend them from the ravages of 
beasts, to which they are often 
exposed. A tower was also 
built as the station of a watch- 
man. (Num. xxii. 24. Ps.lxxx. 
8-13. Prov. xxiv. 31. Sol. 
Song ii. 15. Matt. xxi. 33. See 
Tower.) 

The Hebrews devoted as 
much care to their vineyards 
as to their agriculture. When 
Isaiah predicts the invasion of 
the Assyrians, he declares that 
the vineyard where there were 
a thousand vines for a thou- 
sand pieces of silver, shall be 
even for briers and thorns. 
(Isa. vii. 23.) When he would 
represent sorrow, he says, The 
new wine mourneth, the vine 
languisheth, and all the merry- 
hearted do sigh. (Isa. xxiv. 7.) 
SoZechariah (viii. 12) foretells 
future prosperity thus : The 
seed shall be prosperous, the 
vine shall give her fruit. (See 
also Hab. iii. 17. Mai. iii. 11.) 

The pruning of the vine is a 
familiar operation, which we 



VIN 

all know to be necessary in 
order to its fruitfulness. The 
law which forbade the Israel- 
ites to gather the grapes of the 
first three years, (Lev. xix. 23,) 
gave occasion to the more care- 
ful and unsparing use of the 
pruning knife; hence the 
young stock came to much 
greater strength. A traveller 
mentions a custom of the vine- 
dressers to prune their vines 
thrice in the year; the first 
time in March ; and when clus- 
ters begin to form, they again 
lop off those twigs which have 
no fruit; the stock puts out 
new twigs in April, some of 
which form clusters, and those 
which have none are again cut 
off in May ; the vine shoots a 
third time, and the new 
branches have a third set of 
clusters. (See John xv. 2, in 
which passage the word purg- 
eth may be rendered pruneth.) 

What remains of the culture 
of the vine is very simple. 
Once or twice in the season 
the plough was run through the 
vineyard, to loosen the earth, 
and free it from weeds; the 
stones were gathered out, and 
a proper direction was given 
to the growing branches. (Isa. 
v. 2.) The vine-dressers, or 
keepers of the vineyard, formed 
a distinct branch of labourers. 
(2 Kings xxv. 12.) 

The regular vintage begins 
in Syria about the middle of 
September, and lasts about 
two months. (Lev. xxvi. 5. 
Amos ix. 13.) Ripe clusters, 
however, are found in Pales- 
tine as early as June and July, 
although the regular vintage 
begins in September. This dif- 
ference may arise from \he 
threefold growth of the vin* 
already mentioned. The first 
gathered in Canaan is probably 
meant in Num. xiii. 20. 

The vintage was celebrated 
by the Hebrews with still more 
festivity than the harvest, (Isa. 
626 



vow 

xvi. 9,) and was sometimes a 
season of wicked mirth. (Judg. 
ix. 27.) 

VINTAGE. (See Wine, 
Vine.) 

VIOL. (Amos vi. 5.) This 
was an instrument of music, 
and supposed to be the same 
with the psaltery. (See Music.) 
Chanting to the sound of it was 
to make like sounds with the 
voice, modulating the tones so 
as to correspond with the 
sounds of the instrument. 

VIPER. (Job xx. 16.) A ve- 
nomous serpent, from two to 
five feet in length. Its bite is 
extremely painful, and, in 
many species, quickly and 
certainly fatal ; so that it was 
anciently regarded as a special 
judgment from heaven to be 
bitten by one. (Acts xxviii. 
1—6.) Hence the viper is an 
emblem of whatever is deceit- 
ful and destructive. (Matt. iii. 
7; xii. 34; xxiii. 33. Luke iii. 
7. See Cockatrice.) 

VISION. (Num.xxiv.4.) In 
former times God was pleased 
to reveal himself, and commu- 
nicate his will in what were 
called visions, which were 
caused either in the night in 
ordinary sleep, (Dan. vii. 1,) 
er by day in a temporary 
trance. (Acts xxvi. 13. See 
Dream, Trance.) 

VOW. (Num. vi. 2.) In the 
scriptural use, this word means 
a solemn religious promise, or 
covenant, by which one binds 
himself to do or suffer certain 
things, depending on God for 
power to accomplish it. Hence 
vows were made with prayer, 
and paid with thanksgiving. 
fNum. vi. 2— U. Judg. xi 30, 



VUL 

31. Ps. lxi. 5. Acts xvm. 18 
See Nazakite. See also Bib- 
lical Antiquities, vol. ii. cfr 
v. § 1, by Am. S. S. Union.) 

VULTURE. (Lev. xi. to., 
A filthy, rapacious bird, un- 
clean by the ceremonial law, 
(Deut. xi\ 13.) but useful for 
destroying substances which 
might otherwise produce pes- 
tilence. They flock to fields 
of battle to satiate themselves 
upon the unburied. (Isa. xxxiv 
6.15.) The extreme acuteness of 
the sense of sight in the vulture 
enables it to discern its prey 
at a great distance : and it is a 
striking instance in the accu- 
racy of the Scripture writers, 
that while common sentiment 
attributes to the sense of smell- 
ing the peculiar faculties of 
thfs bird, its Hebrew name 
means seeing. And in the re- 
cital of GocTs wonders in the 
animal creation, in the book 
of Job, the characteristic of th9 
eagle (one of the same tribe 
with the vulture) is, that her 
eyes behold afar off. The same 
peculiarity is referred to, Job 
xxviii. 7, there is a path which 
the vulture's eye hath not 
seen; implying that its vision 
is most acute and penetrating. 
Recent experiments by a natu- 
ralist in South Carolina, wheue 
vultures abound, prove satis- 
factorily that this bird is guided 
solely by its sight in the pur- 
suit of its prey, and that its 
powers of vision are very extra- 
ordinary: thus sustaining the 
truth of Scripture, even in mat- 
ters not of a religious or mora) 
character ; and this, in contra- 
diction to the common opinio* 
of mankind. 

693 



WAL 



WAi, 



WAFER. (Ex. xvi.31.) A 
thin cake of fine flour 
used in various offerings anoint- 
ed with oil. (See Manna.) 

WAGON. (Gen. xlv. 19.) 
Wagons, and similar vehicles, 
which are considered by us so 
indispensable in transporta- 
tion, are not used at this day in 
the east, or in Egypt. Niebuhr 
states that he saw nothing of 
the kind either in Arabia or 
Egypt. In ancient times, how- 
ever, they were well known, 
and frequently employed. 
• (Num. vii. 3. Amos ii. 13.) 
We have figures of rude vehi- 
cles of this kind on monu- 
ments, supposed to be as an- 
cient as the age succeeding 
that of Joseph. 

WAIL. (Ezek. xxxii. 18.) 
To mourn with loud and vio- 
lent expressions of distress and 
despair. 

WALLS. (Gen. xlix. 6.) The 
walls of ancient times were 
generally built of earth, or 
ciay, mixed with straw, and 
hardened in the sun. Hence 
it was necessary to build them 
of great thickness, in order 
to ensure their permanency. 
When any breach took place 
in such a mass of earth, either 
by heavy rains or some defect 
in the foundation, the conse- 
quences were very serious. 
(Ps. lxii. 3. Isa. xxx. 13.) The 
fact that bricks were made in 
such a rude and perishable 
manner gives force to the con- 
trast presented in Isa. ix. 10; 
and as considerable straw en- 
tered into their composition, 
and the earth of which they 
were made was dry and porous, 
it is not surprising that they 
could be destroyed by fire. 
(Amos i. 7. 10. 14.) 

I The expression in Job xxiv. 

* 11, is supposed by some to refer 
to the low walls which were 
built in vineyards for the vines 
to run upon ; and they maintain 



that the passage should read 
thus— 'They work at midday 
among their walls on rows of 
vines.' It may be that olive- 
yards were enclosed with 
walls, as we know vineyards 
were, and then the passage 
would be plain as it stands. 

The walls of vineyards were 
temporary, being probably de- 
signed chiefly to guard the 
enclosure against the jackals, 
which wereliumerous in Pales- 
tine, especially during the 
vintage, often destroying whole 
vineyards and fields of cucum 
bers. Hence the bitterness 
of the sarcasm of Tobiah, (Neh 
iv. 3,) as if the wall the Jews 
were buildingforthe protection 
of their capital, was scarcely 
better or stronger than a tern 
porary vineyard wall to bai 
out jackals or foxes. 

A fenced wall (Isa. ii. 15) is 
a fortified wall. (See Cities.) 

WAR. (Gen. xiv. 2.) We 
read of vast armies in the land 
of Palestine. (2Chron. xiii. 3; 
xiv. 8, 9; xvii. 14—18; xxv. 
5—7; xxvi. 11—15.) 

From the nature of the arms 
and the customs of the an. 
cients, their battles were truly 
murderous. In those times, 
heroes sought througn the 
whole field~for their personal 
enemies. Scarcely ever was 
any quarter given, except 
where the vanquished was re- 
tained as a slave, and conse- 
quently the number of killed 
was often immense. (2Chron. 
xiii. 17.) 

Although the military art 
was comparatively simple, yet 
ingenious stratagems of various 
kinds were practised. Ene- 
mies were then, as now, sur- 
prised and overcome by unex- 
pected divisions of the forces, 
by ambushes, and by false 
retreats. (Gen. xiv. 15. Josh, 
viii. 12. Judg. xx. 36—39. 2 
Kings vii. 12.) 



WAR 

Previously to the invention 
of fire-arms, it was found ne- 
cessary to resort to many com- 
plicated and unwieldy ma- 
chines for casting heavy stones, 
and other destructive missiles. 
We find, however, little allu- 
sion to these in the Bible. 
About the end of the ninth or 
the beginning of the eighth 



WAR 

century before Christ, Uzziah 
made in Jerusalem engines 
invented by cunning men, to 
be on the towers and bulwarks, 
to shoot arrows and great 
stones withal. (2Chron. xxvi. 
15.) These were obviously 
similar to those in use by the 
Greeks and Romans. 
Among these was the batter- 




WAR 
ing-ram (Ezek. iv. 1,2; xxi. 
22.) This was nothing more 
than a long beam of strong 
wood, usually oak. It was 
intended to batter down walls, 
and the end with which the 
assault was made was armed 
with a mass of heavy metal, 
in the shape of a rani's head. 
Occasionally they were sharp- 
ly pointed at this end. These 
great beams were at first car- 
ried by the soldiers, and driven 
against the walls; afterwards 
hey wer? placed upon wheels ; 



WAR 

| but in process of time, they 
were suspended by heavy 
chains, so that a comparatively 
small force would impel them 
with vast effect against a forti- 
fication. The men who worked 
the battering-ram were pro- 
tected by a covering or roof, 
spread with something damp 
and tough, (as wet hides,) to 
resist the fire and the weapons 
of the besieged. 

The crow was also the name 
of an instrument of war, a figure 

! of which is here given. 




It is supposed that Hushai 
(2 Sam. xv ii. 13) alluded to a 
machine like the crow, when 
he said to Absalom, If David 
be in a city, then shall all Is- 
rael bring ropes to that city, 
and we will draw it into the 
river, until there be not one 
small stone found there. The 
crow could only be effective 
where the walls of a town 
were not in sood condition, or 
not well defended; and then 
if the besiegers were sufficient- 
iiy numerous to work it. by ap- 



plying a great number of ropes 
to the same beam, they could 
soon open a way for the be- 
sieging army. There certainty 
is reason to conclude that 
Hushai's proposition arose from 
his knowing that king David 
was almost deserted, and that 
the hearts of the men of Israel 
were after Absalom, and that 
the plan, though injudicious in 
itself, alluded to the use of 
some weapon of attack similar 
to the crow which was w T orked 
by means ol ropes, so pointedly 
630 



WAR 

mentioned in this otherwise 
obscure passage. 

But there was no part of the 
ancient military preparations 
which was more terrible than 
the chariot. (Ex. xiv. 7. Deut. 
xx. 1. Josh. xvii. 16. Judg. iv. 
3.) They were in common 
use wherever there was any 
cavalry. (2 Sam. x. IS. 1 Chron. 
xviii. 4. 2 Chron. xii. 3; xiv. 9. 
See Chariot.) 

Walls and towers were used 
in fortifications, and the latter 
were guarded by soldiers, and 
are called garrisons. (2 Sam. 
viii. 6. Ezek. xxvi. 11. See 
Ward.) 

As to the order of battle, we 
have no certain knowledge. 
The prophet alludes to it. (Jer. 
xlvi. 3, 4.) Among all ancient 
nations, it was customary to 
take previous refreshment of 
food, in order to give strength 
to the army. The soldiers, 
and especially the command- 
ers, arrayed themselves in 
their costliest garments and 
fairest armour, except in cases 
where disguise was attempted. 
(1 Kings xxii. 30.) 

Various passages lead to the 
opinion that divisions of the 
army were common, as in 
modern times. (Gen. xiv. 15. 
Judg. vii. 16. ISam. xi. 11.) 
The most frequent division of 
the host was into tens, hun- 
dreds, and thousands; and 
each of these had its com- 
mander, or captain. (Judg. xx. 
10. 1 Sam. viii. 12. 2Kings xi. 
4.) This is an ancient method, 
and is still common in Persia. 
Among the Hebrews these di- 
visioni had some reference 
to the several families, and 
were under the heads of fami- 
lies, as their officers. (2 Chron. 
xxv. 5 ; xxvi. 12.) The cap- 
tains of hundreds and of thou- 
sands were of high rank, or 
(so to speak) staff-officers, who 
were admitted to share in the 
councils of war. (1 Chron. xiii. 
I.) The whole army had its 



WAR 

commander-in-chief, or cap- 
tain, who was over the host, 
and its scribe, or keeper of the 
muster-roll. (1 Kings iv. 4. 

1 Chron. xviii. 15. 16; xxvii. 
32—34. 2 Chron. xvii. 14; xxvi. 
11.) In Isa. xxxiii. 18, the words 
translated he that counted the 
towers probably indicate what 
we should call a chief en- 
gineer. 

Under David, the army of 
288,000 men was divided into 
twelve corps, each of which 
was consequently24,000 strong, 
and had its own general. 
(1 Chron. xxvii.) Under Je- 
hoshaphat this was altered, 
and there were five unequal 
corps, under as many com- 
manders. (2 Chron. xvii. 14— 
19.) 

The cohort had five or six 
hundred men, and the legion 
embraced ten cohorts. 

The light troops were pro- 
vided with arms which they 
used at some distance from the 
enemy. They are designated 

2 Chron. xiv. 8; while the 
heavy armed were those who 
boreshield and spear. (IChron. 
xii. 24.) The light troops were 
taken principally from the 
tribe of Benjamin, as appears 
from the last cited texts. 

Kings and generals had ar- 
mour-bearers, selected from 
the bravest of their favourites, 
and who not only carried their 
armour, which was in those 
days a necessary service, but 
stood by them in the hour of 
danger, carried their orders, 
and were not unlike modern 
adjutants. (1 Sam. xxxi. 4.) 

The troops were excited to 
ardour and bravery by address- 
es from their priests, who were 
commanded to appeal to them. 
(Deut. xx. 2.) In later times, 
kings themselves were accus 
tomed to harangue their ar- 
j mies. (2 Chron. xiii. 4.) Final- 
ly (perhaps after the sacrifices 
! had been offered) the summons 
1 was given by the holy trum 
631 



WAS 
pets. (Num. x. 9, 10. 2 Chron. 
xiii. 12-14.) 

It was the practice of the 
Greeks, when they were with- 
in half a mile of the enemy, to 
sing their war-song. A simi- 
lar custom probably prevailed 
among the Jews. (2 Chron. xx. 
21.) 

Next followed the shout, or 
war-cry ', which the Romans 
accompanied with the noise 
of shields and spears struck 
violently together^ This war- 
cry was common in the east, 
as it is to this day among the 
Turks. It was the alarm or 
shout so often mentioned in 
Scripture. (1 Sam. xvii. 52. 
2 Chron. xiii. 15. Job xxxix.25. 
Jer. iv. 19.) 

The frequent figurative allu- 
sions to the art and weapons 
of war, used by the sacred 
writers, are obvious without 
explanation. 

The practice of offensive war 
in modern times cannot be de- 
fended by reference to sacred 
history. We have a new 
and better dispensation, which 
breathes forgiveness and for- 
bearance; and the tendency 
and promised fruit of which is 
to banish wars and fightings 
from the earth, and make it the 
abode of peace and love. (For 
further information on this sub- 
ject, see Arms, Armour. See 
also Omar, ch. iii— v., and* 
Biblical Antiquities, vol. i. 
ch. ix. § 6, both by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

WARD. (Gen. xl. 3. Acts 
xii. 10.) A prison, or an apart- 
ment thereof. Also a garrison 
or military post, (Neh. xii. 25,) 
or a class or detachment of 
persons for any particular ser- 
vice. (1 Chron. ix. 23; xxv. 8. 
Neh. xiii. 30.) 

WARDROBE. (2Kingsxxii. 
14.) The place where the 
royal robes cr priests' vest- 
ments were deposited. 

WASHING. (See Feet.) 

WASHPOT. Ps. Ix. 8.) This | 



WAT 

word in its connexion signifies 
that the Moabites should be 
reduced to the most abject and 
degrading servitude. 

WATCH. (Ex.xiv.24.) The 
original division of the night 
was into the first, middle, and 
morning watch; but after the 
captivity, the Jews adopted 
the custom of Romeand Greece, 
which divided the twelve hours 
of the night into four watches, 
beginning with six in the after- 
noon. (Mark xiii. 35. See 
Cock-crowing.) The time 
that passed between the watch- 
es seems to a person that sleeps 
soundly as but a single mo- 
ment. (Ps. xc. 4.) 

WATCHER. (Dan. iv. 17. 
23.) This word is supposed to 
denote either the Divine Being 
himself (ver. 24) or his holy 
messengers, (ver. 13.) It im- 
ports the special universal pro- 
vidence of God, by which the 
affairs of the universe are or- 
dered, and the rise and fall of 
kings and empires controlled. 
The twelve superior gods of 
the Chaldeans were called 
counsellor gods, and were sup- 
posed to watch over and inte 
rest themselves in the minutest 
affairs of men. 

WATCHMAN. (Sol. Song 
v. 7. Isa. xxi. 11.) In Persia, 
the watchmen were required 
to indemnify those who were 
robbed in the streets, and hence 
they were extremely vigilant 
to give the alarm, and protect 
the city and its inhabitants 
from violence. (Ezek. xxxiii. 
2-6.) The watchman was also 
required to call the hours of 
the night in a loud voice, as 
he patrolled the streets. This 
is customary at the present day 
in some large cities. In time 
of danger the watchmen were 
posted in towers over the gates 
of the city. (Isa. xxi. 8 ; lxii. 6.) 

WATER. (Gen. xviii. 4.) 

The scarcity of water is one 

of the calamities of the eastern 

world, and the distress whsch 

632 



WAT 

is often experienced by man 
and beast for want of it is 
indescribable. Park, the Af- 
rican traveller, telis us that 
after several days of privation, 
he had fallen asleep, and his 
fancy would carry him to the 
banks of some clear and beau- 
tiful river, which he surveyed 
with transport, and eagerly 
hastened to quench his parch- 
ing thirst, and the fancied 
effort would wake him to the 
dreadful disappointment. How 
admirably does this illustrate 
Isa. xxix. 8. 

In Prov. xxi. 1, the original 
term rendered rivers signifies 
divisions, partitions, sections, 
and refers to the ancient ori- 
ental methods of conveying 
water to orchards and gardens. 
This was by means of canals, 
ox rivulets flowing in artificial 
channels, called in Hebrew 
divisions, i. e. cvts or trenches, 
which distributed the water in 
everydirection,to irrigateabun- 
dantly their otherwise parched 
and barren soil. With a simi- 
lar allusion, the psalmist (Ps. 
i. 3) says of the godly man, the 
lover of the divine law, that 
he shall be like a tree planted 
by the rivers of water, (divi- 
sions or sections of water,) that 
bringeth forth his fruit in his 
season, and his leaf shall not 
wither. The reference is doubt- 
less to trees nourished by arti- 
ficial irrigation, like those in 
the neighbourhood of Damas- 
cus. The gardens are thick- 
set with fruit trees of all kinds, 
kept fresh and verdant by the 
waters of the Barady. This 
river, as soon as it issues out 
from the cleft of the mountain 
into the plain, is immediately 
divided into three streams, of 
which the middlemost and 
largest runs directly to Damas- 
cus^ through a large open field 
called the Ager Damascenus, 
and is distributed to all the 
cisterns and fountains in the] 
city. The other two, which are [ 



WAT 

taken to be the work of art, are 
drawn round, the one to the 
right hand, and the other to 
the left, (as the rivers of water 
are turned,) on the borders of 
the gardens, into which they 
are let out as they pass, by 
little currents, (divisions,) and 
so dispersed all over the vast 
wood; insomuch that there is 
not a garden but has a fine 
quick stream running through 
it. A traveller describing the 
orange garden of the emir of 
Beyroot, observes that " it con 
tains a large quadrangular plat 
of ground, divided into sixteen 
lesser squares, four in a row, 
with walks between them. 
The walks are shaded with 
orange trees, of a large spread- 
ing size. Every one of these 
sixteen lesser squares, in the 
garden was bordered with 
stone ; and in the stone work 
were troughs very artificially 
contrived," for conveying the 
water all over the garden: 
there being little outlets cut 
at every tree, for the stream, 
as it passed by, to flow out 
and water it." With these 
items of oriental custom be- 
fore us, we perceive at once 
the point of the comparison in 
the passage, Prov. xxi. 1. In 
Deut. xi. 10, it is said of the 
land of promise, The land whi- 
ther thou goest in to possess 
it, is not as the land of Egypt, 
f4fjm whence ye came out t 
where thou sowedst thy seed* 
and water edst it with thy foot, 
as a garden of herbs. The 
phrase watering with the foot 
may refer to the construction of 
channels and water-courses 
like those above mentioned, 
which was accomplished by 
the action of the foot in dig- 
ging. So also in 2Kingsxix. 
24, / have digged and ^drunk 
strange waters, and with the 
sole of my feet have I dried 
up all the rivers of besieged 
places ; i. e. I have digged new 
channels by the labours :>f th« 
633 



WAT 

pade, have turned the rivers 
out of their ancient courses, 
which consequently were dried 
up T and thus have made my 
army to drink of strange wa- 
ters, flowing in channels to 
which they had never before 
been accustomed. It would 
with us be a very bold figure 
to say that Cyrus dried up the 
Euphrates, the river of Baby- 
lon, with his foot ; but w hen 
understood, as now explained, 
of digging a new channel, which 
was done with proper imple- 
ments by the agency of many 
thousand feet, the expression 
would be by no means high- 
wrought to the imagination of 
an oriental. Another, and as 
some think, much more natu- 
ral opinion is, that allusion is 
made to the machinery for 
drawing up water, by means of 
a rope or string of buckets at- 
tached to a wheel, which was 
turned like a modern tread- 
mill ; a description and cut of 
which may be seen in Scrip- 
ture Illustrations, part i. 
pp. 22—39, by Am. S. S. Union. 

In the hot countries of the east 
the assuaging of thirst is one of 
the most Belightful sensations 
that can be felt, and hence the 
frequent allusions to it in the 
sacred writings. (Ps. cxliii. 6. 
Prov. xxv. 25, &c.) Every at- 
tention which humanity and 
hospitality can suggest is paid 
at the present day to furnish^ 
travellers with water. We are 
told that public reservoirs or 

f)ols are opened in Arabia and 
gypt ; and in the Moham- 
medan villages of Palestine, 
bread and water were furnished 
by the inhabitants gratuitously. 
In India, at this day, the na- 
tives offer water to weary tra- 
vellers, in honour of their gods. 
Hence the force and beauty 
of the allusion, Matt. x. 42. 
Water was commonly drawn 
out of wells by females, and 
transported, upon the shoulder J 
or head, in large leathern or { 



WEE 

earthen vessels. (See Con 
duit. See Evening Recrea- 
tions, vol. ii. pp. 110—114, and 
Bedouin Araes, ch. ii., botn 
by Am. S. S. Union.) 

Water-spouts. (Ps.xlii.7.) 
This surprising phenomenon 
was not unfrequently seen on 
the Syriac and Jewish coasts. 
It is forcibly alluded to by the 
psalmist in the passage above 
cited. He represents the ca- 
lamities that came upon him, 
according to the prediction^ 
(2 Sam. xii. 11,) as like a vio- 
lent storm at sea, where the 
torrents that pour down from 
above meet the columns of 
water that ascend from the 
depths beneath; the clouds 
above calling to the waters 
below, and exciting each other 
to join their force and over- 
whelm the despairing sufferer 
in hopeless destruction. 

WAX. (Ps. xxii. 14.) A well 
known substance, easily soft- 
ened and dissolved by heat. 
(Ps. Ixviii. 2; xcvii. 5. Mic. 
i.4.) 

WEASEL. (Lev.xi.29.) Ge- 
nerally agreed to mean the 
mole. (See Mole.) 

WEATHER. (Job xxxvii. 
22.) The words fair weather 
might better be rendered gold- 
en splendour, and then the 
allusion to the aurora borealis 
is obvious. 

WEDDING GARMENT. 
(Matt.xxii.il.) The wedding 
garments were furnished by 
the host, and were required to 
be worn by those who were 
admitted as guests at marriage- 
suppers. So holiness and rightr 
eousness are called the gar- 
ments in which the guests 
must appear at the marriage 
supper of the Lamb. (See 
Marriage.) 

WEEK. (Gen. xxix.27.) The 
word in this passage means 
the term of seven days, daring 
which the marriage festival 
lasted, as if Laban had said, 
'Attend to the ceremonies of 
634 



WEL 
the present marriage first, and 
then commence another term 
of seven years service for Ra- 
chel.' The division of time 
into portions of seven days 
had its origin at the beginning 
of the creation, (Gen. vii. 4— 
10; viii. 10. 12,) and traces of 
it are found in every quarter 
of the world. It is to be ob- 
served that this is not a divi- 
sion of time suggested, like the 
day, month, or year, by the 
revolutions of the heavenly 
oodies. It is perfectly arbi- 
trary, and yet in all the coun- 
tries of the east, among ancient 
nations, before they "had any 
knowledge of the sacred his- 
tory, or even in the unculti- 
vated tribes of Africa, this 
division is recognised, and the 
days of the week named. 

The Jews gave no names for 
the days of the week, but sim- 
ply the number, as the first, 
second, or third day. And this 
practice is adopted by many 
persons at the present day, 
especially by the society of 
Friends. The names of the 
days in modern use are de- 
rived frcn the Saxon language, 
in which they have a mytho- 
logical signification. 

besides weeks of seven days, 
which were rendered from one 
Sabbath to another, they had 
a week of years, or seven years, 
and a week of seven times 
seven years, which brought in 
the fiftieth or jubilee year. 

Feast of weeks. (See 
Feasts.) 

WEIGHTS. (See Mea- 
sures.) 

WELLS. (Ex. xv. 27.) These 
were very essential in a coun- 
try of flocks and herds, and 
were generally provided at 
each place of pasturage. They 
were deep, (John ivTll,) anJ 
expensive to dig and preserve, 
and hence were a valuable 
part of the husbandman's pro- 
perty. (Num. xx. 17—19.) Th*y 
Were sometimes owned in cohi- 



WHE 

mon. (Gen.xxix.2,3.) To protect 
them from the sand, and from 
being used by others, they were 
covered usually with a stone. 
(Gen. xxix. 2, 8.) To stop them 
up was, and still is, regarded 
as an act of hostility, (Gen. 
xxvi. 15;) and to invade the 
right of property in them was 
often the cause of sore con- 
tention. (Gen. xxi. 25.) In a 
country where water was so 
valuable, and so difficult to be 
procured, it was an appro- 
priate emblem of rich bless- 
ings. (Jer. ii. 13; xvii. 13.) 

Jacob's well. (See Omar. 
pp. 110-114, by Am. S. S. 
Union.) 

WHALE. (Job vii. 12.) In 
the Mosaic account of the cre- 
ation, we are told that on the 
fifth day God created great 
whales. (Gen.i.21.) The word 
probably means no particular 
species of animals, but the 
largest classof creeping things, 
whether inhabiting the land or 
the water. The geological in- 
vestigations of the present day 
determine such to have exist- 
ed, ot a character different 
from any now known; and 
comparative anatomy proves 
their nature to be most accu- 
rately described by the term 
great creeping things. This 
use of a general word to denote 
some huge monster is supposed 
by some to occur in Ps. civ. 26. 
Ezek. xxxii. 2, compared with 
Matt. xii. 40, and also Job vii. 
12. (See JoxNAH.) 

WHEAT. (Judff. vi. 11.) 
This most useful and important 
of all grains was produced 
abundantly in the land of 
Canaan. In our translation 
it is often mentioned under the 
general name of corn. (See 
Corn. For a particular de- 
scription of the grain, and a 
cut illustrative of it, see Scrip- 
ture Illustrations, pan i. 
pp. 11—15, by Am. S. S. Union.) 
The cut referred to shows the 
appearance of the grain, and 
635 



WIL 

ta probably not more rank and 
full than the common crop of 
Egyptian wheat, and it shows 
also that Pharaoh's dream 
about seven ears of corn com- 
ing up upon one stalk (Gen. 
xli. 5) was according to the 
course of nature. 

The figurative allusions to 
this erain (Ps. lxxxi. 16. Jer. 
xii. 13. Joel ii. 24. Matt. iii. 12) 
are sufficiently obvious. 

WHISPERERS. (Rom. 1.29.) 
Such as secretly excite suspi- 
eions against others, and pro- 
pagate an evil report with an 
affected desire to speak of it 
only in a whisper. 

WHITED SEPULCHRES. 
(Matt, xxiii. 27.) It was cus- 
tomary to whitewash the Jew- 
ish sepulchres annually, that 
they might be distinctly seen 
and avoided, inasmuch as com- 
ing in contact with them was 
the occasion of ceremonial de- 
filement. (Num. xix. 16.) This 
practice gave them a neat and 
beautiful appearance, and pre- 
sented a striking contrast to the 
dark and offensive n^ass of 
putrefaction within. 

WIDOW. (ITim. v. 4.) By 
the Jewish law, (Deut. xxv. 5,) 
if a married man died leaving 
no children, his brother was 
required to marry the widow, 
in order— first, that the estate 
might be kept in the family ; 
and second, that he might in 
their descendants perpetuate 
the name. There is reason to 
believe that more distant rela- 
tives were permitted to enter 
into the same relation for like 
purposes, as in the case of Boaz 
and Ruth. 

WIFE. (See Marriage.) 

WILDERNESS (Ex. xiv. 3) 
and desert. These words do 
not necessarily import a mere 
waste, but rather extensive 
tracts not under cultivation, 
but affording rich and abun- 
dant pasturage. (Josh. xv. 61. I 
Isa. xlii. 11.) The principal | 



WIN 

tracts of this description were 
the wilderness of Jericho, Ju- 
dah, Engedi, Ziph-maon, Beer- 
sheba, Tekoa, Gibeon, and 
Bethaven. (See these under 
their respective heads.) 
WILD HONEY. (See Ho. 

KEY.) 

WILL OF GOD (Mark iii 
35) signifies either his purpose 
or pleasure, (Eph. i. 11,) or his 
laws, (Matt. vii. 21,) or his re- 
vealed will contained in the 
Scriptures of the Old and New 
Testament. (Rom. xii. 2.) 

WILL WORSHIP (Col. ii. 
23) means the practice of such 
expedients for serving and 
pleasing God as are not re. 
quired nor sanctioned by di- 
vine authority ; but are such 
as man chooses for himself, in- 
dependently of revelation, as 
deism, and the whole system 
of idolatry. 

WILLOW. (Lev. xxiii. 40.) 
A well known tree, which 
flourishes best in marshy 
ground, and on the borders of 
water-courses. (Job xl. 22. Isa. 
xv. 7 ; xliv. 4. Ezek. xvii. 5.) 
The beautiful species known 
to us as the weeping willow*, 
is called the Babylonian wifr 
low, in allusion to Ps. cxxxvii. 
2. 

WIMPLES. (Isa. iii. 22.) 
Supposed by some to mean a. 
broad full mantle, or shawl, 
like the veil which Ruth had, 
(Ruth iii. 15 :) and by others a 
veil, coif, or hood, and this last 
is its German signification at 
the present day. 

WIND. (Ex. xv. 10.) The 
east wind was injurious to ve- 
getation, and dangerous at sea. 
(Ps. xlviii. 7.) The south wind 
brought heat, (Luke xii. 55 \ 
the south-west and the nortfi 
fair weather. (Job xxxvii. 9. 2$ 
Prov. xxv. 23.) The charactei 
of the east wind may be infer 
red from Gen. xli. 6. Job i. 19. 
Ps. xi.6. Isa. xxvii. 8. Jer. iv 
11—13. Ezek. xvii. 10; xix. 12; 
636 



WIN 
xxvii. 26. Hos. xi'i. 15. (See 

EUROCLYDON.) 

WINDOW. (Gen. vi. 16.) 
In eastern houses the windows 
open upon the court within, 
and not upon the street with- 
out. (See Dwellings.) One 
of the objects in view is to es- 
cape the dust of the narrow 
eastern streets. This gives a 
melancholy aspect to the 
streets, as nothing but an un- 
broken line of blind walls is 
seen on either side. There is 
sometimes a projecting balco- 
ny, or porch, in front of the 
house, carefully closed by lat- 
tices of what is called Venetian 
work, and opened principally 
upon some festival. From such 
a place Jezebel is supposed to 
have been looking out when 
She was seized and put to death 
by Jehu. (2 Kings ix. 30.) And 
this was probably called the 
casement. (Prov. vii. 6. See 
also Sol. Song ii. 9.) Glazed 
windows were entirely un- 
known among the Hebrews, 
and are scarcely ever seen in 
the east at the present day. 
This is not wonderful, for in 
later times glass has been as 
costly as gofd, and it was not 
until long after the Christian 
era that glass windows were 
used. 

WINE. (Gen. xiv. 18.) There 
has been some controversy as 
to the nature and qualities of 
the liquor which is called wine 
in our Scriptures. The plain 
reader of the Bible will be sa- 
tisfied, however, that it was 
unquestionably an intoxicating 
drink. (Lev. x. 9. Eph. v. 18. 
1 Pet. iv. 3.) 

The ancientEgy ptiansdrank 
no wine, unless we give that 
name to the sweet, unfermented 
juice of the grape ; such as 
"Pharaoh's butler was accus- 
tomed to express into the cup 
in the king's hand, (Gen. xl. 
3—11,) and which was mixed 
with water. Fermented wine 
they considered as the inven- 
54 



WIN 

tion of an evil spirit, and it was 
not offered to their gods. Yet 
in very early times they had 
learned the art of brewing a 
kind of beer from barley, which, 
according to the Greek histo- 
rians, was called barley wine. 
This beer is said to have been 
costly, and little, if at all, in- 
ferior to wine. It was also 
known to the Hebrews, who, 
however, had the less need of 
it, as their land was productive 
of the richest vintage. 

Like all other countries, Ca- 
naan had wines of various 
strength ; and a distinguished 
writer on Jewish antiquities 
observes, " the wines in those 
countries cannot easily be used 
without water.*' Another an- 
cient author says, that "the 
wine at Aleppo resembles tha* 
of Cyprus, and is so fiery that 
when drunk unmixed it causes 
great inconvenience." It is 
very clear, however, that in- 
temperance prevailed among 
the Jews, (Isa. v. 11; xxviii. 
1—8; lvi. 12;) and it is not 
inconsistent with any known 
facts to supposethat their wines 
generally had the intoxicating 
principle. Whether the wine 
into which our Saviour mira- 
culously changed the water at 
Cana (John ii. 3) possessed this 
principle or not we cannot 
know, nor would a decision of 
the question in the least degree 
affect the character of the trans- 
action, anymore than it would 
affect the prescription of the 
apostle to Timothy. (1 Tim. 
v. 23.) The process by which 
the juice of grapes, apples, 
pears, &c, becomes an intoxi- 
cating drink, is as kindly and 
benevolently provided as the 
process by which those fruits 
themselves come to maturity. 
And so far as the use of the 
liquid, after this process has 
taken place, tends directly oi 
indirectly to the injury of body 
or soul, so far are we forbidden 
to use it on any pretence oi 
637 



WIN 
consideration whatever. The 
inquiry, therefore, what the 
wine of the Bible was in this 
respect, seems to be without 
any practical advantage, inas- 
much as the injurious use of it 
is forbidden inathousandforms; 
and when it possesses the in- 
toxicating quality, the unne- 
cessary use of it is inexpedient, 
il not sinful. (See Drink.) 

In the east casks were un- 
known. The wine was kept 
in jugs, or flagons, and im- 
proved by age, (Luke v. 39,) 
and by standing on the lees. 
clsa. xxv. 6.) ~The original 
word rendered lees signifies 
preservers. • 

The mixed wine, often men- 
tioned by the sacred writers, 
(Ps. lxxv. 8. Prov. xxiii. 30,) 
was not diluted with water, 
Out on the contrary was in- 
creased in strength, or improv- 
ed in flavour and colour, by a 
mixture of drugs, herbs, and 
spices. (Sol. Songviii. 2.) Saf- 
fron is used at this day among 
the Persians to give a deep co- 
lour to their wines. Some sup- 
pose, however, that the phrase 
mixed wine denotes wine ren- 
dered stronger by being shaken 
up and mingled'with the lees. 

It was necessary for the li- 
quor to remain on the lee3 for 
a time after the fermentation 
has ceased. Whenever this 
first fermentation has been 
deficient, the wine will 
have a richer and sweeter 
taste. Unless, however, it un- 
dergo a farther fermentation, 
the lying upon the lees will 
not secure strength or flavour, 
but after repeated partial fer- 
mentation, will run into a thin 
icid. This beautifully explains 
ier. xlviii. 11. 

Wine vessels. The He- 
orews, as well as the Greeks, 
preserved their wine in large 
earthen vessels, or jars, which 
were buried up to their necks 
in the ground. (See Cellar.) 
These jars are quite large, con- 



VY1N 

taining often as much as one 
of our barrels. The must, or 
new wine, after being poured 
into such vessels, is Btirred for 
about twenty days, thrice a day, 
with wooden rods. When wine 
is to be transported, the Per- 
sians sometimes decent it into 
flasks, or bottles, but 3kins are 
in common use, as Tiiey were 
among the ancients. The He- 
brews poured even the must, 
or new wine, into skins; but for 
this purpose they used such as 
were fresh and n>y:ble, and 
therefore not liab'ie to be 
broken by the fermentation of 
the liquor. (Matt. ix. ?7.) 

By new wine (Joel i. 5) is in- 
tended sweet wine, wrtich was 
purer and stronger, and more 
capable of preservation, and 
of course more inebriating. 
(Isa. xlix. 26. Acta ii. 13.) 

Red wine is more esteemed 
in eastern countries than white. 

The wines of Lebanon and 
of Helbon, near Damascus, 
were celebrated for their ex- 
cellence, (Ezek. xxvii. 18. Hos. 
xiv. 7,) and the former retains 
its character to this day. 

Drinking wine in bowls 
(Ames vi. 6) is supposed to re- 
fer to the richness and magni- 
ficence of the vessel, and not 
to the quantity of wine drank. 

"Wine-presses (Job xxiv. 11) 
were cavities in the ground, 
(Matt. xxi. 33,) built up or 
lined with mason work. They 
are now found in this form in 
Persia, eight feet square and 
four feet deep. In Isa. v. 2. and 
Mark xii. 1, the term wine- 
press rather means the open 
place or vessel which received 
the expressed juice from the 
wine-press. It was in one of 
these cavities that Gideoa 
worked. (Judg. vi. 11.) 

Eastern travellers tell us that 
the first vintage usually begins 
in the latter part of August; 
that they often see the black 
grapes spread on the ground in 
beds, exposed to the sun to 
633 



WIS 

dry for raisins. While at a 
little distance, one or two, and 
sometimes as many as five men, 
are seen with feet and legs 
bare, treading the fruit in a 
kind of cistern, or vat, usually 
about eight feet square, and four 
feethigh,with a grated aperture 
near the bottom, through which 
the expressed juice runs into a 
vessel beneath. (Isa. Ixiii. 3. 
Hag. ii. 16.) The t.readers sung 
andf shouted, (Isa. xvi. 10,)while 
the red blood of the grapeflowed 



WIS 
around them, and thoroughly 
stained their garments. (Isa- 
lxiii. 1— 3. Jer. xxv. 30; xlviii 
33. Lam. i. 15. Rev. xix. IS- 
IS.) 

The ancient Egyptian mode 
of expressing the juice of grapes 
may be learned from the fol- 
lowing cut, from a monument 
in Memphis. The fruit is 
placed in a cloth, which is 
twisted and strained until the 1 
liquor is wrung out into a ves- 
sel below. 




WINNOW. (Isa. xxx. 24.) 
The process of winnowing 
among the Hebrews was much 
like that in use at the present 
day. The grain was taken 
upon a shovel and thrown up 
in the wind, and the lighter 
chaff and straw separated, 
sometimes by the help of a fan. 
(Isa. xli. 15, 16. Matt. iii. 12. 
See Threshing Floor, Fan.) 
WINTER. (See Seasons.) 
WISE MEN. (Matt. ii. 1.) 
Men of wisdom and learning 
in things natural and divine ; 
devoted to philosophy, espe- 
cially to astronomy, and to the 
contemplation and worship of 



the Deity. They were of Per- 
sian origin, but had spread iv 
Arabia and other neighbour'* sg 
countries of the east; distin- 
guished from other classes of 
their countrymen by their pe 
culiar habits and pursuits. 
They worshipped the only one 
God ; and so blameless did 
their studies and their religion 
appear to be, that the prophet 
Daniel, scrupulous as he was, 
to the hazard of his life, with 
respect to the Jewish religion, 
did not refuse to accept" the 
office which Nebuchadnezzar 
gave him, of being master of 
the Magi, and chief governor 
139' 



WIT 

over all the wise men of Baby- 
lon. As they thus acquired 
great honour and influence, 
they were introduced into the 
courts of kings, and consulted 
on all occasions. They also 
followed them in warlike ex- 
peditions; and so much im- 
portance was attached to their 
advice and opinions, that no- 
thing was attempted without 
their approbation. 

WITCHCRAFT, (ISam.xv. 
23,) WITCH, (Deut. xviii. 10,) 
WIZARD. (Lev. xx. 27.) A 
man who pretends to superna- 
tural power, so that he can 
foretell future events, cure dis- 
eases, call up or drive away 
spirits, or disclose information 
beyond the reach of the natural 
powers, is called a wizard. A 
woman of like practices is call- 
ed a witch, and the evil art 
itself is called witchcraft. No 
sin is more severely denounced 
by the sacred writers, not 
only under the Mosaic dispen- 
sation, (Ex. xxii. 18. Deut. 
xviii. 11, 12,) but under the 
gospel. (Gal. v. 20.) Those 
who consult such foolish and 
wicked pretenders are partak- 
ers of their guilt, and are abo- 
minable in God's sight. (Lev. 
xx. 6. Nah. iii. 4.) A famous 
pretender to supernatural 
power lived at Endor. (See 
Saul.) 

WITHS. (Judg.xvi. 7.) A 
band of pliable twigs, (as of the 
willow or osier kind,) twisted 
closely together while green, 
and used instead of ropes. The 
marginal reading of the above 
passage is small cords. 

WITNESS. (Gen. xxi. 30.) 
One who gives testimony. Two 
or more were required in judi- 
cial investigations, (Deut. xvii. 
6, 7 ;) and when the sentence 
of stoning was pronounced, 
they were required to com- 
mence the process of execu- 
tion. (Acts vii. 58. See Ston- 
ing.) 

The witness of the Spirit 



WOL 

with our spirit (Rom. viii. 16) 

denotes the consciousness,more 
or less distinct, of the opera- 
tions of the Spirit upon the 
mind, enlightening the under- 
standing, and incliningthesub- 
iect of them to do the will of 
'God. 

The expression, faithful wit- 
ness (Ps. lxxxix. 37) is sup- 
posed to refer to the moon, (Jer. 
xxxiii.20,) that rules the night, 
and will remain as long as the 
night itself, which, by the terms 
of God's covenant, shall not 
cease. (Gen. viii. 22.) 

John often exhibits the gos- 
pel in the light of a testimony, 
(1 John v. 9 ;) and Christ him 
self is called the faithful and 
true witness, (Rev. i. 5 ; iii 
14,) not only to the glory and 
perfection of the Father, but 
also to his owm divine mission^ 
and to the universality and 
perpetuity of his kingdom. 

WIZARD. (See Witch.) 

WO. (Num. xxi. 29.) This 
term often denotes a feeling of 
compassion or sympathy,(Matt 
xxiv. 19,) or a simple lamenta- 
tion, as "Alas for me!" (Ps. 
cxx. 5.) In other connexions 
it is equivalent to the threat* 
enins of punishment. (Hab.il 
6. 9. 15. 19. Zech. xi. 17.) 

WOLF, (lsa.xi.6.) A fierce, 
cruel, ravenous animal, in size 
and general appearanceresem- 
bling a dog, and a most terrible 
enemy to sheep. (Isa. lxv. 25. 
Matt. vii. 15 ; x. 16. John x. 
12. Acts xx. 23.) The rapa- 
ciousness of the tribe of Benja- 
min was foretold by Jacob by a 
comparison with the wolf. (Gen. 
xlix.27. See Judg. xx. and xxi.: 
and comp. 1 Sam. ix. 1, and 
xx. 31, and Acts ix. I. Rom. 
xi. 1. Phil. iii. 5.) The sacred 
writers also illustrate the cru- 
elty of Israel's oppressors by 
an allusion to the wolf, (Ezek. 
xxii. 27;) and the sallying 
forth of the evening wolf in 
search of prey (Hab. i. 8) is em- 
blematical of the destruction 
640 



WOR 

which awaits wicked men. 
(Jer. v. 5, 6.) The allusion, 
Zeph, iii. 3, is to the circum- 
stance that the wolf in its 
greediness often seizes on more 
than it can consume. 

WOMAN. (1 Cor. xi. 8, 9.) 
The companion and helper of 
man, and by express command 
made subject to him. (Gen. iii. 
16.) The word, when used as 
a term of salutation, as in Matt. 
xv. 28, implies no disrespect, 
but great tenderness and cour- 
tesy. It was thus that our Sa- 
viour addressed Mary under 
the most touching circum- 
stances. (John xx. 15.) 

WOOL. (See Sheep.) 

WORD. (John i. 1.) This is 
one of the titles of Jesus Christ. 
It may denote that he is the 
medium by which the Father 
declares his word or will. The 
Jews commonly used this term 
to designate the Messiah ; and 
so prevalent was its use among 
the Gentiles also, that the evan- 
gelist is particular to define 
clearly the true doctrine re- 
specting him to whom it *vas 
applied ; and no language can 
more clearly express" the idea 
of eternity and self-existence 
than the language he employs 
wO describe the being and attri- 
butes of the Messiah. The 
Scriptures are figuratively call- 
ed the word of God, (Rom. ix. 
6;) the word of righteousness, 
(Heb. v. 13 ;) the word of faith, 
(Rom. x. 8,) and the word of 
salvation. (Acts xiii. 26.) 

WORKS. (Ps. cxlv. 9.) The 
works of God are the things 
created and governed by his 
wisdom and power. 

Good works (Eph. ii. 10) 
are such as proceed from love 
to God, and are done in obe- 
dience to his law, and from a 
regard to his glory. 

We are saved by faith; but 

faith without icorks is dead, 

i. e. it is without any evidence 

of life. Works constitute the 

54* 



WOR 

evidence and determine the 
strength and character of faith. 

WORLD. (lSam.ii.8.) This 
term is used by the sacred 
writers in a variety of senses, 
each of which may ordinarily 
be determined by its connex- 
ion. Among them may be men- 
tioned the following: The habi- 
table earth, (Ps. xxxiii. 8;) 
time, (Isa. xlv. 17. Matt, xxviii. 
20;) present existence, (John 
i. 9 ;) future existence, (Mark 
x. 30;) the nations and king- 
doms subject to Rome in the 
time of our Saviour, (Luke ii. 
1 ;) an indefinite number, (John 
xii. 19. Acts xix. 27;) close of 
the Jewish dispensation con- 
nected with the final consum- 
mation of all things, (Matt, 
xxiv. 3;) the corrupt senti- 
ment, disposition, and prac- 
tices of sinners. (James i. 27. 
1 John iv. 5.) 

WORMS. (Ex. xvi. 20.) A 
large class of animals without 
any of the senses belonging to 
other animals, except feeling. 
From the circumstance that 
one or more species of worms 
are found in putrefying flesh, 
we have the figurative expres- 
sions in Job xix. 26; xxi. 26 1 
xxiv. 20. Isa. xiv. 11. Owing 
to the constant accumulation 
of filth and putrefaction in a 
valley near Jerusalem, it was 
always alive with worms, and 
fires were maintained day and 
night to consume the sources 
of pestilence. Hence the allu- 
sion, Isa. lxvi.24. Mark ix.44. 
46. 48. At an advanced stage 
of some diseases, worms are 
bred in the flesh. (Job vii. 5 ; 
xvii. 14. Acts xii. 23.) The 
meanness of the worm, and its 
liability to be trodden down 
unnoticed, afford the illustra- 
tions in Job xxv. 6. Ps. xxii. 6, 
and Isa. xii. 14. 

WORMWOOD. (Deut. xxix. 

18.) A plant of which there 

are several species, and all 

distinguished for intense bitter- 

641 



WRI 

ness, and probably some may 
oe not only bitter and nauseous, 
but positively hurtful. Hence 
it is often joined with or used 
in the same sense as gall and 
hemlock, to denote what is 
offensive or injurious. (Deut. 
xxix. 18. Prov. v. 4. Amos v. 7; 
vi. 12.) To be obliged to use 
it as food expresses the extreme 
of suffering. (Jer. ix. 15; xxiii. 
15. Lam. iii. 15. 19.) 

WORSHIP. (Matt. ii. 2.) 
This word, as used in our Bi- 
ble, has various significations. 
In most instances it means 
simply an act of respect, (Matt, 
ix. 18. Acts x. 25,) and does 
not imply any religious emo- 
tion. Where the ac<. respects 
the Divine Being, the only pro- 
per object of religious worship, 
the connexion shows it. (John 
iv. 24. Heb. i. 6. Rev. xxii. 9.) 
It is used, however, in relation 
to idol gods. (Dan. iii. 5. 12. 14. 
Acts xix. 27.) 

WRITING. (Ex. xxxii. 16.) 
Writing by pictures or in hiero- 
glyphics is an art of very an- 
cient date, and is even now 
common in many savage na- 
tions. An eye represented 
God as the Omniscient ; an eyo 
and sceptre, a king; a lion, 
courage, &c. This is common, 
in its most unimproved form, 
among our American abori- 
gines ; and was the common 
method used by the Mexicans, 
gome of whose ancient pictures 
of this kind are preserved. 

The most numerous and re- 
markable specimens of hiero- 



WRi 

glyphic writing exist in Egypt; 
they have been sought out by 
travellers, and copied in draw- 
ings and copperplates, but have 
baffled the ingenuity and la- 
bour of all ages, until within 
a few years^" a distinguished 
French antiquary has succeed- 
ed in deciphering a great num- 
ber of them, and his labours 
have thrown great light upon 
the Scriptures, and vindicated 
the Mosaic history from a mul- 
titude of objections. 

It is not improbable that 
these pictures, which were at 
first accurate resemblances of 
objects, became at last merely 
signs of ideas, and that hence 
alphabetical writing came into 
use. It fs the prevailing opi- 
nion that the Israelites were 
acquainted with letters when 
they were in Egypt as bond- 
men ; and when they took pos- 
session of the land of Canaan 
they found a city called Kir- 
jath-seplier, which means the 
city of books or letters, and 
indicates the existence of the 
art among that people. Through 
all the Mosaic history, books 
and writing are mentioned as 
in familiar use. The practice 
of employing an amanuensis 
was much more common in 
ancient days than now. Hence 
Paul notices it as a special cir- 
cumstance that he wrote the 
letter to the Galatians with his 
own hand. (Gal. vi. 11.) This 
fact also explains Rom. xvi. 
22. ICor. xvi. 21. Col. iv. 18, 
and 2Thess. iii. 17. (See Book.) 



YAR 

YARN, linen. (1 Kings x. 
28.) There is a diversity 
of opinion as to the meaning 
of this term. There is very 
strong reason to doubt the cor- 
rectness of the rendering in 
our translation, though we have 
mentioned it without comment 
in the article Linen. 



YEA 
YEAR. (Gen.xvii.21.) That 
space of time wherein the sun 
finishes his course through all 
the signs of the zodiac circle 
of the heavens, consisting of 
the four seasons of spring, sum 
mer, autumn, and winter. It 
consists of three hundred ana 
, sixty-five days five hours forty. 
642 



YEA 
nine minutes. Julius Ceesar 
fixed the Roman year at three 
hundred and sixty-five days 
and six hours, which in four 
years make one day, and in 
the fourth year is added to 
February, and occasions that 
year to be called leap-year. 
By this year we still reckon 
our time; but as it includes 
about eleven minutes too much, 
this, in one hundred and thirty 
years, runs the reckoning for- 
ward one day, and in our reck- 
oning had run forward the year 
full eleven days, till this was 
rectified by the introduction 
of the new style among us, as 
it was in several countries 
abroad, by pope Gregory, al- 
most two hundred years ago. 
In prophetic language, a year 
signifies three hundred and 
sixty years, and a month thirty, 
a day being put for a year ; and 
so three years and a half, and 
times, time, and half a time, or 
forty-two months, or twelve 
hundred and sixty days, denote 
the twelve hundred and sixty 
years duration of antichrist. 
(Rev. xi. 2, 3; xii. 6. 14.) With 
the Jews the year was civil or 
sacred, solar or lunar. (See 
Month.) 

Fallow year. In the se- 
venth year all agricultural 
labour was suspended, and 
spontaneous productions were 



YOK 

left to the poor, the traveller, 
and the wild beasts. (Lev. xxv. 
1—7.) This was, (1.) For the 
sake of the ground ; (2.) For the 
preservation of wild beasts; 
and, (3.) To make the people 
provident and sensible of de- 
pendence. The people could 
fish, hunt, take care of bees 
and flocks, repair buildings, 
manufacture clothes, and carry 
on commerce. This year was 
relidously observed. (Deut. 
xxxi. 10—13.) 

Year op jubilee. (See 
Feast.) 

YOKE. (Gen. xxvii. 40.) The 
yoke was laid upon the neck 
of the beast, and fastened with 
thongs to the animal, and to 
the plough-beam. It thus be- 
came a lively image of slavery, 
subjection, imprisonment, and 
severe rule, while the removal 
of the yoke indicated the cor- 
responding deliverance. (Jer. 
ii. 20.) Breaking the yoke also 
represents the rejection of au- 
thority. (Jer. v. 5. Nali. i. 13.) 
The following cut represents 
the ancient Egyptian yoke. 




ZAC 

ZAANAN. (Mic. i. 11.) Most 
probably a city of Judah, 
the same as Zenan mentioned 
in Josh. xv. 37, situated in the 
valley or plain towards the 
Mediterranean coast. 

ZAANANNIM. (Josh.xix.33.) 
A city of Naphtali, in the plain 
of Zaanaim, (Judg. iv. 11,) 
north-east of Kedesh^ near the 
waters of Merom. 

ZACCHEUS. (Luke xix. 2.) 
A rich Jew resident in Jericho, 
and chief officer of the tax or 



ZAC 

tribute collectors in that place ? 
and hence he is called a sin- 
ner, for the Jews regarded all 
publicans or tax-gatherers in 
this light. His curiosity to see 
Christ was so much excited, 
that he 1§ok pains to climb 
into a tree by the road-side, 
that he might have a fair view 
of him as the crowd passed. 
Jesus, knowing his character 
and motives, proposed to spend 
the day with him, to which 
Zaccheus gladly assented. Hia 
643 



ZAC 

mind was probably brought at 
once under the influence of the 
Spirit of God, and on that very 
day he and his family became 
interested in the salvation of 
the gospel. (Luke xix. 1—10.) 
The expression forasmuch as 
he also is a son of Abraham 
probably denotes that he was 
not only a natural descendant 
of the patriarch, but that he 
had now become a partaker of 
the like faith and promises. 

ZACHARIAH, 1.(2 Kings 
xiv. 29,) was son and successor 
o Jeroboam II. king of Israel. 
He reigned but six months, 
and then fell by the hand of 
Shallum, who took the throne. 
(2 Kings xv. 8—11. Comp.Amos 
vii. 9.) 

2. (Ezra v. 1.) The prophet, 
was the son of Barachiah, and 
the grandson of Iddo. (Zech. 
i. 1.) The expression in Ezra 
is consonant to the Jewish 
usage of calling a descendant 
son or daughter, and an an- 
cestor father or mother, though 
they might be removed two or 
three degrees from these rela- 
tions. Zechariah returned from 
Babylon with Zerubbabel, and 
prophesied contemporaneously 
with Haggai. 

Prophecy cf, is the last but 
one in the order of the books 
of the Old Testament. Its grand 
design is to encourage the Jews 
in the re-establishment of their 
national institutions. Though 
the language is often obscure, 
and the style seemingly un- 
connected, it contains several 
animating predictions of the 
future glory of Christ's king- 
dom, in terms remarkably full 
and explicit. 

ZAC H ARIAS. 1. (Matt, 
xxiii. 35. See BARAcanAS.) 

2. (Luke i. 5.) A priest of 
the family of Abia, (see Abia,) 
the father of John the Bap- 
tist. The character of him- 
self and his wife is given 
us in the simplest yet most 
expressive language. (Luke 



ZAR 

i. 6.) The birth of John was 
announced to him in a mi- 
raculous manner, and seemed 
so beyond the range of pro- 
bability, that his faith failed, 
and he asked for some extra- 
ordinary sign that the promise 
should be accomplished. He 
was immediately deprived of 
the power of speech, and 
remained dumb until the 
eighth day after the birth of 
the promised child ; when 
being asked to give the in- 
fant a name, in obedience to 
the angelic direction he called 
him John, and forthwith the., 
power of speech was restored 
to him, and he employed it in 
a strain of the most devout 
gratitude and praise. (Luke i. 
57—80.) 

ZADOK, (2 Sam. viii. 17,) 
the successor of Abiathar in 
the Jewish priesthood, was the 
son of Ahitub, of the family 
of Eleazar. (Comp. 1 Sam. ii. 
30—36. 1 Kings ii. 27. 35.) 

ZALMON, (Judg. ix. 48,) or 
SALMON. (Ps. lxviii. 14.) A 
hill near to Shechem, which, 
it appears from the aoove pas- 
sage in Psalms, was covered 
with snow. It is also the name 
of a person. (Matt. i. 5.) 

ZAMZUMMIMS, (Deut. ii. 
20,) or ZUZIMS. (Ucn. xiv. 5.) 
A tribe of people of gigantic 
stature and strength, who in- 
habited the country east of the 
Jordan and the Dead Sea. They 
were attacked and routed by 
Chedorlaomer, and afterwards 
expelled by the Ammonites. 

ZANOAH. (Josh. xv. 34. 56.) 
There were probably two cities 
of this name, both in Judah ; 
one in the valley or low coun- 
try, the other in the moun- 
tains, or interior. 

ZAPHON, (Josh. xiii. 27,) or 
SHOPHAN. (Num. xxxii. 35.) 
One of the cities of Gad, situ- 
ated in the valley, lying along 
the east side of the Jordan. 

ZARED, (Num. xxi. 12,) oi 
ZERED. (Deut. ii. 13.) A brook 
644 



ZAR 

rising in mount Abarim and 
emptying into the Dead Sea, 
south of Arnon, in the land of 
Moab. On its banks the Israel- 
ites encamped, on their journey 
from Egypt to the promised 
land. 
ZAREPHATH. (See Sa- 

REPTA.) 

ZARETAN, (Josh. iii. 16,) or 
ZARTANAH, (I Kings iv. 12,) 
orZARTHAN, (I Kings vii.46,) 
or ZEREDA, (1 Kings xi. 20,) or 
ZEREDATHA, (2 Chron. iv. 
17,) or ZERERATH, (Judg. vii. 
22,) all supposed to denote one 
and the same place, viz. a town 
an the west bank of the Jordan, 
at the place where the Israel- 
ites crossed, when the waters 
were gathered into a heap on 
either side. It was near Beth- 
Bhean, and opposite to Succoth, 
and was distinguished as the 
birthplace of Jeroboam. 

ZEBOIM. (Gen. x. 19; xiv. 
£.) One of the cities of the 
plain, destroyed with Sodom 
and Gomorrah. There was 
also a city and valley of this 
name in the lot of Benjamin. 
(1 Sam. xiii. 18. Neh. xi. 34.) 

ZEBULON, (Gen. xxx. 20,) 
or ZABULON. (Rev. vii. 8,) 
the sixth son of Jacob and 
Leah. The portion of his de- 
scendants in the promised land 
was assigned prophetically by 
his father and their ancestor. 
(Gen. xlix. 13.) 

Tribe of, possessed that dis- 
trict of Canaan which lay be- 
tween the sea of Galilee (Matt. 
iv. 13) and the Mediterranean ; 
bounded south by Issachar, and 
north by Asher and Naphtali. 
This last tribe allied itself to 
the tribe ofZebulon, and joined 
the forces of Barak and Debo- 
rah against the army of Jabin. 
(Judg. v. 18.) 

The town of Zebulon (Josh. 
xix. 27) was within the terri- 
tory of Asher, but was probably 
a possession of the tribe of Ze- 
tulon. Elon, a judge of Israel, 
was oi this tribe, and was bu- 



ZED 

ried within its bounds. (Judg. 
xii. 12.) 
ZECHARIAH. (See Zacha- 

RIAH.) 

ZEDAH, or ZEDAD. (Num. 
xxxiv.8.) A comparison of this 

passage with BEek. xlvii. 15, 
shows" the place to have been 
on the north-eastern frontier 
of the land of Israel, but its 
exact position is not known. 

ZEDEKIAH, (2 Kings xxiv. 
17,) the last king of Judah, was 
the son of Josiah, and the uncle 
of Jehoiachin, his immediat 
predecessor on the throne. His 
proper name was Mattaniaru 
but Nebuchadnezzar changed* 
ittoZedekiah. He commenced 
his reign at twenty-one, and 
reigned eleven years. (2 Chron. 
xxxvi. 11.) He is represented 
as a very wicked man, and the 
nation during his reign was 
remarkably bold and obdurate 
in sin. For this cause the pro- 
phet Jeremiah was commis- 
sioned to 'threaten them with 
severe judgments, which were 
visited upon them in the most 
fearful manner. In the ninth 
year of his reign, he revolted 
against Nebuchadnezzar, in 
consequence of which the As- 
syrian monarch marched his 
army into Judea, and took all 
the fortified places. In the ele- 
venth year of his reign, on the 
ninth day of the fourth month, 
(July,) Jerusalem was taken, 
The king and his people endea- 
voured to escape by night ; but 
the Chaldean troops pursuing 
them, they were overtaken in 
the plain of Jericho. Zedekiah 
was seized and carried to Ne- 
buchadnezzar, then at Riblah, 
in Syria, who reproached him 
with his perfidy, caused all his 
children to be slain before his 
face, and his own eyes to be 
put out ; and then loading him 
with chains of brass, he ordered 
him to be sent to Babylon. (2 
Kings xxv. 1—11. 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. 12. 20.) It is worthy of 
special remark, that two pro 
645 



ZER 

phecies. seemingly irreconcile- 
able, were both literally fulfil- 
led in the case of Zedekiah. 
(Jer. xxxii. 4, 5; xxxiv. 3. 
Comp. Ezek. xii. 13.) 

There were two or three 
false prophets* of this name, 
one of whom withstood Mi- 
caiah in a most insolent man- 
ner. (1 Kings xxii. 11—37. See 
also Jer. xxlx. 22.) 

ZELOTES. (See Simon.) 

ZEMARA1M, mount, (2 
Chron. xiii. 4,) was in mount 
Ephraim, and a city of the 
same name was in the southern 
section of the territory of Ben- 
jamin, near Bethel. (Josh. 
xviii.22.) 

ZENAN. (See Zaanan.) 

ZEPHANIAH (Zeph. i. 1) 
was the son of Cushi, and lived 
in the days of Josiah. 

Prophecy of, is the thirty- 
sixth in the order of the books 
of the Old Testament. It was 
uttered in the early part of the 
ministry of Jeremiah, and is 
designed mainly to excite the 
Jewish nation to repentance, 
in view of threatened judg- 
ments, and to comfort the peo- 
ple of God with promises of the 
final triumph of righteousness. 
See Elisama, pp. 46, 47, by 
im. S. S. Union.) 

Zephaniah, (Jer. xxix. 25,) 
he son of Maaseiah, who is 
:alled the second priest, (2 
Kings xxv. 18,— see High- 
priest,) was put to death by 
Netuchadnezzar at Riblah. 
12 Kinffs xxv. 18—21.) 

ZEPHATHA, valley op, (2 
"Ihron. xiv. 9—13,) was in the 
outh-western section of the 
erritory of Judah, near Mare- 
hah, and is memorable for 
he battle of the Jews with the 
Ethiopians. There was also a 
,ity of this name (Zephath) 
within the bounds of Simeon. 
Judg. i. 17.) 

• ZERAH. (2 Chron. xiv. 9.) 
An Arabian king, who, with an 
immense army^ invaded the 
kingdom of Judah in the reign 



Z1K 

of Asa. The pious king of Ju 
dah, depending on the arm of 
the Lord, wentout against hirr 
without fear, and obtained o 
signal victory. The prayer of 
Asa on this occasion is worthy 
of all admiration. (2 Chron. 
xiv. 11.) 
ZERED. (See Zared.) 
ZEREDA. (See Zaretan.) 
ZEREDATHAH. (See Za 

RETAN.) 

ZERESH. (Esth.v.10.) The 
wife of Hainan, and his coun 
sellor and instigator in ini- 
quity. 

ZERUBBABEL, (1 Chron. 
iii. 19,)orZOROBABEL,(Matt. 
i. 12,) was the leader of the 
first colony of Jews that re- 
turned from the captivity in 
Babylon, (Ezra ii. 2,) and was 
of the family of David. To him 
Cyrus committed the sacred 
vessels that were returned to 
Jerusalem. He laid the foun- 
dations of the temple, (Zech. iv. 
6—10,) and was chiefly instru- 
mental in restoring the usual 
religious rites of the nation. 
(Ezra iii. 2—13. See Temple. 
See also Elisama, ch. viii. and 
ix., by Am. S. S. Union.) 

ZIBA. (2 Sam. xix. 17.) A 
servant of Saul, whom David 
appointed a sort of steward to 
Mephibosheth. (2 Sam. ix. 2— 
12.) 

ZIDON. (See Sidon.) 

ZIF. (See Month.) 

ZIKLAG. (Josh. xix. 5.) A 
city in the southern extremity 
of the territory of Judah, though 
allotted to Simeon. In the 
time of Saul it was in the 
hands of the Philistines, and 
Achish, their king, granted it 
to David as a temporary resi- 
dence when he was flying from 
the persecution of that wicked 
monarch. (1 Sam. xxvii. 6.) 
During the absence of David 
and the principal men on a 
campaign,theAmalekites burn- 
ed the city, and made the wo- 
men and children prisoners, 
David pursued them under di- 
646 



ZIO 

vine direction.andsurprisedlhe | 
Amalekites,andnotonly defeat- j 
ed ihem, but recovered all that j 
had been taken. (1 Sam. xxx.) 

Z1LPAH. (Gen. xxx. 9.) The j 
uandniaid of Leah, and the 
mother of Gad and Asher. 
ZIMRI. (See Omri.) 
Z1N, desert of, (Num. xx. 

I,) Or WILDERNESS OF, (Num. 

xiii.21,) stretched southwardly, 
about five miles in breadth,from 
the Dead Sea to the Red Sea, 
and was once probably the val- 
lev of the Jordan. It is now 
called El Ghor. It is often 
mentioned in the journeyings 
of the Israelites,and is connect- 
ed with some of the most inte- 
resting events of that period. 

ZION, (Ps. cxxxiii. 3,) or 
SION. (Deut. iv. 48.) The last 
name seems to have been ap- 
plied to mount Hermon. (See 
Herjion.) Both names are 
applied principally to the hill 
or fortress (called the castle of 
Zion, 1 Chron. xi. 5) which was 
taken from the Jebusites by 
Joab, one of David's chief cap- 
tains. Thither David removed 
from Hebron, whence it was 
called the city of David. (2 
Sam. v. 9 ; vi. 10.) It was the 
southernmost of the hills on 
which Jerusalem was built, 
having the valley of Kedron 
on the east, and the valley of 
Hinnom or Gehenna south and 
west, Acra to the north, and 
Moriah north-east. On it was 
erected Solomon's palace, call- 
ed the house of the forest of 
Lebanon; and afterward the 
magnificent palace of Herod, 
destroyed by the Romans. The 
temple and its courts on 
mount Moriah were called 
Zion, (Ps. lxv. 1 ; lxxxiv. 7;) 
and the appellation is ap- 
propriated figuratively to the 
church, whether on earth or 
in heaven, as the living temple 
of Jehovah. (Isa. ii. 3. Heb. 
xii. 22. Rev. xiv. 1.) 

Messrs. Fisk and King, Ame- 
rican missionaries, vfviskld 



ZOA 

mount Zion in the spring of 
1823. They describe ir. 3S 
partly covered with the tomos 
of Greek and Armenian Chris- 
tians. On the east and south 
sides it is ploughed and culti- 
vated. Near The summit is a 
little wal'ed village, contain- 
ing a mosque and a few Mus- 
sulmans' houses. The Jews 
call this village the city of 
Zion, and it is' generally be- 
lieved by them to contain the 
tombs of David, and Solomon, 
and the other kings of Israel. 

A modern traveller speaks 
of it as about a mile in circum- 
ference, and raised about three 
hundred and sixty feet. The 
soil, which was then being 
ploughed, (Mic. iii. 12,) con- 
sisted of stones and lime mixed 
with earth, which is usual in 
the foundations of ruined cities. 
(See Jerusalem.) 

Daughter of Zion (Isa. i. 
S) means Jerusalem, and is so 
called because Zion was the 
original, or mother settlement. 
Hence also the kindred expres- 
sions, sons of Zion, (Zech. ix. 
13,) children of Zion, &c, (Joel 
ii. 23.) 

ZIPH. (Josh. xv. 24.) There 
were two cities of this name in 
the lot of Judah; one towards 
the coast of Edom, south-west, 
(Josh. xv. 55,) the other (Josh, 
xv. 24) a few miles east of He- 
bron on a hill, on the border of 
the wilderness of Ziph, (1 Sam. 
xxiii. 13—24,) into which Da- 
vid fled from Saul and conceal- 
ed himself. The latter wa* 
probably the one which Reho- 
boam fortified. (2 Chron. xi. 8.) 

ZIPHRON. (Num.xxxiv.9.) 
In the vicinity of Zedad. (See 
Zedad.) 

ZOAN. (Num. xiii. 22.) By 
the Greeks called Tanis, anil 
by the Arabs San, was one of 
the oldest cities of the world, 
founded only seven years later 
than Hebron, and situated ou 
thej^annkic arm of the Nile 
It wae evidently the residence 
647 



ZOP 

of a line of princes, (Isa. xix. 
ii— 13; xxx. 4,) and probably 
the place where Moses wrought 
the Egyptian miracles. (Ps. 
txxviii. 12. 43.) Ezekiel pro- 

fhesied against it, (Ezek. xxx. 
4,) and its ruins are yet visi- 
ble, and present numerous pil- 
lars and obelisks, as evidence 
of its former magnificence, 

ZOAR. (Gen. xiv. 2.) A 
small city, originally called 
Bela, at the southern extremity 
of the Dead Sea, whose king, 
with four others, rebelled 
against Chedorlaomer, and 
was conquered. It was after- 
ward threatened with the same 
destruction as Sodom, but 
spared at Lot's request, who 
fled to it for safety from the 
storm of divine wrath. (Gen. 
xix. 20. 22.) 

ZOBAH. (1 Sam. xiv. 47.) A 
town and province of Syria, 
lying along the Euphrates, 
north of Damascus, and ex- 
tending towards Aleppo, whose 
ting (Hadarezer) was smitten 
by David, when he went to re- 
cover his border on the Eu- 
phrates. (2 Sam. viii. 3.) 

ZOPHAR. (Jobii. 11.) One 
of Job's three friends. He is 
called the Naamathite, proba- 
bly because he belonged to 



zuz 

Naamah, (Josh. xv. 41,) a town 
assigned to Judah. 

ZORAH, (Josh. xix. 41,) of 
ZORAN. A city belonging ori- 
ginally to Judah, and after- 
wards to Dan, near the bound- 
ary line between them; the 
birthplace of Samson, (Judg, 
xiii. 2,) and probably fortified 
by Rehoboam. (2 Chron. xi. 10.) 
It is called Zoreah, (Josh. xv. 
33,) and its inhabitants are 
called Zorites, (1 Chron. ii, 
54,) and Zorathites. (1 Chron 
iv. 2.) 

ZOROBABEL. (See Zerub- 

BABEL.) 

ZUPH. (ISam. ix. 5.) The 
land of Zuph probably derived 
its name from Zuph, one of the 
ancestors of Samuel the pro- 
phet. (1 Chron. vi. 35.) Ka- 
math, which was within the 
province of Zuph, was thence 
called Ramath-zophim, or Ra> 
mathaim. (1 Sam. i. 1. See 
Rama.) 

ZUR. (Josh. xiii. 21.) A 
Midianitish prince, (Num. 
xxv. 15,) who was slain, with 
others, by the Israelites, when 
the Midianites suffered the 
judgments of God for their 
sins. (Num. xxv. 17, 18.) 

ZUZIMS. (See Zamzum 

MIMS.) 



THE END. 



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